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THE ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS
(ASEAN) COOPERATION IN COUNTER-TERRORISM
(2003 – 2013)
By
Citra Triana Hastuti
016201000082
A thesis presented to the
Faculty of International Relations, Communication and Law
President University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for
Bachelor Degree in International Relations
Concentration in Strategic and Defense Studies
January 2014
ii
PANEL OF EXAMINER
APPROVAL SHEET
The Panel of Examiners declare that the thesis entitled “The Association
of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism
(2003-2013)” that was submitted by Citra Triana Hastuti majoring in
International Relations from the Faculty of International Relations,
Communication and Law was assessed and approved to have passed the
Oral Examinations on 30 January 2014.
Prof. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita, Ph.D.
Advisor
Isyana Adriani Arslan, Ba. M.Si.
Advisor
Hendra Manurung, MA
Examiner
iii
THESIS ADVISER
RECOMMENDATION LETTER
This thesis entitled “The Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism (2003-2013)” prepared
and submitted by Citra Triana Hastuti in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Bachelor Degree in International Relations in the Faculty of International Relations, Communication and
Law has been reviewed and found to have satisfied the requirements for
a thesis fit to be examined. I therefore recommend this thesis for Oral
Defense.
Cikarang, Indonesia, 10 February 2014
___________________________________
Prof. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita, Ph.D.
iv
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY
I declare that this thesis, entitled “The Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism (2003-2013)” is, to
the best of my knowledge and belief, an original piece of work that has
not been submitted, either in whole or in part, to another university to
obtain a degree.
Cikarang, Indonesia, 10 February 2014
_____________________
Citra Triana Hastuti
v
ABSTRACT
“The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Cooperation in Counter-
Terrorism (2003 – 2013)”
Terrorism has become a great enemy, not only to United States, but also to
Southeast Asian states. Therefore, this research attempts to analyze how ASEAN
member states have responded to the issue. ASEAN have committed in several
cooperation, including in counter-terrorism. This research will provide some
information about terrorist groups in Southeast Asia and the terrors they have caused.
The research will also provide some information about ASEAN cooperation in
political, economy and socio-cultural areas, as well as counter-terrorism. It takes the
time frame of 2003-2013 because it is the most active timeline for ASEAN in
implementing what they have agreed in order to counter terrorism, especially after
the infamous first Bali Bombing occurred. The method which is being used while
conducting this research is qualitative method, using books and official reports to
analyze via library research and online research. After analyzing, writer found out
that radicalization is quite easy in the era of globalization. To overcome this, ASEAN
member states have put a lot of efforts in implementing their programs to counter
terrorism. Polices in Southeast Asia have worked together to breakdown the terrorist
network in Southeast Asia. ASEAN member states also concern in deradicalizing
Islamist Extremists through rehabilitation program, although there are still some
doubts and criticisms about this program.
vi
ABSTRAK
“The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Cooperation in Counter-
Terrorism (2003 – 2013)”
Terorisme telah menjadi musuh besar, tidak hanya bagi Amerika Serikat,
tetapi juga untuk negara-negara di Asia Tenggara. Dengan demikian, penelitian ini
bertujuan untuk menganalisi bagaimana negara-negara Asia Tenggara merespon
masalah ini. ASEAN telah melakukan beberapa kerjasama, termasuk dalam
pemberantasan terorisme. Penelitian ini akan memberikan beberapa informasi
mengenai kelompok-kelompok teroris yang berada di Asia Tenggara dan teror yang
telah disebabkan oleh teroris-teroris tersebut. Penelitian ini juga akan memberikan
beberapa informasi tentang kerjasama ASEAN di bidang politik, ekonomi, dan social
budaya, termasuk dalam pemberantasan terorisme. Penelitian ini dibatasi dalam
periode waktu 2003-2013 karena merupakan waktu yang paling aktif untuk ASEAN
dalam menerapkan apa yang telah disepakati untuk melawan terorisme, terutama
setelah terjadinya Bom Bali I. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah
metode kualitatif, dengan menggunakan buku-buku dan laporan resmi untuk
dianalisis, melalui penelitian di perpustakaan maupun secara online. Setelah
menganalisa, penulisan mengetahui bahwa radikalisasi cukup mudah dilakukan di era
globalisasi. Untuk mengatasi hal tersebut, negara-negara yang tergabung dalam
ASEAN telah mengerahkan banyak upaya dalam melaksanakan program-program
pemberantasan terorisme. ASEAN berkomitmen untuk bekerja sama untuk
menghancurkan jaringan teroris di Asia Tenggara. Anggota ASEAN juga menaruh
perhatian dalam proses deradikalisasi mantan-mantan teroris atau ekstrimis Islam
melalu program rehabilitasi, meskipun masih ada keraguan dan kritik mengenai
program tersebut.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Never once in my life before I imagined that working on thesis would be this
exhausting, time consuming and difficult. Now I have learned the hard way. I cannot
believe myself that I finally managed to finish this thesis. This is all possible because
of the dearest God, who helps me to get through anything. Thank you the almighty
Allah SWT up there for Your never ending love and blessing for me. Without You, I
will not be able to go this far.
Thank you to my parents for their endless love, support and encouragement in
my whole life. You are everything to me. This thesis is dedicated specially for you,
also to my two elder brothers, even though sometimes you two are so annoying, but I
love you guys! Shout out to my little nephew, Almira, whom I cherish the most.
Thank you for my huge family in Yogyakarta, Jakarta and Mataram, especially Ai
Sin who helped me during internship period and taught me a lot of life lessons.
I would like to express huge gratitude for Professor Anak Agung Banyu
Perwita for all your helps and advices. Even though you are always busy with your
schedules, but you always manage to spare time for your thesis students, including
me. Thank you for your guidance and encouragement for me to finish this thesis.
Thank you to Miss Isyana Adriani Arslan for the help and support as well. Our
consultations were always fruitful and fun at the same time because of your advices
and our spazzing time.
Thanks a lot to my classy yet silly sister-like friends, kak Ima and kak Yuna.
You both always cheer me up every time I was feeling down about my thesis with
your wise advices and our random conversation on Kakaotalk. Even though we
literally live far away, you both are always there for me. Thank you Nike (and her
kind-hearted family), Jovita and Alice! We always motivate each other. Our 3 year
(and still counting) of friendship at University is precious to me.
viii
My fellow International Relations batch 2010 friends who went through the
same misery as me, especially Shabrina, Echie, Isma, Denisa, Gina, Tari, Kai, Dikta,
Clinton, Garciano, Alvin, Ryan, Icut, Tiwi, Bimo, Winda, Hanita, Ejhy, Kiky, Vernal,
Yayan, Jendra, Isa, Stevie, Putri, Cornel, Ferdo, Ekky, Randy and those who I
haven‟t mentioned yet. Not forget to mention, all of my friends from International
Relations class 1. Thank you so much for the memories, I will definitely cherish
them forever. Let‟s not end our friendship after graduation. Let‟s keep it „til forever.
Last but not least, special thanks to Janine, Naomi, Hannah, the other KS circle of
friends, Panda and Mika. Your virtual encouragement really matters to me. You all
never fail to entertain me. I‟m sorry that I cannot mention all of my friends and
family members one by one in this acknowledgement, but thank you so much for the
support and love. It really means a lot to me.
Cikarang, January 2014
Citra Triana Hastuti
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PANEL EXAMINERS APPROVAL SHEET ...........................................................ii
THESIS ADVISER RECOMMENDATION LETTER ........................................ iii
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY ...................................................................... iv
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... v
ABSTRAK ....................................................................................................................... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...........................................................................................vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. ix
LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study .................................................................................... 1
1.2. Problem Identification......................................................................................... 4
1.3. Statement of the Problem ................................................................................... 6
1.4. Research Objectives ............................................................................................. 6
1.5. Significance of the Study ..................................................................................... 7
1.6. Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................... 7
1.6.1. How to Handle Terrorism ……………………………………………………………………………..7
1.7. Scope and Limitations of the Study................................................................. 13
1.8. Literature Review .............................................................................................. 13
1.9. Research Methodology ...................................................................................... 16
1.10. Definition of Terms .......................................................................................... 16
x
1.10.1. Terrorism……………………………………………………………….16
1.10.2. The Radicalization ……………………………………………………..17
1.10.3. Holy War ………………………………………………………………19
1.11. Thesis Structure …………………………………………………………. 20
1.11.1. Chapter I - Introduction ……………...……………………………….. 20
1.11.2. Chapter II - The Development of Terrorism in Southeast Asia ………. 20
1.11.3. Chapter III - ASEAN as a Regional Grouping in Southeast Asia ……. 20
1.11.4. Chapter IV - ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism ……………. 21
1.11.5. Chapter V - Conclusion ………………………………………………. 21
CHAPTER II - THE DEVELOPMENT OF TERRORISM IN SOUTHEAST
ASIA
2.1. Terrorism in Southeast Asia............................................................................. 22
2.1.1. Terrorism in Indonesia .................................................................................. 26
2.1.2. Terrorism in The Philippines ........................................................................ 30
2.2. Terrorist Groups in Southeast Asia ................................................................ 32
2.2.1. Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) ................................................................................... 32
2.2.2. Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) ........................................................................... 37
CHAPTER III - ASEAN as a Regional Grouping in Southeast Asia: Historical
Overview
3.1. Regional Mechanism ........................................................................................ 42
3.1.1. Political-Security Cooperation ..................................................................... 43
3.1.2. Finance and Economic Cooperation ............................................................ 47
xi
3.1.3. Social and Cultural Cooperation .................................................................. 50
3.2. ASEAN Security Cooperation .......................................................................... 54
3.3.1. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) ................................................................. 55
3.3.2. Bilateral and Trilateral Security Cooperation of ASEAN ......................... 58
CHAPTER IV - ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism
4.1. ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism (ACCT) .................................. 64
4.1.1. Exchange Information and Data ................................................................... 65
4.1.2. Block the Flow of Fund to Terrorists ........................................................... 66
4.1.3. Joint Investigations and Military Trainings ……………………………. 68
4.1.4. Make Stricter Security and Border Control Mechanism ………………. 68
4.1.5. Cooperating with Citizens ……………………………………………... 69
4.2. The Implementation of ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism ....... 71
4.3. The Obstacles that ASEAN Faces during Cooperating in Counter-
Terrorism .................................................................................................................... 76
4.3.1. Trust Issues between ASEAN Member States ………………………… 76
4.3.2. Stopping the Flow of Fund to Terrorist is Time Consuming …………... 78
4.3.3. Deradicalization is Uneasy …………………………………………….. 79
4.3.4. Keeping Up with the Development of Technology ……………………. 80
CHAPTER V - CONCLUSION………………………………………………….. 82
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... 85
APPENDICES ...…………………………………………….……………………..86
xii
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ACCT ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism
ADMM Plus ASEAN Defense Ministers Meeting Plus
AEC ASEAN Economic Community
AFTA ASEAN Free Trade Area
AICO ASEAN Industrial Cooperation Scheme
AJCTD ASEAN-Japan Counter Terrorism Dialogue
APSC ASEAN Political-Security Community
APT ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation
ARF ASEAN Regional Forum
ASCC ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community
ASEAN The Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASG Abu Sayyaf Group
AYC ASEAN Youth Convention
DI Darul Islam
EU European Union
FPI Front Pembela Islam
GAM Gerakan Aceh Merdeka
JI Jemaah Islamiyah
MILF Moro Islamic Liberation Front
NII Negara Islam Indonesia
SEAN WFZ Southeast Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone
SEARCCT Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism
TAC Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia
xiii
TNI Tentara Nasional Indonesia
US United States
WTC World Trade Center
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I.1. Background of the Study
Ever since the first Bali bombing occurred in October 12 2002, our country
Indonesia has not been the same anymore. At least 202 people1, both locals and
foreigners, were killed in this incident. There was also a Christmas bombing in 2000
which was supposed to be a wake-up call for the government, police and civilians.
The term terrorism seems to be more familiar to the people of Indonesia in the past
13 years. It has raised Government‘s awareness about the danger of this threat and at
the same time, it has gained distrust among foreigners about Indonesian security.
Indonesia is no longer safe for them to visit.
However, the terrorist attacks did not only happen in Indonesia. It also
happened in the other Southeast Asian countries. We cannot deny that terrorism is
also a globalization product. Therefore, globalization does not only have positive
impacts but also the negative ones. The advancement of technology, easier way to
communicate and so many others can facilitate terrorists to violate state security.
There are more illegal incidents that have occurred in the past few years. Southeast
Asia, which countries accept globalization with open arms, unfortunately has to face
the same threat including in Indonesia. Terrorists are not only originally coming from
Indonesia, but other countries as well, for example, Dr. Azahari from Malaysia. All
the transactions and plans in conducting terrorism can occur anywhere in Southeast
Asia. Therefore, Southeast Asia has to be prepared for terrorist taking safe havens
and conducting attacks anywhere in the regional. The first Bali Bombing, as an
1 The Sydney Morning Herald. Bali Bombings Data Interactive. The first Bali bombing: ten years on
from. Retrieved September 20th 2013 from: http://www.smh.com.au/data-point/bali-anniversary
2
infamous terrorist act occurring in a major Southeast Asian country, is a great
example of how Southeast Asia is not a safe place.
The police had found out later that those Bali bombers were working under
the name of Islam and they stated that this attack was more than just a bombing, but
it was a ‗holy war‘ (jihad). The concept of Jihad is actually about combating those
who are against God‘s way or infidels. It is a struggle in defending Islam. Prophet
Muhammad used to hold the greater Jihad in order to combat those who kept others
from God‘s way, disbelieving Him and Holy Mosque2. He conducted a war in order
for those people to realize that God existed and they were supposed to stop
worshiping cult statues.
Jihad has three different meanings of struggle for Muslims, such as:
It is an internal struggle for a Muslim to practice Islamic faith
To build Muslim society
To struggle in defending Islam even with force when it is necessary3
Since Muslims want to make their best effort in glorifying their God by doing
as instructed by the Holy Koran, they are willing to fight for the sake of their religion.
However, misinterpretation of the term jihad has led to the killing of innocent
civilians.
There are several Islamic organizations which have misinterpreted the Koran,
that not only misinterpreting the term of jihad but also indoctrinated some people to
have the same faith as their leaders. The most popular international organization
would be Al-Qaeda which was founded by Osama Bin Laden, who was killed on
2 Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet, Muhammad and Violence and Jihad. Retrieved September 20,
2013 from http://www.pbs.org/muhammad/ma_violence.shtml 3 BBC Religions. Islam: Jihad. Retrieved September 20, 2013 from
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/jihad_1.shtml
3
May 1, 20114, between August 1988 and late 1989. Al-Qaeda is an Islamic militant
group that provides fund, recruitment, transportation and training for people in order
to form a strong Islamic army. They work together with other radical Islamic
organizations all over the world, especially those which have the same vision and
mission, to fight against what they call deviation against Islam. They want Islam to
rule the world. Al-Qaeda has bluntly shown their hatred for United States of America
and stated that it is their obligation to put an end to American civilization, military
and its alliances5.
Al-Qaeda was behind several terrorism acts that happened and one of the
biggest attacks which shocked the whole world was on September 11 2001 at New
York City‘s famous WTC (World Trade Centre) buildings and the Pentagon, in
Washington DC. The blast killed 3000 people in just one day and this has become a
wake-up call for The US government and American civilians that a serious threat
could be brought by Islamic terrorists. It was as if a war had been declared.
A year after that, it was not only the United States that went through the terror,
but our nation also had its turn. People never expected to get attacked by terrorists.
Moreover, the attack happened in Bali which was enough to gain international
attention about this Islamic organization, none other than Jemaah Islamiyah (JI).
This organization carried out their suicide attack carefully without people realizing
and expecting it. Jemaah Islamiyah was led by two radical Islamic leaders named
Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir and Hambali.
However, is Jemaah Islamiyah the only Islamic organization operating in
Southeast Asia that we should be afraid of? People‘s attention was all over this
organization after the bombing blasted in Bali for the first time, but actually the
desire to be rebel against the government has been there since Darul Islam era of
4 The Telegraph. Al-Qaeda and Osama Bin Laden. Retrieved September 20, 2013 from
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/al-qaeda/ 5 Beri Kabar. Asal Mula dan Sejarah Al-Qaeda. Retrieved September 20, 2013 from
http://www.berikabar.com/2012/09/asal-mula-dan-sejarah-al-qaeda.html
4
1948-1960. Despite of the fact that terrorism is one of the causes why people on earth
suffer, some people still have different perspectives about this. They are seeking for
justice and still fighting for what they think is right by using terrorism to intimidate.
They also use terrorism as their way to protest against the government.
ASEAN was first established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok and signed by
five member states, such as: Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore and
Philippines. Later, Myanmar, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam
joined the organization. These countries share similarities in many aspects, such as
heritage, culture and past experience of being occupied by European countries. The
regional organization was built in order to create a better and stronger relation
between the neighboring countries of Southeast Asia. ASEAN aims to strengthen
member states‘ relations not only in terms of politics and economy but also security.
Not only sharing the past experience of being colonized, the ten ASEAN
countries are also facing the same threat. It is the threat of terrorism, which they are
already aware of. With the fact that terrorists can come from any country in
Southeast Asia and terrorists attacks can occur anywhere in the region, it is about
time ASEAN realized that the eradication of terrorism should not be the
responsibility of one country. ASEAN member states should join forces to enhance
regional security by overcoming terrorism.
I.2. Problems Identification
Terrorist attacks should be on ASEAN‘s top threats list because in fact, the
attacks keep occurring. Despite the fact that government, police and citizens of
ASEAN countries are now more aware of this danger, sometimes we are just too
careless and unguarded. It means that after years, some people think that the threat
will be slowly over while in fact, it will not.
5
Actually, in the case of Indonesia, the government has done better in security
compared to before the first Bali bombing. They have provided tighter security in
several areas and buildings and have successfully arrested and executed some of
terrorists involved in this incident. It could be considered as an effort. However, it
seems that we have to try harder and give more efforts in combating terrorist acts not
only in Indonesia, but also in Southeast Asia. The fact that terrorism attacks occurs in
almost all Southeast Asian countries, has brought ASEAN countries a start in their
cooperation.
After some investigations we found out that a radical Islamic organization
called JI, with the help of Al-Qaeda, was behind this. The problem had arisen when
people got the impression that Muslims did this for the sake of their religion. Some
people have stereotyped that almost all Islamic organizations are likewise. They
perhaps think that Islam has taught its believers to fight in a holy war, continuing
Prophet Muhammad‘s fights against infidels. What people may not know is that these
persons actually get the wrong idea about holy war.
However apart from that, the leaders of Jemaah Islamiyah also wanted to
make Indonesia an Islamic country. From this statement, it has raised another
question: is it really for the religion and is their struggle in the name of God? Or is it
actually only a political way to take over Indonesian governments‘ authority by using
religion as its modus? For another reason, these terrorists seem to enjoy triggering
fear in the general public.
Some people have questioned the same issue. These people also need an
answer from the government and an action should be taken against these radical
Islamic organizations. There must be certain motives behind this terrorism because
terrorizing in the name of a religion remains irrelevant. Why would a religion teach a
person to hurt others especially innocent people?
6
The object of this research is the cooperation of Southeast Asia in handling
terrorist attacks, which have taken place in ASEAN member states, especially
Indonesia. The reason why this thesis focuses on ASEAN and radical Islamic
organization is because ASEAN as an international organization plays an important
role for Indonesia and this organization is so centered when it comes to terrorism or
rebellious acts of JI. This thesis also looks at how ASEAN member states have
worked together as an organization to eradicate terrorism from the grass root level
and create a thoroughly secure region.
I. 3. Statement of the Problem
Topic:
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Cooperation in Dealing with
Terrorism in Southeast Asia (2003 – 2013)
Question:
How do ASEAN member states cooperate to counter terrorism?
I. 4. Research Objectives
1. To find out about the development of terrorism in Southeast Asia
2. To analyze the implementation of ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism
plans.
7
I. 5. Significance of the Study
Provide information about the development of terrorism in Southeast Asia
Provide information about terrorist networks in Southeast Asia
Provide information about how ASEAN member states governments work
together to counter terrorism.
I. 6. Theoretical Framework
I.6.1. How to handle terrorism
The world has been more aware than ever of threat of terrorism since 9/11.
Indonesia as one of the countries where terrorism has become one of the major
threats, the government should have come up with methods to handle terrorism. Not
only the government, but the citizens also have to be more aware and critical in
helping the government in handling it. The concept of preventing terrorism should
not only be developed but also implemented in real life.
As a democratic country, Indonesia has chosen law enforcement methods in
counterterrorism, where terrorism will be fought by the criminal justice system.
Criminal justice system involves the police and will be processed through court.
Some countries, for example Pakistan, chose military approach as their system to
counter terrorism. However, as a result, it threatens the country‘s stability in politics6.
The government could use both hard power and soft power for
counterterrorism. In this case, Indonesian government uses both ways. Hard power is
used when the police attempts to catch and arrest the terrorists. Terrorism should be
6 Kompas. Penanganan Terorisme. Retrieved October 29, 2013 from:
http://sains.kompas.com/read/2012/12/01/04025762/twitter.com
8
dealt with, according to the code of conduct or rule of management7. Even though
police should attack them and hard approach is very important, shooting the terrorists
right away to death would not be effective. If the police wants to get to know the
chain of their organization and more information, it is the best to arrest them first and
interrogate them.
Hard approach should be balanced with soft approach as well. Executing
terrorists will create sadness for the family who are left behind. In order to prevent
any possibility of the other family members to seek revenge, there should be soft
approach in the family by giving them more attention.
To apply soft power in counterterrorism, deradicalization is believed to be a
good way to reduce terrorism. Terrorism is usually started by radicalization, in which
individuals are indoctrinated with false ideologies or theories. Deradicalization is a
soft approach to nurture and lecture radicalized youth about what terrorism actually is
and how wrong it is.
In preventing terrorism, there should be good strategy and ideology. The
government has to emphasize to citizens that whoever helps and gets involved in
terrorist acts will be chased and punished8. All police, military bodies and the
government should work together to solve this problem. Even though there are not a
lot of terrorist attacks happening recently, everyone should still be aware and ready
for it and not let the guard down. They should also be aware if they have noticed any
abnormal or suspicious activities conducted by certain organizations, or even by their
neighbors.
7 Kompas. Penanganan Terorisme. Retrieved October 29, 2013 from:
http://sains.kompas.com/read/2012/12/01/04025762/twitter.com
8 Kompasiana. Strategi Mengatasi Ancaman Terorisme. Retrieved October 29, 2013 from:
http://umum.kompasiana.com/2009/07/26/strategi-mengatasi-ancaman-terorisme-14461.html
9
Terrorism comes in many forms. It comes the form of intelligence,
psychopath, conflict terrorism, legal terrorism and religion 9
. Although it comes in
different forms, all of them are dangerous and unpredictable. Intelligent terrorism can
also be called created terrorism or state-sponsored terrorism10
. It is made for several
reasons such as to maintain sovereignty against enemies and also divert public‘s
attention from certain issues. During the Soeharto administration (1966-1998),
snipers were hired to shoot anyone who was a threat to the government11
. They were
usually shot in public places or kidnapped, never to be heard of again. This method to
hush political opponents created a sense of terror to the people, further confirming
that they were not granted the freedom of speech. This kind of terror is still used
today privately by mafia heads and even influential businessmen, who sometimes
hire members of the police and the armed forces to kill anyone who is considered
dangerous to their business,
There was a secret and mysterious gunning down case which is also well-
known as ‗Petrus‘ (Penembakan Misterius)12
. The operation was held to kidnap and
eliminate those who were considered threats to civilians. However, this kind of
terrorism could also be used to threaten someone else for personal interest.
There is also psychopath terrorism in which the terrorists terrorize the others
for their own satisfaction. Psychopaths usually seek for attention, revenge or simply
just being happy of torturing the others. Conflict terrorism appears because of
conflicts or issues that made from two groups or countries13
. The terror is done to
9 Hasbullah, M. Academia.edu: Tesis-tesis tentang Terorisme. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from:
http://www.academia.edu/3637610/Tesis-tesis_tentang_Terorisme 10
Hasbullah, M. Academia.edu: Tesis-tesis tentang Terorisme. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from: http://www.academia.edu/3637610/Tesis-tesis_tentang_Terorisme 11
Tempo. Ini Kisah Pelaku Petrus Orde Baru. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from:
http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2012/07/31/078420311/Ini-Kisah-Pelaku-Petrus-Orde-Baru 12 Tempo. Ini Kisah Pelaku Petrus Orde Baru. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from:
http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2012/07/31/078420311/Ini-Kisah-Pelaku-Petrus-Orde-Baru 13
Hasbullah, M. Academia.edu: Tesis-tesis tentang Terorisme. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from:
http://www.academia.edu/3637610/Tesis-tesis_tentang_Terorisme
10
weaken enemies and show up the power they have, for example, terrorism which was
done by Israel towards Palestine.
Legal terrorism could be overcome with supports from the other countries14
.
It is usually done when countries feel threatened by certain radical or extremist
movement. Countries support each other in terms of security, for example, when
United States attacked Iraq and got supports from its alliance.
Terrorism which is done in the name of God or religion currently often
happens in the world, not only in Indonesia. Terrorist attacks are mostly caused by
the belief that the government is a heathen who stands in the way of God. Apart of
that, some people also feel betrayed by the country, thus they want to take revenge.
Among the most infamous terrorist attacks that occurred in Indonesia in recent years
are the Christmas bombing in 2000, the first and second Bali bombings in 2002 and
2005, and two J.W. Marriott bombings in 2003 and 2009 respectively.
Terrorism is a bully. It is conditioned in such a way to create fear, threatening
innocent civilians. Terrorists hope to get noticed and feared by people. M. Asfar in
his book titled ‗Agama, Terorisme dan Radikalisme‘, has explained that there are
three theories of terrorism background: structural, psychologist and rational choice.
Structural theory explains that the cause of terrorism lies in the contexts of politics,
economy, environment and social. This focuses on how the governments put their
attention on some factors in order to tend to its national security. These factors
consist of guaranteeing civilians of their safety and equal rights15
.
Psychologist theory questions why terrorists are willing to risk and sacrifice
their lives. There are a lot of terrorists who do this because of their disappointment
14
Hasbullah, M. Academia.edu: Tesis-tesis tentang Terorisme. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from:
http://www.academia.edu/3637610/Tesis-tesis_tentang_Terorisme
15
Asfar, M. (2004). Agama, Terorisme Dan Radikalisme. N.p.: n.p., 2004.
11
with the government and other aspects. Some are disappointed because of the
negative effect of modernization, which they think is influenced by Western culture
and therefore stands in the way of God16
. Meanwhile, rational choice theory explains
the participation of terrorists in term of cost and benefit calculation17
.
Realists see that terrorism is a major threat and needed to be combated and
prevented18
. In realism and international relations theory, realists ―see that conflict is
in part situationally explained, but… believe that even were it not so; pride, lust and
quest for glory would cause the war of all against all to continue indefinitely.
Ultimately, conflict and war are rooted in human nature‖ (Waltz 1991: 35)19
. Realists
see that it is important to find out who are behind the mess and because in realism
theory, state is the key actor and really important20
, the relation between the act of
terrorism and people behind terrorism acts should be established21
.
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu stated, ―International terrorism is
the use of terrorist violence against a given nation by another state, which uses the
terrorists to fight a proxy war as an alternative to conventional war. The first and
most crucial thing to understand is this. There is no international terrorism without
the support of sovereign states. International terrorism simply cannot be sustained for
long without the regimes that aid and abet it. Terrorists are not suspended in midair.
16
Asfar, M. (2004). Agama, Terorisme Dan Radikalisme. N.p.: n.p., 2004.
17
Asfar, M. (2004). Agama, Terorisme Dan Radikalisme. N.p.: n.p., 2004.
18
Realism vs. Liberalism in Development of Counterterrorism Strategy. Retrieved October 6, 2013.
http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/realism-vs-liberalism-in-the-development-of-counterterrorism-
strategy 19
Donelly, J. (2000). Realism and International Relations. (DonellyJack, 2000)
20
Elman, C. (2009). Security Studies - an Introduction: Chapter 2. (ElmanCollin, 2009)
21
Reeson, G. (2006). Differing Viewpoints: Realism, Liberalism and the Phenomenon of Terrorism.
(ReesonGreg, 2006)
12
They train, arm, and indoctrinate their killers from within safe havens on territory
provided by terrorist states‖ (Netanyahu, 2001)22
.
Radical Islamic Organization also train, arm and indoctrinate people to fight
in the name God and their religion. The doctrine has already been rooted since a long
time ago, internationally. The history of radical Islamic group in Indonesia did not
only start from JI or recently, but it has already existed since Darul Islam era.
Kartosoewirjo was infamous for being a rebel against the country. His dream was to
make Indonesia as an Islamic country. His rebellion was started because of his
dissatisfaction with the results of Roem-Royen Agreement and Renville Agreement23
.
Then he created his own army and his very own structure of Indonesian Islamic State
or Negara Islam Indonesia (NII). As it stated that ―the ultimate sources of social
conflicts and injustices are to be found in the ignorance and selfishness of men‖
(Niebuhr 1932: 23)24
for his own idealism, he had indoctrinated some people to
follow his lead against the government. In his lead, there were several vandalisms
occurring in some areas, to show up his and his people‘s protests. His spirit of
making Indonesia as Islamic country still carries on until today. The terrorism act is
getting even worse.
At this point, realists see that terrorism could become a struggle of power in
states. A radical organization aims to change the government system which they
consider not right. Realists suggest using military power to fight against terrorism
and its actors.
22
Reeson, G. Differing Viewpoints: Realism, Liberalism and the Phenomenon of Terrorism.
(ReesonGreg, 2006)
23
Dewanto, N. Seri Buku Tempo: Tokoh Islam di Awal Kemerdekaan „Kartosoewirjo‟
(DewantoNugroho, 2011)
24
Donelly, J. (2000). Realism and International Relations. (DonellyJack, 2000)
13
I.7. Scope and Limitation of the Study
This research will focus on the cooperation of Southeast Asian countries to
fight terrorism and radical Islamic groups in Southeast Asia, which not only
terrorizes the countries, but also trains and scouts new people to join their group. The
scope and limitation of this study would be started from the year 2003 until 2013.
The reason why said period time is chosen for the chosen time framework is because
ASEAN have been very active and eager in countering terrorism; especially after the
9/11 incident and first Bali Bombing occurred. On top of that, their key leader of the
major terrorist group in Southeast Asia, Jemaah Islamiyah, is now being arrested,
which probably would cause turmoil among the group. Until today, terrorist acts
have become varies.
I.8. Literature Review
In order to understand the development of ASEAN cooperation in terms of
handling terrorism, there is a book written by Amitav Acharya (2001). The title of his
book is Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia25
. In his book, he
explains about security communities and ASEAN in theoretical perspective. Security
community is a group of states which have known the value of peaceful interaction
and they also choose not to use force in dispute settlement among the community.
The community discusses and works together in solving any disputes involving
ASEAN members. Security community is also marked with the absence of arms race
or competitive military development among the members or no-war community. The
community members share the same beliefs in the undesirability of war and
cooperating in securing the states from any kind of threats coming from outside.
25
Acharya, A. (2001). Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia.
14
In his book, Amitav Acharya states that although security communities could
probably share interests and identities, it cannot form an alliance against other states.
In the community, they threaten to punish any kinds of act which endanger their
citizens, as well as the dangerous acts initiated by individuals or groupings against
others.
The first ASEAN Summit which was held in Bali in 1976 outlined an
agreement to keep ASEAN from becoming a military alliance by limiting defense
cooperation among member states to bilateral level and it resulted in five principles,
such as: (1) ‗Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, and territorial
integrity of all nations‘; (2) ‗The right of every state to lead its national existence free
from external interference, subversion and coercion‘; (3) ‗Non-interference in the
internal affairs of one another; (4) ‗Settlement of differences and disputes by peaceful
means‘; (5) ‗Renunciation of the threat use of force‘26
.
Discussing the idea of Islam as the base of a country, as what some terrorists
have aimed to create, there is a book titled The West, Islam and Islamism by
Caroline Cox and John Marks (2003). The book was originally written in order to
encourage the reconciliation between the West and Islam, and also create a mutual
understanding between the two. The concept of Islamic country that these people aim
for is explored in this book and can be applied not only in the West.
In this book, Cox and Marks state that in political terms, in order to assure
that religious freedom is still valid, the government needs to loosen up and limit their
power. On the other hand, to make it balanced, religious people need to abide the law
given by the government and do not force their faith on people or harm those who
wish to leave the faith.
26
ASEAN. The First ASEAN Summit. Retrieved October 20th 2014 from:
http://www.asean.org/news/item/the-first-asean-summit
15
Cox and Marks explain Ruthven‘s distinction of Islam in their book, which
can be categorized into three, such as: Islam as an identity, Islam as a faith and Islam
as a political ideology. ‗Islam as an identity‘ refers to someone who accepts his or
her identity as a Muslim because of their family, however it does not necessarily
mean that he or she is committed to Islam faith. ‗Islam as a faith‘ refers to those who
believe in the ideology of Islam and practice what the Prophets have taught them.
‗Islam for a political ideology‘ refers to those who aim to build an Islam state, using
Islam as the ideology of a country. In this case, there are a lot of Islam supporters
who share the same dream to build stronger and larger Islamic states, using so many
ways to achieve it.
The case of Jemaah Islamiyah, or some other terrorist attacks which recently
happened, can be the proof of Islam forced to be a political ideology. Not only do
they want to create fear by using the so-called holy war term, there is also a political
ideology which supports them in aiming to build Islamic country. These terrorists
believe that the West has already influenced a lot of governments, which they
consider infidels. Therefore, they initiated terrorism attacks against those so called
infidel governments. They voice out their protests against the West towards several
terrorism acts, thinking that these states are all the same and influenced by Western
power.
Southeast Asia apparently becomes their targets as well because of their quite
good cooperation with the West. The threat has led these states into discussion on
how to work together in not only catching the terrorists, but also preventing terrorist
attack to occur in the future. As it was stated on the first book, ASEAN will not
tolerate any kinds of threats coming from individuals or groups which violate their
states.
16
I.9. Research Methodology
This thesis is conducted using qualitative method. The writer used library
research as one of the methods to write this thesis as a lot of books and reports are
beneficial to support the thesis. There are a lot of books which are published to
discuss about ASEAN cooperation which will help the writer to understand more in
the process of thesis writing. However some books are quite difficult to find,
therefore, the writer also used internet research to help her in finishing the thesis. Not
only e-books, some reports regarding ASEAN cooperation can also be downloaded
on the internet. These methods were quite helping the writer in answering the
questions and doing the research.
I.10. Definition of Terms
I.10.1. Terrorism
According to Indonesian Law Number 2 Year 2002, terrorism is:
“A crime against humanity and civilization, also one of the serious
threats to sovereignty of each country, because terrorism has become
an international crime which causes danger in security, world peace
and also harm public welfare, so that a planned and sustainable
eradication is needed, in order to protect and upheld the human rights
of many people.”
Terrorism has become one of the major threats that Indonesia should face. It
is not only creating a great loss for the people or the country, but also fear as a result.
―Political terrorism is the use, or the use of threat, of violence by an individual or a
group, whether acting for or in opposition to established authority, when such action
is designed to create extreme anxiety and/or fear-inducing effects in a target group
17
larger than the immediate victims with the purpose of coercing that group into
acceding to the political demands of the perpetrators‖ (Wardlaw 1982: 16)27
.
Southeast Asia has been claimed to have more possibility of being attacked
by terrorists, especially Indonesia, after several counter attacks that happened in the
country. The attacks that occurred in Indonesia grabbed international attention.
Before the Christmas bombing or Bali bombings occurred, perhaps Indonesians were
not really aware of the terrorist threats. However, the threats are not only mainly in
Indonesia, but it can happen in other countries. This is why terrorism has become
also a regional issue that Southeast Asian countries have to fight.
Terrorism attacks usually are politically driven28
, especially when a
community felt left out. The attack aims to make people fear the terrorists and create
ruckus in the country. As a result of this terrorism act, a lot of innocent civilians
become victims.
I.10.2. The Radicalization
Radical is defined as ―deviating by extremes‖29
, it is also the synonym of
anarchistic, complete, entire, excessive, extremist, fanatical, insurgent,
insurrectionary, lawless, leftist, militant, and several more30
. An extremist group is
unlike any other group. They have their own ideals and beliefs which are difficult to
be changed by the others.
27
Rogers, P (2008). Security Studies (An Introduction) – Terrorism. New York: Routledge. P. 173 28 Crenshaw, M. (2000). The Psychology of Political Terrorism. New York: Syracuse College University of Law. 29
Thesaurus. Radical. Retrieved October 20, 2013 from: http://thesaurus.com/browse/radical 30
Dictionary.com. Radical. Retrieved October 20, 2013 from: http://dictionary.reference.com
18
Radicalization in terrorism is the process of influencing and developing
extreme ideologies and beliefs31
. Radicalizing extremists‘ beliefs that violence is
justified by religion is one of the many ways to influence a person‘s thought to get
him involved in terrorism32
. Law enforcement and intelligent bodies have been eager
to do their research on radical Islamic organizations ever since counter-terrorism
enforced. The 9/11 incident triggered them more to get to know what radicalization is
and the actors behind it. However, it is quite difficult to get the data and proven it
because of some legal restriction and the other issues33
.
The process of radicalization in individuals can be running slowly, but for
some people it can happen so fast. Most of them seek for men to be radicalized, but
the roles of women and children are also important as well. In some analysis, a lot of
Western European radical Islamic organizations prefer to get together in a group
while practicing their terrorism act in United States34
.
Radicalization is not only conducted by meeting in person, but it can also be
done on internet, which is often the case with self radicalization. Since there are a lot
of influences made by extremists group on internet in order to radicalize people, it is
easier nowadays to get such material as how to make bombs. Thus, they become self-
radicalized. Self-radicalized people who learn from internet have high possibility in
31
Borum, R. Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: a Review of Social Science Theories. Retrieved
October 26, 2013 from: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol4/iss4/2
32
Borum, R. Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: a Review of Social Science Theories. Retrieved
October 26, 2013 from: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol4/iss4/2
33
Hunter, R. & Heinke, D. Perspective: Radicalization of Islamist Terrorists in the Western World . Retrieved October 27, 2013 from: http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-
bulletin/september-2011/perspective
34
Hunter, R. & Heinke, D. Perspective: Radicalization of Islamist Terrorists in the Western World.
Retrieved October 27, 2013 from: http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-
bulletin/september-2011/perspective
19
promoting their terrorism activities alone or with a few people, for example by the
gunning down attack.
Since terrorism is flexible, people develop more ways in radicalizing others
or recruiting cadres. There are three important points to make it easier for
radicalizing, such as finding people who still have identity crisis, influencing people
with Islamist ideology and also affecting individuals to join terrorism as a group35
.
I.10.3. Holy War
Radical Islamic group believe that they have to continue Prophet
Mohammed‘s implied teaching to fight infidels by Jihad. Jihad literally means holy
war. Basically, Jihad was made for self-defense. Islam permits Jihad in order to
protect Muslims when they are under attack36
. It is also permitted in order to
strengthen the religion and their faith, punishing infidels, making the wrong things
become right, and also protecting Muslims freedom in practicing their faith37
.
However, Jihad is not right when it is used for forcing people to convert to
Islam, conquering or colonizing other nations or certain territories, showing off
power, creating fear and also for dispute settlement. There are several other criteria in
conducting Jihad based on the right Islamic teaching. The most important criteria is
not to attack if they are not being attacked first. However in the recent years, radical
groups tend to get the wrong idea and they attack first.
35
Hunter, R. & Heinke, D. Perspective: Radicalization of Islamist Terrorists in the Western World . Retrieved October 27, 2013 from: http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-
bulletin/september-2011/perspective
36
BBC - Religions. Islam: Jihad. Retrieved October 21, 2013 from:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/jihad_1.shtml
37
BBC - Religions. Islam: Jihad. Retrieved October 21, 2013 from:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/jihad_1.shtml
20
I.11. Thesis Structure
I.11.1. Chapter I – Introduction
The first chapter of this thesis will explain about the background of the
studies, the issue that is being raised and also the purpose of why this thesis is written.
Important details such as background, problems identification, statement o problems,
research objectives, significance of the study, theoretical framework, scope and
limitation of the studies, and definition of terms are included on this chapter. This
chapter was made to make readers interested in reading the next chapters.
I.11.2. Chapter II – The Development of Terrorism in Southeast Asia
Chapter two assesses the development of terrorism in Southeast Asia. The
writer will start to explain the background of terrorism which happened in Southeast
Asian countries that has been raised to people‘s awareness. The kinds of terrorism
attack which happened in Southeast Asia will be explained in detail.
I.11.3. Chapter III – ASEAN as a Regional Grouping in Southeast Asia: a
Historical Overview
The writer will explain about the cooperation of ASEAN in security area in
chapter three, which includes the cooperation in political, economy and socio-
cultural area. The agreement and principles that is stated in ASEAN Charter
regarding political-security affairs will be listed and explored.
21
I.11.4. Chapter IV – ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism
In chapter four, the writer will start to explain about the cooperation of
Southeast Asian countries in dealing with terrorism. Not only the terrorist attacks that
have already happened, but the writer will also explore about how ASEAN react to
the regeneration of radical Islamic organizations. The implementation of ASEAN
agreement and the obstacles in handling terrorism will be explained as well.
I.11.5. Conclusion
Lastly, the writer will conclude the research in previous chapters. The last
chapter will consist of brief summary of what the writer has written from the
previous chapters.
22
CHAPTER II
THE DEVELOPMENT OF TERRORISM IN
SOUTHEAST ASIA
Ever since WTC in United States was attacked, the term terrorism is not new
anymore for people, including people in Southeast Asia. However, terrorist attacks
have always been there even before the 9/11 incident happened. The main culprit in
this huge terrorism attack was Al-Qaeda. The network of this organization is very
large and spread all over the world and Southeast Asia is on the list. Even though the
terrors were not being done directly by this organization, they still helped some local
terrorist organizations in Southeast Asia.
The threats posed by radical Islamic groups in Southeast Asia have been
nothing but harm to citizens since the 1990s38
. Governments in Southeast Asia have
been aware with the situation and they have tried to find ways to improve their
national security by working.
II.1. Terrorism in Southeast Asia
Most people were awakened by the danger of terrorism threats ever since the
first Bali Bombing occurred. The incident got so much attention from not only the
people of Indonesia, but all over the world. The terror did not stop of that, but it
continued with several other terrorist attacks coming after the bomb blasted.
Apparently, ever since the Soeharto regime ended in 199839
, more radical Islamic
38
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation. 39
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
23
groups rebel and do something which even worse. More people were easily
radicalized, forming a new generation of jihad combatants. This is widely spread not
only all over Indonesia, but also almost all over Southeast Asia. Terrorism is also
common in Malaysia, Singapore, Southern Thailand and Southern Philippines.
There have been terror attacks occurring in Southeast Asia. The attacks were
carried by Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) cadres and splinter groups, Abu Sayyaf Group
(ASG) and Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), supported by Al-Qaeda40
. The
attacks are usually conducted in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. The
following are some of said attacks41
:
In April 1995: Abu Sayyaf Group attacked Ipil, a small Christian town in the
Philippines. They were not only violating the people, but also robbed banks
and stores, and burned down the city. There were at least fifty people killed in
this incident.
In April 2000: Abu Sayyaf Group kidnapped 21 people from a Malaysian
Resort and took them to Jolo Island in the Philippines, including some
Western tourists. They were asking for money as an exchange. The money
was then reportedly was being paid by Libya.
In May 2001: The kidnapping act was not stopping in 2000 only. In 2001,
Abu Sayyaf Group kidnapped some American tourists and the other tourists
from the Dos Palmas Resort, which is located in Palawan, Southwestern
40
National Counterterrorism Center. Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG). Retrieved November 12, 2013 from:
http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/asg.html
41
Yahoo News. The Associated Press. A look at major terror attacks in Southeast Asia. Retrieved
November 12, 2013 from: http://news.yahoo.com/look-major-terror-attacks-southeast-asia-
020936380.html
24
Philippines. There were two hostages killed, Guillermo Sober and Martin
Burnham.
In August 2001: There were thirty-three Christians in Balobo village in
Basilan Island, Southern Philippines, who were kidnapped. There were ten
hostages being executed by terrorists in this incident.
In October 2002: Terrorist attack occurred in Bali, killing at least 202
tourists, including 88 Australian. The attack was conducted by Jemaah
Islamiyah. However, the police added that Al-Qaeda might have supported
them with funds and training.
In October 2002: Another bomb was detonated in Southern Philippines,
Zamboanga. Another four bombings also occurred in this month. It killed four
people, including an American Green Beret. Police suspected Abu Sayyaf
Group were behind these attacks.
In August 2003: There was another suicide bombing occurring in Indonesia.
This time, the terrorists targeted JW Mariott Hotel in Jakarta as the target.
The attack killed eleven people.
In February 2004: A bomb detonated on a passenger ferry ship in Manila
Bay. There were 116 people killed in this incident.
In April 2004: A kidnap case occurred in Sabah, Malaysia. Three crew
members of a Malaysian boat were kidnapped and killed. However, it has not
been confirmed if they were dead because of illnesses or were being killed by
their captors. The case was allegedly masterminded by Abu Sayyaf Group.
25
In September 2004: There was another suicide bombing occurring in
Indonesia. The terrorists targeted Australian Embassy in Jakarta. There were
eleven people killed and 200 people injured.
In February 2005: There were bombings happening at the same time in
Manila and two cities which are located in Southern Philippines. The incident
killed eight and injured more than 100.
In October 2005: The same suicide bombing occurred once again in Bali,
known as the Bali Bombing II. This time, terrorist targeted a restaurant
located in Kuta Square Bali. There were twenty two people killed in this
terrorist attack and a lot of people injured.
In January 2009: Some gunmen abducted three aid workers from the
International Committee of the Red Cross. They were Italian, Filipino and
Swiss. The case was almost similar to the kidnap case that occurred in April
2000 in which the terrorists asked for a big amount of ransom. The hostages
were eventually freed in different areas, separately.
In July 2009: There were suicide bombings in JW Mariott and Ritz Carlton
Jakarta which killed seven people and wounded more than fifty people.
In July 2011: Yet another kidnapping occurred in the Philippines. This time,
an American with her son and a Filipino cousin were kidnapped. She was
freed two months after the kidnapping. Her son was freed in December.
26
In February 2012: Some gunmen kidnapped two a Dutch and Swiss in the
southern Philippines. They were also asking for some money in exchange42
.
There are several other terrorist attacks which are not on the list, for example
the gunning down of some police officers which lately happened in Indonesia. Apart
from that, the violence and rebellion acts also happened in Southern part of Thailand
which is well-known as deep south now. The clash among people who lived there
with some Malaysian Muslims separatism had been a huge problem since 1960s and
appeared on surface again since 200443
. The two highlights of the terrorisms in
Indonesia and Philippines will be further discussed. They took huge parts in term of
Southeast Asian terrorism.
II.1.1. Terrorism in Indonesia
Ever since Soeharto was forced to step down as a president in 1998,
not only Indonesia was economically unstable, but there are also a lot of
rebels finally take some actions to what they believe is right. Those rebels
terrorize the others and innocence. The control of politics in Indonesia is
loosened after the resignation. Radicalization became easier thus more radical
Islamic groups also took part in this rebellion, because their group has gotten
stronger with more recruitments and opportunities to terrorize. The bad
situation and also empty mentality of some people have become the trigger
for those people to rebel. In the midst of this chaos, people tried to find a way
out and somehow they found this way to protest the government.
42
Yahoo News. The Associated Press. A look at major terror attacks in Southeast Asia. Retrieved
November 12, 2013 from: http://news.yahoo.com/look-major-terror-attacks-southeast-asia-
020936380.html
43
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
27
Indonesia, as the most populous Muslims in the world, has to face the
rebels and what even worse is terrorist attack from radical Islamic groups.
Some experts began to worry that Indonesia could be the base of many radical
Islamic groups to practice its terrorism acts. As what these terrorists believe,
they do this in order to fight infidels, Jews and anyone related to United
States44
. Because Indonesia has been instable and the security was started to
loosened, these extremist groups took their opportunity to terrorize Indonesia.
Historically, the idea of proposing to build Islamic country did not
come out first by currently active terrorist group like Jemaah Islamiyah, for
instance. Long time ago, a certain radical Islamic group called Darul Islam
had proposed the same agenda, however it was still refused by the
government.
Darul Islam used to be led by Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosoewirjo. He
was one of Indonesian heroes during Colonial era, but then he betrayed and
wanted to rebuild and change Indonesia from republic to Negara Islam
Indonesia or Islamic country. Kartosoewirjo declared about Negara Islam
Indonesia in 194945
. First of all, he felt like Muslims in West Java was left
behind and forgotten by the President. Kartosoewirjo was chosen to lead this
betrayal and has a lot of students, even though in fact, he was not really
religious as a man at first. Yet, he still taught his students about Islam and
influenced them with his own perception about the religion. Darul Islam did
their actions across Java, North Sumatra and South Sulawesi in 1950s46
.
44
Council on Foreign Relations. (2005). Terrorism Havens: Indonesia. Retrieved November 27, 2013 from: http://www.cfr.org/indonesia/terrorism-havens-indonesia/p9361
45
Crisis Group. (2010). Relevansi Darul Islam untuk Masa Kini. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:
http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/op-eds/jones-relevansi-darul-
islam-untuk-masa-kini.aspx 46
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
28
He was deeply disappointed in the result of Roem-Royen Agreement
because he thought that by having the agreement, it was no different with
selling the country47
. He stated that Soekarno‘s regime and government are
infidels. Soekarno did not apply what has been taught in Al-Qur‘an in his
government, thus the government has to be fought and replaced48
. Apart from
that, he felt that Soekarno‘s government was deeply influenced by Western
power. Thus, Darul Islam believed that any kind of power came from
Western, especially United States, needs to be destroyed. This ideology seems
to inspire some Islam spiritual leaders. As a result, more radical Islamic
groups appeared in the future.
There are several radical Islamic groups in Indonesia listed, such as
Laskar Jihad, Laskar Jundullah, Front Pembela Islam (FPI), Komite Aksi
Penanggulangan Akibat Krisis (KOMPAK) Muhajiddin (KM), Angkatan
Muhajiddin Islam Nusantara (AMIN), Kelompok Banten (Ring of Banten),
and Hizb ut-Tahrir Indonesia (HTI) 49. Their networks have spread in
Indonesia and they have a lot of followers. Front Pembela Islam had
thousands of members spread in 22 provinces, as an example. These radical
Islamic groups can be divided again into several categories, such as:
1. Nationalist Islamist50
: radical Islamic groups like Laskar
Jihad and Front Pembela Islam are nationalist Islamist. They
47
Seri Buku TEMPO:Tokoh Islam di Awal Kemerdekaan. Kartosoewirjo. (2011)
48
Seri Buku TEMPO:Tokoh Islam di Awal Kemerdekaan. Kartosoewirjo. (2011)
49
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
50
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
29
do not aim to get Indonesian government down but they still
do some actions which they believe are right51
. They are
concerned and very critical that they are dared to take violent
actions to protest against what the government decided. They
do a lot of demonstrations and dared to rip or burn the other
countries‘ flags as their protests, and several other anarchic
acts.
2. Antistatist Islamist52
: Laskar Jundullah, KM, AMIN and
Ring Banten are in a group because these groups believe that
Indonesian Government is not legitimate. They are inspired by
Darul Islam that wanted to revert Indonesian Government as
Negara Islam Indonesia. These groups are active in their anti-
Christian movements.
3. Nascent Jihadist Network53
: HTI belongs to nascent jihadist
network. They want to set Islam free from infidels and
degradation. A group like HTI likes to stay hidden. They call
themselves as a party but they do not recognize the other
political parties or democratic politics.
After several attacks, a counterterrorism unit called ‗Detachment 88‘
has caught around 820 terrorists and 80 terrorists were killed in the process54
.
51
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
52
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
53
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
54
Indonesia‟s Key Terrorism Concern (2000). Today Online. Retrieved November 29, 2013 from:
http://www.todayonline.com/commentary/indonesias-key-terrorism-concerns
30
Even though they have successfully captured those terrorists, there are times
the other terrorists are caught the security off guard and did several bombings
or gunning down attacks. For example, post the first Bali bombing, the
second bombing was following and there were several bombings in other
areas, for instance in J.W. Marriott. Even though some of the key leaders of
the biggest terrorist network in Indonesia have been arrested, it does not mean
that the terrorism would stop. In fact, it fostered them to find a new way to
radicalize new people and it is so easy to self-radicalize nowadays because of
the technology and so forth.
II.1.2. Terrorism in The Philippines
Terrorism seems to be one of the most threatening dangers that The
Philippines has to face. The governments have tried so many possible ways to
fight the terrorists and prevent any terrorism to occur in the country again.
The country has become the base of major terrorist group which is in charge
in terrorizing Southeast Asia, specifically located in Central Mindanao55
. It
has become their training base.
The Philippines also has the same unstable political and economical
conditions like Indonesia. Those rebels perhaps have the same motivations in
terrorizing the country. The terrorists do not only limit their action in
bombing, but also kidnapping people, including Western tourists. The
infamous terrorist network based in The Philippines is Abu Sayyaf Group
(ASG). The group is responsible for some bombing and kidnapping crimes
and is operated in Southeast Asia.
55
Manalo, E.P. (2004). The Philippine Response to Terrorism: Abu Sayyaf Group. Retrieved
November 29, 2013 from: www.fas.org/irp/world/para/manalo.pdf
31
The history of terrorism in Philippines was started because of the
clash between Muslims and Christian in the country. There was a group of
Muslims called Bangsamoro in Mindanao who was not agreed with the
concept of Catholic Philippines polity. They felt discriminated and Christians
were dominated at that time. The unfairness that Muslims felt during that time
could clearly be seen in the difference of education system they got in
Mindanao. Most of them lived in poverty back then, contrary with the
Christians.
They felt like they were separated with the other religions, mostly
Christians. They were under the leadership of Ferdinand Marcos, former
Philippines‘ President in 1966 until 198656
, at that time. They also thought
that Ferdinand Marcos was assimilated them into a political framework which
was wider. The political framework was based on Catholics which was firstly
brought by Spanish, then United States, and the last one was the central
administration in Manila which was dominated by Catholics57
. Their anger
was worsened by how Christians or Catholics treated them at that time. In
order to revenge them, these Muslims started to rebel. They even threatened
and violated people in their area.
The rebellion of Muslims in Mindanao was only the beginning. More
rebels and separatists were born after Ferdinand Marcos announced the
declaration of martial law in 197258
. The situation was getting worse.
Communist Party of the Philippines was also started to rebel. Their hatred and
disagreement towards the declaration, added with their disagreement with
56
Biography. Ferdinand Marcos‟s Biography. Retrieved November 29, 2013 from:
http://www.biography.com/people/ferdinand-marcos-9398625
57
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
58
McKenna, T.M. (1998). Muslim Rulers and Rebels. California: University of California Press.
32
Governments‘ Christian oriented governmental were triggered them to come
up with the idea of rectify Christian influence in their government59
. Just like
in Indonesia, they also aim to build an Islamic country throughout the
Philippines which they think as the right influence for Philippines
government system.
II.2. Terrorist Groups in Southeast Asia
Al-Qaeda is one of the largest and the most famous terrorist groups existed.
Even though it does not base in Southeast Asia, the organization has its links and it
helped some other terrorist groups. The other terrorist groups in Southeast Asia
which getting help by Al-Qaeda are none other than Jemaah Islamiyah60
and Abu
Sayyaf Group in Philippines61
. The organization is not only trained some of its
representatives about how to make bomb and teach them about the value of the
religion and jihad, but the organization also will to fund their terrorism activities.
Jemaah Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf Group are infamous for their terrorist acts which
mostly occurred in Indonesia and Philippines.
II.2.1. Jemaah Islamiyah (JI)
Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) has become more famous ever since the first
Bali bombing occurred in Bali. This militant group was established in
Malaysia at the end of 1980 by some Indonesian Islamists who ran away to
59
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
60
Biography. Profile: Jemaah Islamiyah. BBC News. Retrieved November 19, 2013 from:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-16850706
61
ABC News. Abu Sayyaf Group News. Retrieved November 19, 2013 from:
http://abcnews.go.com/topics/news/world/abu-sayyaf-group.htm
33
Malaysia62
. This organization is infamous for its based in Indonesia, but
actually it has some of its networks in Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore and
several areas in Southeast Asia as well. It could be crowned as the most active
jihadist group in Southeast Asia region. The organization engaged in several
terrorist acts, not only conducting but also planning, preparing, training,
assisting, and fostering people to terrorize in the name of God63
. They took
the idealism of Jihad from Mohammad prophet in conducting their activities.
Their networks spread around in Southeast Asia and the biggest networks
located in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines and Thailand64
. The
group was led by Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir who was then arrested for what he did
in the first Bali Bombing in 2002, and Hambali who was also the key leader
in Jemaah Islamiyah and arrested.
Jemaah Islamiyah is one of Al-Qaeda‘s best networks in Southeast
Asia because the organization has succeeded in recruiting people and also
conducting several terrorisms in the country. Governments in Southeast Asia
have begun to fear this organization. They terrorize people who they admitted
as infidels but in reality, innocent people always ended up becoming the
victims of their wrong doings. However apart from that, their main agenda is
none other than to build a strong Islamic country, not only in Indonesia, but
also in several other Southeast Asian countries.
Jemaah Islamiyah is the heritage of Darul Islam which was led by
Kartosoewirjo. However, Jemaah Islamiyah was stronger because of the
62
BBC Indonesia. Profile Jemaah Islamiyah. Retrieved November 20, 2013 from:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/indonesia/berita_indonesia/2010/09/100922_jamaahislamiyah.shtml 63
Australian National Security. Jemaah Islamiyah. Retrieved November 20, 2013 from:
http://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/agd/WWW/nationalsecurity.nsf/Page/What_Governments_are_doi
ng_Listing_of_Terrorism_Organisations_Jemahh_Islamiyah
64
BBC Indonesia. Profile Jemaah Islamiyah. Retrieved November 20, 2013 from:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/indonesia/berita_indonesia/2010/09/100922_jamaahislamiyah.shtml
34
supports from more people and the other terrorist organizations. Their
ideology about jihad is also stronger. The similarity is both Jemaah Islamiyah
and Darul Islam want to continue claiming Indonesia as Negara Islam
Indonesia, to take over the government. They both refused the current
government system in Indonesia. Darul Islam was officially disbanded in
1962, when Kartosoewirjo captured and gunned down by the police65
.
Although Darul Islam has ended up, the spirit has not vanished yet. There
were two adherents from Darul Islam named Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir and
Abdullah Sungkar who wanted to continue the regime66
.
Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir and Abdullah Sungkar were motivated to set up a
boarding school in 1972 named Pesantren Al‘Mukmin, which was located in
Solo. In 1973, the boarding school was relocated in Ngruki Village, which
then the school was famous as Pondok Ngruki. In Pondok Ngruki, they set up
a small group where they teach about Islam. They made the students swore to
separate themselves from infidels and do their activities according to what
they believe as Syari‟ah—the things that God and the Prophets allow to do67
.
After Soeharto regime ended in 1998, Jemaah Islamiyah, which could
only secretly operating, finally could be more freely in doing their activities.
Soeharto was famous for his strict rules and he strictly did not want any other
parties other than the three major parties that already existed. Islamist groups
were used to be restricted, and he would rather disband the organization
65
Crisis Group. Relevansi Darul Islam untuk Masa Kini (2010). Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:
http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/op-eds/jones-relevansi-darul-islam-untuk-masa-kini.aspx
66
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
67
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
35
before it went public68
. However, after his regime collapsed, it was not
anymore. Jemaah Islamiyah was able to conduct their terrorist acts during
Christmas Eve bombings in December 24, 2000. They were finally became
more opened to public69
.
Their aim to establish an Islamic regime in Indonesia is not enough
anymore for Jemaah Islamiyah. They began to aim to establish the Islamic
regime in all over Southeast Asia and also north Australia70
. Their action
started to make governments all over Southeast Asia fear them and put them
on the list of most wanted terrorists. Jemaah Islamiyah could come back
stronger than Darul Islam because its leaders and some of its followers
received direct trainings in Afghanistan and Pakistan71
. They became more
skillful. Their hatred for Western, especially United States, has become more
obvious. Jemaah Islamiyah leaders started to cooperate with the other Islamist
militant groups to cover their financial and arms needs, training and also
working together in carrying out an attack72
.
68
Carter, M.E. Islamic Terrorism in Southeast Asia: An Effect Based on U.S. Strategy against Jemaah
Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from: www.dtic.mil/cgi-
bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA437439
69
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
70
Vaughn, B., Avery, E.C., Dolven, B., Manyin, M.E., Martin, M.F., Niksch, L.A., (2009). Terrorism
in Southeast Asia. Congressional Research Service. 71
Transnational Terrorism: Jemaah Islamiyah. (2004). Australian Government: Department of
Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:
http://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/terrorism/is4.html
72
Vaughn, B., Avery, E.C., Dolven, B., Manyin, M.E., Martin, M.F., Niksch, L.A., (2009). Terrorism
in Southeast Asia. Congressional Research Service.
36
Jemaah Islamiyah has four sub-divisions across Southeast Asia or
usually called as mantiqis73. Those regional divisions are:
1. Mantiqi I: Their responsibility is to handle Jemaah
Islamiyah‘s financial. They are located in Singapore, Malaysia
(except Sabah) and Southern Thailand.
2. Mantiqi II: They are in charge in leadership and recruiting
people. They are located in Indonesia, except in Sulawesi and
Kalimantan.
3. Mantiqi III: They are responsible for purchasing weapons and
training. They are located in Sabah (Malaysia), Sulawesi,
Kalimantan (Indonesia) and southern Philippines.
4. Mantiqi IV: They are in charge of fund raising. They are
mainly located in Australia and Papua New Guinea.
(Singapore Ministry of Home Affairs, 2003, p. 10; Australian
Government, 2004, p. 50; Barton, 2008; International Center
for Political Violence and Terrorism Research, undated)74
.
Not only the Christmas Eve bombings in 2000, Jemaah Islamiyah is
also responsible for the other major bombings, such as in the first Bali
Bombing in 2002, JW Marriott Hotel Bombing in Jakarta in 2003, Australian
Embassy Bombing in Jakarta in 2004 and also the second Bali Bombing in
73
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
74
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
37
2005. Jemaah Islamiyah is suspected to be responsible for the first Bali
bombing and is believed that they chose Bali as their target because there are
a lot of Westerns coming to the Island. Besides, it will be easier for them to
grab more attention both locally and internationally. As a result, they were
successful to get the recognition they wanted. They became very famous as
terrorist group from Indonesia and at the same time, some of its leaders and
members become the most wanted list by police and governments in some
countries.
They also suspected to help the Philippines‘s Islamist militant group,
Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) in conducting a terrorist attack in Philippine
Superferry 14 Bombing in February 27, 200475
. In the recent years, Jemaah
Islamiyah seemed to be unstable after the arrest or execution of its key leaders
and members, such as Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir, Hambali, Noordin M. Top, Dr.
Azahari and the others. However, that does not stop the radicalization which
happens in Southeast Asia.
II.2.2. Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG)
Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) is an Islamist militant group from the
southern Philippines76
. The anti-Christians group operates in Mindanao and
on the Sulu Island77
. The militant conducted bombings, assassinations,
kidnappings, ransom and extortion. They blackmailed the government several
times and asked them for money in exchange with their hostages. Abu Sayyaf
75
CNN. Ferry Bomb Terror Suspect Held in Manila (2008). Retrieved November 30, 2013 from: http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/08/30/philippines.suspect/
76
National Counterterrorism Center. (2013). Abu Sayyaf Group. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:
http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/asg.html
77
Vaughn, B., Avery, E.C., Dolven, B., Manyin, M.E., Martin, M.F., Niksch, L.A., (2009). Terrorism
in Southeast Asia. Congressional Research Service.
38
Group is the continuation of Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) regime,
where Muslims in southern Philippines began to rebel against the country,
after they split78
. It was established in 1989 and led by Abdujarak Janjalani.
However, after his death in 1998, Abu Sayyaf Group is led by Khadaffi
Janjalani, his brother79
. The group was also funded by Al-Qaeda80
.
Abu Sayyaf Group was also known as Muhajideen Commando
Freedom Fighter81
. Their main objectives are to erase Christians‘ influence in
southern Philippines and Islamizing Mindanao, make it to Islamic state of
Mindanao82
. They do not only want to Islamize southern Philippines, but also
to gain some financial by doing their actions. Abu Sayyaf Group also gets
support from Al-Qaeda and sometimes it joints Jemaah Islamiyah in carrying
out their mission. They are responsible for several kidnappings of Western
tourists. They used to conduct kidnapping in April 2000. They successfully
kidnapped 21 persons, including 10 tourists in a Malaysian resort83
. In May
2001, Abu Sayyaf Group kidnapped 17 local people and 3 tourists from the
United States. They asked some money in exchange to their hostages. They
78
National Counterterrorism Center. (2013). Abu Sayyaf Group. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:
http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/asg.html
79
Manalo, E.P. (2004). The Philippine Response to Terrorism: Abu Sayyaf Group. Retrieved
November 29, 2013 from: www.fas.org/irp/world/para/manalo.pdf
80
Abu Sayyaf Philippines Terrorist Group. Terrorist. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:
http://terrorism.about.com/od/groupsleader1/p/AbuSayyaf.htm
81
Filler, A.L. (2002). The Abu Sayyaf Group: A Growing Menace to Civil Society. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from: http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/books/global/filler.htm
82
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
83
National Counterterrorism Center. (2013). Abu Sayyaf Group. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:
http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/asg.html
39
ended up murdering some of their hostages, including one of the three U.S.
citizen hostages84
.
Under the Khadaffi‘s leadership, Abu Sayyaf Group created a huge
shock for Filipinos by Philippine Superferry 14 Bombing in February 27,
2004, which was heading to Bacolod, the central of Philippines85
. The terror
was helped by other militant groups, including Jemaah Islamiyah. The
incident killed at least 116 people out of 900 passengers. It was believed that
they used explosive device in blasting the ferry. Abu Sayyaf Group was
provoked to terrorize the ferry because the owner of the ferry, WG&A,
declined to give Abu Sayyaf Group sum of money in 200386
.
Abu Sayyaf Group is also behind several other bombings in
Philippines, for examples the ‗Valentine Bombing‘ in February 2005, located
in Davao City, General Santos City and Manila; bombing in Makati City,
which was crowded by business people and tourists; in March 2006, they
bombed a bar and a crowded supermarket in Jolo; motorcycle assassinations
in August 2006 which has 70 people killed as a result; and the other terrorist
acts87
.
Another joint force that Abu Sayyaf Group and Jemaah Islamiyah did
was proven by the existence of some key persons of Jemaah Islamiyah in Abu
Sayyaf Group. Dulmatin, Umar Patek and Marwan were under the protection
84
National Counterterrorism Center. (2013). Abu Sayyaf Group. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:
http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/asg.html
85
Bomb caused Philippine Ferry Fire (2004). BBC News. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3732356.stm
86
Bomb caused Philippine Ferry Fire (2004). BBC News. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3732356.stm
87
Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast
Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.
40
of Abu Sayyaf Group88
when they were still chased by the police. They
stayed in Jolo Island. It was also reported that Abu Sayyaf Group and Jemaah
Islamiyah conducted their trainings together. Jemaah Islamiyah also trained
around 60 Abu Sayyaf Group‘s members in making bombs and how to
detonate it89
.
Besides Jemaah Islamiyah and Moro National Liberation Front, Abu
Sayyaf Group is also linked with Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF).
MILF facilitated a camp for some Jemaah Islamiyah terrorists to train and
plan their terrorist activities as well90
.
It was obvious that beside their anti-Christians protest, money is the
major orientation behind their terror in Philippines. Most of their actions
required money as the exchange or as the object of their blackmail. Some
experts argue that Abu Sayyaf Group is only religion terrorist. The group also
involves ethnic terrorism in the group because of its history91
.
Abu Sayyaf Group captured the world‘s attention by kidnapping. The
government are well-aware with this. Abdurajak Janjalani was once a veteran
in Afghanistan war. The radicalization in southern Philippines was not too
difficult because of their situation and anti-Christian. Their leader, Khadaffi,
was dead in September 200692
. Just like Jemaah Islamiyah, their operation
was not as obvious as before but the group perhaps still conducting or
planning several terrorisms.
88
Vaughn, B., Avery, E.C., Dolven, B., Manyin, M.E., Martin, M.F., Niksch, L.A., (2009). Terrorism
in Southeast Asia. Congressional Research Service. 89
Abuza, Z. (2005). The Return of the Abu Sayyaf. Carlisle, U.S: Army War College. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from: www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub625.pdf 90
Vaughn, B., Avery, E.C., Dolven, B., Manyin, M.E., Martin, M.F., Niksch, L.A., (2009). Terrorism
in Southeast Asia. Congressional Research Service. 91
Manalo, E.P. (2004). The Philippine Response to Terrorism: Abu Sayyaf Group. Retrieved
November 29, 2013 from: www.fas.org/irp/world/para/manalo.pdf
92
Abu Sayyaf Philippines Terrorist Group. Terrorist. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:
http://terrorism.about.com/od/groupsleader1/p/AbuSayyaf.htm
41
CHAPTER III
ASEAN as a Regional Grouping in Southeast Asia: a
Historical Overview
Southeast Asia consists of neighboring countries which have diversity in
cultures, language, ethnics and even political system. Even though the differences
can be seen clearly, Southeast Asian countries have the same mission, which is to
make peaceful, stable and prosperous environment for their people93
. For those
reasons, the idea of establishing a regional group finally came up from five Southeast
Asian countries. The representatives were Indonesia (Adam Malik), Malaysia (Tun
Abdul Razak), Thailand (Thanat Khoman), Philippines (Narciso R. Ramos) and
Singapore (S. Rajaratnam)94
. They decided to call it ‗The Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN)‘. ASEAN was officially established on 8 August 1967 in
Bangkok, Thailand. To mark the establishment of ASEAN, the five representatives
had agreed to sign Bangkok Declaration or also known as ASEAN Declaration.
Embracing Southeast Asian countries to cooperate as one would be a way to
achieve the peace and stability they have always wanted95
. That is why ASEAN was
established. After the establishment of ASEAN announced, more countries were
willing to join the regional group and work as a team. As neighboring countries,
Brunei Darussalam joined the organization on 7 January 1984, and then followed by
Vietnam on 28 July 1995, Laos and Myanmar on 23 July 1997. Cambodia was
93
Association of Southeast Asian Nation. NTI. Retrieved December 14, 2013 from:
http://www.nti.org/treaties-and-regimes/association-southeast-asian-nations-asean/
94
ASEAN. About ASEAN: Overview. Retrieved December 1, 2013 from:
http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean
95
Rother, S. Identifying Regional Cultures of Cooperation: The ASEAN Logic of Anarchy. Cited
December 14, 2013 from: turin.sgir.eu/uploads/Rother-stefan_rother_asean_logic_of_anarchy.pdf
42
supposed to join the organization together with LAOS and Myanmar, but because of
the political issue in the country, Cambodia postponed it. Therefore, the last one to
join was Cambodia on 30 April 199996
. These countries have mutual interest and also
vision and mission with ASEAN. That is why they decided to join. After Cambodia
joined, ASEAN officially has ten members from Southeast Asia until today.
ASEAN‘s main agendas are to promote regional peace and stability, which
was why they formed the group in the first place. ASEAN members are also
committed to the rules that have been set by United Nations in UN Charter97
.
ASEAN also owns their principles that are written on ASEAN Charter, which legally
bind the members of ASEAN. They formed a group together to strengthen the
relationship between neighboring countries, to assist and help each other, and also to
cooperate in a lot of areas98
.
III.1. Regional Mechanism
Global economic has grown rapidly. Globalization has emerged in Southeast
Asia. Because of the globalization, cultures also change and develop around the
globe99
. ASEAN member states realize that they need to keep up with the change, or
else Southeast Asia will be left behind by developed countries. Globalization also
could cause problems. The awareness and concern about current security issues and a
lot of border or maritime disputes have got ASEAN member states to think that they
96
ASEAN. About ASEAN: Overview. Retrieved December 1, 2013 from:
http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean
97
NTI. Association of Southeast Asian Nation. Retrieved December 14, 2013 from: http://www.nti.org/treaties-and-regimes/association-southeast-asian-nations-asean/
98
ASEAN. About ASEAN: Overview. Retrieved December 1, 2013 from:
http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean
99
ASEAN. About ASEAN: Overview. Retrieved December 1, 2013 from:
http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean
43
must do something about them. In order to equalize the pace of the global rapid
change and solve a lot of difficulties, they are committed to work together and help
each other. ASEAN realizes the fact that they cannot solve the problems alone.
Besides, the problems are not only one or two countries‘ problems, but also will
affect the whole region in Southeast Asia. Therefore, they finally decided to build
three major cooperation, which is also known as ‗ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation
(APT)‘. ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation includes Political-Security Cooperation,
Finance and Economic Cooperation and Socio-Cultural Cooperation. ‗Disaster
management, human trafficking, education, food and energy security, financial
cooperation, people-to-people contacts, rural development, poverty alleviation and
the other issues‟ are engaged together and included in the three major cooperation as
well100
.
III.1.1. Political-Security Cooperation
There are a lot of conflicts and disputes in Southeast Asia. What is
even worse is there are quite a lot of unsolved disputes which affect not only
one or two countries in Southeast Asia, but also the entire region. ASEAN
member states have committed in cooperating in political and security
cooperation. To show their commitment, they finally decided to make it
official, by forming ASEAN Political-Security Community or APSC, which
will be effective in 2015101
. Enhancing peace, stability and prosperity
throughout Southeast Asia are the duties that should be accomplished by this
cooperation. They wish Southeast Asian countries would live in a peaceful,
100
ASEAN: ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Retrieved
December 1, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/news/item/asean-plus-three-cooperation
101
Kementerian Luar Negeri Indonesia. Kerjasama Politik dan Keamanan ASEAN. Retrieved
December 3, 2013 from:
http://kemlu.go.id/Documents/Kerjasama%20Politik%20Keamanan%20ASEAN.doc
44
harmonious and democratic environment, thus they thought that the
community would be helpful102
. Dispute and conflict identification and
settlements between Southeast Asian countries will be handled in this
community. More importantly, they wish it could help them to avoid more
conflicts or clashes to happen in the future.
A legitimate set of objectives and rules should be legalized. It is to set
the boundaries, so no country will dare to violate the agreement. For that
reason, at the 14th
ASEAN Summit on 1 March 2009 which was held in Cha-
am or Hua Hin, Thailand, APSC produced The APSC Blueprint, where all the
details about rules, values and norms of APSC are written and signed103
. The
APSC Blueprint itself is based on ASEAN Charter, because APSC was
formed in order to implement what has been written on the ASEAN Charter.
The APSC Blueprint will be the guide for them to conduct the political-
security cooperation they want to do.
Besides to ensure peace, stability and prosperity of Southeast Asia, the
characteristics and elements of the APSC is to develop politics in Southeast
Asia. In politics, APSC promotes ―democracy in politics; good governance;
abiding to laws; respect, promotion and protection of human rights; and
fundamental freedom‖104
. With the realization of diversity in races, languages,
culture background, religions and so forth that ASEAN has, promoting the
understanding about those differences would be a mission for this community.
102
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: ASEAN Political-
Security Community. Retrieved December 2, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-
political-security-community
103
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: ASEAN Political-
Security Community. Retrieved December 2, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-
political-security-community
104
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: ASEAN Political-
Security Community. Retrieved December 2, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-
political-security-community
45
They hope ASEAN countries will have closer relationships and mutual
understanding among each other, to avoid clashes in the future. APSC can
also be the bridge for the countries that already clashed to reunite. With the
discussion forums that APSC will hold, hopefully ASEAN members as well
as their partners can discuss and share more about how to solve the existing
problems, especially those that already created anxiety among the citizens105
.
Protecting human rights is one of APSC‘s duties as well. The current human
trafficking issues, terrorism, protection of workers who work overseas and
also the high number of corruption cases in Southeast Asia have already been
discussed, however it should be handled as soon as possible. APSC is
responsible for that.
Maritime security which caused a lot of ruckus in Southeast Asia,
especially in the South China Sea case will be handled under APSC as well.
Maritime issues have apparently become one of major issues in Southeast
Asia that should be tackled. It is APSC‘s mission to open a dialogue with
ASEAN‘s partners in maritime security, Japan and US, for examples106
.
APSC is also cooperating under the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in
Southeast Asia (TAC)107
.
The leaders of ASEAN earlier have produced the Southeast Asian
Nuclear Weapon Free Zone or also known as SEAN WFZ. They have held
several meetings about how dangerous nuclear weapons if they are located in
105
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Political-Security Community Blueprint PDF.
Retrieved December 2, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-political-security-
community
106
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Political-Security Community Blueprint PDF.
Retrieved December 2, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-political-security-
community
107
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Political-Security Community Blueprint PDF.
Retrieved December 2, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-political-security-
community
46
Southeast Asia, the disarmament and also the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
They have agreed to implement the plans of SEAN WFZ and APSC is
responsible to ensure it.
This Blueprint of APSC is a useful guide to remind them of the goals
they have to achieve. However, no matter how legal the existence of this
Blueprint is, it will not run well if there is no one to watch over and ensure
the implementation. Thus, the ASEAN Political and Security Community
Council is appointed for this job. They will record the activities as well. In
July 2009, at the 42nd
ASEAN Ministerial Meeting in Thailand, ASEAN
Member States have agreed to identify the eleven political issues, such as ―the
endorsement of the Terms of Reference of the ASEAN Human Right Body, the
establishment of ASEAN‟s new dispute settlement mechanism, the setting up
of guidelines for accession to the 1976 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in
Southeast Asia, the enhancement of ASEAN cooperation regarding disaster
management, the enhancement of ASEAN cooperation on the fight against
human trafficking in persons and migrant workers, the setting up of an
ASEAN Fisheries Forum, enhancement of cooperation with civil society
organizations in the fight against non-traditional security problem, the
finalization of an ARF vision statement, the strengthening of the role of
ASEAN in peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance, the enhancement of
cooperation on the SEANWFZ Treaty and the last one is the drafting of
APSC‟s rules of procedures”108.
Since the issues are already selected, hopefully as soon as APSC has
become effective in 2015, they could tackle the problems one by one. In
addition, APSC is made not only to solve disputes, but also to prevent them to
108
Ali, A.H. (2009). Kerjasama Politik Keamanan ASEAN dan Pembangunan Kapabilitas TNI
Angkatan Laut. Retrieved December 2, 2013 from: http://www.fkpmaritim.org/kerjasama-politik-
keamanan-asean-dan-pembangunan-kapabilitas-tni-angkatan-laut/
47
happen again the future. It is made to watch over the implementation of their
principles and agreements that have already been made. ASEAN member
states should really utilize the community wisely and take every advice which
is given in the forum into account.
III.1.2. Finance and Economic Cooperation
Southeast Asia has experienced the Asian Monetary Crisis which
affected its social welfare, politics and especially economy109
. ASEAN
member states are also aware about how one Southeast Asian country‘s
economy can affect the others as well, especially in the era of globalization.
United States has always been a super power country that has strong and
powerful economy, as well as Japan. Suddenly, China appeared to challenge
US and Japan, and managed to become one of the super powers as well.
ASEAN does not want to be left behind. They need to compete as well in
order to survive in the emergence of global economy. In order to strengthen
their economy, they have to cooperate in helping each other. ASEAN looks
up to the success of European Union (EU) in economic cooperation and aims
to achieve the success as well. Besides political and security cooperation,
ASEAN member states found that finance and economic cooperation in
Southeast Asia is necessary110
.
The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) shall be established in
2015. To compete in this globalization, there are a lot of economic barriers.
Creating more open opportunities in finance and economy areas in Southeast
109
Plummer, M.G. (2009). The Global Economic Crisis and Its Implication for Asian Economic
Cooperation. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
110
Plummer, M.G. (2009). The Global Economic Crisis and Its Implication for Asian Economic
Cooperation. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
48
Asia sounds relevant. AEC is established due to those reasons. More
cooperation in industrial sector, trade and the establishment of ASEAN Free
Trade Area (AFTA) shall be ensured. It includes ―human resources
development, enhanced infrastructure and communication connectivity, trade
financing measures, consultation of macroeconomics and financial policies,
development of electronic transaction through e-ASEAN and enhancing
private sector involvement”111.
Making Southeast Asian a region which is competitive in economy
will foster the economic rate in the region. Even though it is very competitive,
economy in Southeast Asia will be still integrated into the global economy.
AEC will implement a ‗single market‟ or „production base‟ as well as its
characteristics112
. ASEAN Leaders have agreed on the ASEAN Economic
Community by signing the ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint on
October 7 2003 at the Declaration of ASEAN Concord II in Bali, Indonesia113
.
The importance of making a competitive economic region is to make
ASEAN‘s economy as active as possible, yet there is still a policy on it. One
of AEC‘s plans is to develop infrastructure. Developed countries are now
facilitated with high and newer technology. The technology is not only to
raise the prestige of those countries, but also to give prosperity and security
for its people. Newer infrastructures will ensure people‘s safety.
111
ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: ASEAN Economic Community. The Association of Southeast
Asian Nations. Retrieved December 3, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-
economic-community 112
ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: ASEAN Economic Community. The Association of Southeast
Asian Nations. Retrieved December 3, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-
economic-community
113
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint PDF.
Retrieved December 3, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community
49
Single market and production base consist of free flow of goods,
services, capital and skilled labors114
. These elements are really important to
boost Southeast Asian economy. The free flows will attract more people to do
their business and invest their money in Southeast Asian countries. It will
increase the countries‘ GDP and also reduce unemployment. ASEAN accepts
the challenge to improve its industries. The development of industry will be
one of the reasons why investors should come to Southeast Asia as well. They
will help with the development. Moreover, it will improve the technology
which comes to ASEAN and improve the skills of ASEAN in managing the
industry. It is also well-known as ASEAN Industrial Cooperation Scheme
(AICO)115
.
ASEAN has some cooperation that have already been implemented,
for examples AFTA, AICO or e-ASEAN. They also have some bilateral
cooperation with the other states, for examples Japan bilateral cooperation
with Indonesia, Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines and Brunei Darussalam;
South Korea‘s bilateral cooperation with Thailand and Singapore; and so
many others116
. To record the implementation of this cooperation that AEC
wants to conduct, ASEAN member states have agreed to make a Scorecard
for AEC117
. It is also made to remind ASEAN member states of the
commitment and mechanisms of AEC which have already been agreed in
114
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint PDF.
Retrieved December 3, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community
115
ASEAN Industrial Cooperation Scheme. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Retrieved
December 4, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community/item/asean-
industrial-cooperation-scheme 116
Cuyver, R. & Tummers, R. (2007). The Road to an ASEAN Community: How Far Still to Go?
Retrieved December 15, 2013 from: webh01.ua.ac.be/cas/PDF/CAS57.pdf
117
The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC): an Alternative Scorecard Approach. CIMB ASEAN
Research Institute. Retrieved December 14, 2013 from: www.cariasean.org/wp-
content/uploads/.../Research-Project-Apr-2013.pdf
50
ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint. AEC will be there to ensure that if
another economy crisis occurred once again, they are ready to face it. So far,
their wish to make ASEAN a highly competitive market region is still far
from what they have expected118
. The social and economy equality in
Southeast Asia still could be seen clearly. That is why the community
hopefully will help Southeast Asia to increase and develop its economy.
III.I.3. Social and Cultural Cooperation
The citizens who live around Southeast Asia are all important. They
have the same rights to be protected and to live in a peaceful region. ASEAN
has already emphasized that they are very people-oriented. ASEAN member
states gathered in a lot of meetings for those people. However, at the current
state of Southeast Asia, with a lot of conflicts, differences, threats and so
many others, the dream of people living in harmony is still very much out of
reach. This is why ASEAN member states think that it is necessary to keep
socio-cultural cooperation as the last pillar of ASEAN Plus Three
Cooperation. The ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC) will also be
established because ASEAN feels responsible in ensuring people‘s
prosperity119
.
Humans, cultures and natural resources are the most important things
and they are linked to each other. They cannot live without one another. That
118
The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC): an Alternative Scorecard Approach. CIMB ASEAN
Research Institute. Retrieved December 14, 2013 from: www.cariasean.org/wp-
content/uploads/.../Research-Project-Apr-2013.pdf
119
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: Socio-Culture
Community. Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-
community
51
is why ASCC will have to nurture them so they can live in harmony120
. We
cannot deny that there are times social cultural issues, including natural
resources issues, could lead some neighboring countries into conflicts. This is
why solidarity, unity and mutual understanding are needed. ASCC wants to
create a sharing and caring society in Southeast Asia121
.
On 20 November 2007, at the 13th
ASEAN Summit which was held in
Singapore, ASEAN Member States have agreed with the establishment of the
ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Blueprint. The Blueprint consists of
some characteristics and elements of ASCC122
. A friendly environmental
where people can understand each other even though they have different
perspective is needed and ASCC should provide that. Respect towards each
other is the key in avoiding clashes, especially between ethnics and race.
Sharing and caring are just as important, for example in terms of natural
resources. The government gives citizens opportunities in managing natural
resources. Boundaries and limitation have already been set. It would not hurt
to obey the rules, by not taking the natural resources they do not own. ASCC
brings that issue to a discussion with ASEAN member states. They also focus
on the Narrow Development Gap (NDG). ASCC protects citizens from
poverty and any other harm created from social welfare123
.
120
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: Socio-Culture
Community. Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-
community
121
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: Socio-Culture
Community. Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-
community 122
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: Socio-Culture
Community. Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-
community
123
Acharya, A. (2009). Constructing a Security Community in Southeast ASIA‟ ASEAN and the
Problem of Regional Order. New York: Routledge.
52
The key characteristics of ASCC are ―Human Development, Social
Welfare and Protection, Social Justice and Rights, Ensuring Environmental
Sustainability, Building the ASEAN Identity and the last one is Narrowing the
Development Gap”124. In order to achieve them, there are several things that
need to be done, for instance, improving education in Southeast Asia and
make it as a priority125
. Education is really important, especially for the future
generation. Until today, education systems in Southeast Asia are still behind
from the developed countries. Southeast Asian countries should raise the
quality of their education. On top of that, education should be equally
distributed, including in village and the other remote areas. The education
cooperation that ASEAN have already done is exchange students and teachers
between ASEAN countries, for example. This is one of ASEAN‘s agendas in
fostering education in Southeast Asia. Teachers in Southeast Asia were
gathered in a convention called as ASEAN Council of Teachers
Convention126
. Meanwhile, students who live in Southeast Asia are gathered
annually in ASEAN Youth Convention (AYC) where they can exchange
thoughts127
.
The mission of ASCC is to ensure the education, as well as
developing human resource quality. Apart from that, teaching women, youth,
elderly and also people who have disabilities about entrepreneurship is also
124
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The ASEAN Socio-Culture Community Blueprint
PDF. Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-
community
125
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The ASEAN Socio-Culture Community Blueprint
PDF. Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-
community 126
Napitulu, E.L. (2012). ASEAN Perkuat Jaringan Kerjasama Pendidikan. Retrieved December 15,
2013
from:http://edukasi.kompas.com/read/2012/12/08/14093526/ASEAN.Perkuat.Jaringan.Kerjasama.Pen
didikan
127
Global Youth Congress International. Retrieved December 15, 2013 from:
http://www.gyci.org/conventions_ayc.html
53
on the agenda. Unemployment is the issue which covers almost all Southeast
Asia. Besides teaching them more skills, teaching people on how to create a
business will be helpful to solve unemployment problems, relating to poverty
issue.
Poverty has been an unsolved issue for generations. It is time for
ASEAN member states to do something to reduce it. For that reason, they put
poverty alleviations on the list128
. If the government can enhance food and
security safety, and also the development of health access, they will be able to
reduce poverty as well.
There are three things that ASCC will find important as well129
. They
are the protection of human rights of elderly, women, children and people
with disabilities; protection of migrant workers; and also enhancing Corporate
Social Responsibility (CSR) programs in company. There are a lot of issues
involving elderly, women, children, people with disabilities and also migrant
workers, including human trafficking and mistreatments. ASCC will ensure
that those people are treated like human beings should. CSR programs should
be beneficial to help the governments in handling some issues as well. For
example, in ensuring environmental sustainability, this also has become
ASCC‘sconcerntoo.
ASEAN member states wish through socio-culture cooperation,
people who live in Southeast Asia will find their sense of community. The
cooperation can be a place where they can promote their heritage, for instance,
by holding cultural events. The cultural events have caught people‘s attention
128
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The ASEAN Socio-Culture Community Blueprint
PDF. Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-
community
129
Sammuel, C.Y. (2011). The ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC): Development and
Prospect. Taiwan: National Sun Yat-Sen University.
54
and quite successful. The implementation of ASCC‘s plans in its Blueprint
will be ensured by ASEAN ministerial bodies130
. They will keep the records
of which point of the Blueprint that ASEAN have implemented and make
sure that nobody violates it. By creating an understanding and caring
community, peace and stability can also be ensured.
III.2. ASEAN Security Cooperation
At first, the issue of security alliance was a very sensitive topic for
ASEAN member states. It could lead to misunderstanding and tension
between those countries. However, they realized that ASEAN are facing a lot
of challenging security issues in Southeast Asia. The issues include arms
races, territorial maritime disputes, border disputes, terrorism and the list goes
on. On the other hands, one of ASEAN priorities is to bring peace in the
region. They want to reduce conflicts to appear in Southeast Asia131
.
As a people-oriented community, ASEAN is concerned about the
safety of people who live in the region. Protecting them would be their
priority. In order to achieve that goal, ASEAN came up with the idea to form
a community named ASEAN Security Community (ASC). Previously,
ASEAN have stated that they wanted a peaceful, democratic and harmonious
environment for its people. To give those, ASEAN should be prepared first
with the defense and security in Southeast Asia. ASC will be responsible to
ensure that people and their lands will be protected from threats. Threats
come from anywhere, not only from the other countries, but also from
130
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The ASEAN Socio-Culture Community Blueprint
PDF. Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-
community
131
Acharya, A. (2009). Constructing a Security Community in Southeast ASIA‟ ASEAN and the
Problem of Regional Order. New York: Routledge.
55
separatist groups or rebels, for examples. ASC will promote ‗good conduct
inter-state relations, come up with effective conflict prevention and
mechanisms to solve it, and post-conflict building activities‟132. Those are the
important plans that ASC should conduct.
Even though the awareness of threats has risen after several attacks or
conflicts, defense and security topic remains as a sensitive topic for Southeast
Asian countries. Thus, some of them would rather have bilateral or trilateral
cooperation among the countries. This is why a security community like ASC
plans to mediate bilateral cooperation between ASEAN member states and
also engaging its partners through meetings.
III.2.1. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)
There are a lot of security threats that Southeast Asia need to face. Not
only territorial or maritime disputes, but piracy, human trafficking and also
terrorism involving crime organizations also make the citizens of Southeast
Asia feel the insecurity. There are also tensions between the neighboring
countries about security, which lead them into arms races. Economy crisis,
environmental, social and political issues could be the causes of the threats133
.
There are a lot of unsolved problems remain in Southeast Asia that need to be
handled. If the conflicts are not solved as soon as possible, it will not give
impact to one country only but it could affect the other Southeast Asian
countries as well. On the other hand, United States also believe that the rise of
China could also become a threat for Southeast Asia. Besides the threat to
132
ASEAN Security Community Plan of Action. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations.
Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/news/item/asean-security-community-plan-
of-action
133
Ruland, J. (2004). The Nature of Southeast ASEAN Security Challenges. Cited December 5, 2013
from: http://www.ssrnetwork.net/document_library/detail/4616/the-nature-of-southeast-asian-security-
challenges
56
economic area, the South China Sea dispute can lead Southeast Asia to huge
trouble134
. The dialogue to see different perspective on security and to get
some advices is obviously needed by ASEAN. ASEAN Regional Forum
(ARF) was the solution that The 26th
ASEAN Ministerial Meeting and Post
Ministerial Conference in Singapore on 23-25 July 1993 were given135
. ARF
was formed as an open dialogue forum for ASEAN members and its partners,
to discuss about the political and security cooperation among them. There are
two objectives of ARF, such as:
1. to foster constructive dialogue and consultation on political
and security issues of common interest and concern
2. to make significant contributions to efforts towards
confidence-building and preventive diplomacy in the Asia-
Pacific region136
ARF can be seen as the improvement of cooperation in political and
security area. Why? Because it is a big step for ASEAN in the area of defense
security, judging from how Southeast Asia has been avoided in the topic
before. The current security state of ASEAN makes them wish that ARF
could cover the security in Asia-Pacific region through its dialogue
consultation. ARF considered quite successful for engaging 27 member states,
including Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Canada,
China, European Union, India, Indonesia, Japan, Democratic Peoples‟
Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Mongolia,
134
Asia‘sSecurityThreat,RealandPerceived(2010).EastWestCenterNews.RetrievedDecember7,
2013 from: http://www.eastwestcenter.org/news-center/east-west-wire/asias-security-threats-real-and-perceived
135
ASEAN Regional Forum. About: ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF). Retrieved December 6, 2013
from: http://aseanregionalforum.asean.org/about.html
136
ASEAN Regional Forum. About: ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF). Retrieved December 6, 2013
from: http://aseanregionalforum.asean.org/about.html
57
New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Russian Federation,
Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor Leste, United States, and Vietnam137.
ARF should hold annual Ministerial meeting. It should produce mechanisms
in solving various political and security conflicts as well. In ARF, the
concepts of security community and cooperative security appeared.
According to Amitav Acharya, in security community, they ensure that the
members of that community will not fight each other physically or by arms
race, but instead they will find another way to settle the dispute138
.
The discussion held in ARF varies and it is developed in each meeting.
For examples, on ARF‘s 9th
Intersessional Meeting, the members were
sharing and discussing about Counterterrorism and Transnational Crime. ARF
members also concern about nuclear energy, thus the topic was being
discussed several times. On the 2nd ARF Intersessional Meeting on
Nonproliferation and Disarmament, they were discussing about the peaceful
use of nuclear energy. On the 13th
ARF, the topic developed into a discussion
of nuclear free zone as well as the disarmament of nuclear power139
. Not only
those, but ARF also succeed in bringing maritime security and disaster relief
into discussion as well.
The question is has ARF been effective through all those dialogues
and meetings? ASEAN biggest challenge would be to enhance peace and
prosperity that they aim for. Until now, ARF had succeeded for bringing the
presence of security in Southeast Asia. ARF also succeed in embracing a lot
of countries as members, including super power countries like US, China,
137
ASEAN Regional Forum. ASEAN Regional Forum PDF. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: cns.miis.edu/inventory/pdfs/arf.pdf
138
Acharya, A. (2009). Constructing a Security Community in Southeast ASIA‟ ASEAN and the
Problem of Regional Order. New York: Routledge.
139
ASEAN Regional Forum. ASEAN Regional Forum PDF. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from:
cns.miis.edu/inventory/pdfs/arf.pdf
58
Russia and Japan. The super power countries present at ARF meetings to give
a lot of advices in handling security issues because they are more experienced.
ARF is committed to cooperate and build security with the members, not to
go against them140
.Even though people are given that fact, the question
whether ARF is effective for conflict solving and contributing in regional
stability still remains.
III.2.2. Bilateral and Trilateral Security Cooperation of ASEAN
In securing the entire Southeast Asia, a solid cooperation between
ASEAN member states should be strengthened. They have agreed to conduct
bilateral or trilateral security cooperation between ASEAN member states and
also with the other countries. Their cooperation consists of assisting each
other against external threats, exchanging and helping with intelligent, joint
maritime surveillance or patrols, officers training, and so many others141
.
Even though some countries rejected the military alliance, there are
some of ASEAN member states which have already conducted cooperation,
Indonesia and Philippines, for instance. Indonesia and Philippines have
agreed to cooperate in the field of defense since 1997. The neighboring
countries continued the cooperation on 14 December 2010 in Makati City,
when the Department of National Defense of the Republic of the Philippines
140
Acharya, A. (2009). Constructing a Security Community in Southeast ASIA‟ ASEAN and the
Problem of Regional Order. New York: Routledge.
141
Acharya, A. A Survey of Military Cooperation Among The ASEAN States: Bilaterlaism or Alliance?
Cited December 6, 2010 from: yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/xmlui/handle/10315/1421
59
held a meeting with Indonesia. The meeting was known as the Philippines-
Indonesia Joint Defense Cooperation Committee (JDSCC)142
.
Indonesia and Philippines engaged in military training, joint military
activities, exchange personnel and the military members, exchange
information and exchange of visits143
. The knowledge they got from each
other would be very useful. Not only in defense and security field, but
Indonesia and Philippines also cooperate in term of counterterrorism144
.
Indonesia and the Philippines are both dealing with radical Islamic groups.
Because they share mutual problem, they exchange opinions and willing to
assist each other. Indonesia and Philippines also work together in catching the
fugitives.
Their cooperation has worked well during Aceh Peace Process in
2005 where Philippines assisted Indonesia in the negotiations with Free Aceh
Movement or Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (GAM). On the other hands, Indonesia
is also willing to help The Philippines in overcoming issue with Islam
separatists in Southern Philippines145
. Indonesia and The Philippines also
have conducted joint practice between Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP)
142
Defense and Security Cooperation with Indonesia. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for
Strategic Assessment. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://www.dndph.org/press-
releases/defense-and-security-cooperation-with-indonesia
143
Defense and Security Cooperation with Indonesia. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for
Strategic Assessment. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://www.dndph.org/press-
releases/defense-and-security-cooperation-with-indonesia
144
The Jakarta Globe. Away from the Spotlight, Indonesia and the Philippines Have Forged a Tight
Bond. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/archive/away-from-the-
spotlight-indonesia-and-the-philippines-have-forged-a-tight-bond/
145
The Jakarta Globe. Away from the Spotlight, Indonesia and the Philippines Have Forged a Tight
Bond. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/archive/away-from-the-
spotlight-indonesia-and-the-philippines-have-forged-a-tight-bond/
60
and Tentara National Indonesia (TNI)146
. Seeing from the results, it seems
like the bilateral relation between Philippines and Indonesia are quite
effective.
The trilateral cooperation happened between Malaysia, Indonesia and
Philippines has been in securing Sulu-Celebes Sea. The three countries
surround the area and the area happens to be the lair of terrorist networks Abu
Sayyaf Group and Jemaah Islamiyah147
. The terrorist groups are not only
staying in those areas, but also threatening and pirating the ships which go
through the Sulu and Celebes Sea. Their cooperation provides dialogue
meetings and joint patrols around the sea148
.
ASEAN countries are also openly cooperating with other countries as
well. Japan, Australia and US also joined in the multilateral cooperation with
ASEAN in its maritime security. However, the cooperation between ASEAN
and the three countries is not only limited to political and security area, but
also in economy and socio-cultural area. ASEAN also engages in bilateral
cooperation with Japan, as an example149
.
The exchange dialogue of Japan and ASEAN was first conducted in
1973, however the first official summit was held in 1977. It is also known as
146
Defense and Security Cooperation with Indonesia. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for
Strategic Assessment. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://www.dndph.org/press-
releases/defense-and-security-cooperation-with-indonesia
147
From The Oceans. The Current State of Maritime Security and CWS Role in Celebes and Sulu Seas. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://oceans.oprf-info.org/analysis_en/c1206-2.html
148
From The Oceans. The Current State of Maritime Security and CWS Role in Celebes and Sulu
Seas. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://oceans.oprf-info.org/analysis_en/c1206-2.html
149
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. MOFA: Relations between Japan and ASEAN. Retrieved
December 5, 2013 from: http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/asean/pmv9812/relation.html
61
The First Japan-ASEAN Summit Meeting150
. On the second Japan-ASEAN
Summit Meeting, Japan and ASEAN have agreed to cooperate in New
Partnership for Peace and Security. Japan is willing to assist ASEAN in
political and security related issues, such as counterterrorism and
International Organized Crime, for examples151
. Japan has participated on
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), ASEAN Plus Three (APT), the East Asia
Summit (EAS) and also ASEAN Defense Ministers Meeting Plus (ADMM
Plus).
Concerning the threat of terrorism in Southeast Asia, on November
2004 in Vientiane, Laos, Japan and ASEAN have produced a Joint
Declaration for Cooperation on the Fight against International Terrorism at
the 8th
ASEAN-Japan Summit. Following the declaration, another meeting
was held, which was the ASEAN-Japan Counter Terrorism Dialogue (AJCTD)
was held in March 2006. Japan is also willing to cooperate with ASEAN in its
maritime security152
.
150
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. MOFA: Relations between Japan and ASEAN. Retrieved
December 5, 2013 from: http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/asean/pmv9812/relation.html 151
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. MOFA: Relations between Japan and ASEAN. Retrieved
December 5, 2013 from: http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/asean/pmv9812/relation.html
152
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN-Japan Dialogue Relations. Retrieved
December 6, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/news/item/external-relations-japan-overview-of-asean-
japan-relations
62
CHAPTER IV
ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism
ASEAN member states are well-aware of how threatening terrorism attack
can be. Not only threatening peace, stability and the safety of people, terrorism also
brings impact to Southeast Asian economy and other areas. ASEAN member states
realize that they must do something about it immediately.
The plan and process of terrorism attacks occurred in almost all of South East
Asian countries. Terrorism does not involve only one country. Terrorism in Indonesia
involved terrorists from Malaysia and terrorism in Philippines involved terrorists
from Indonesia, for examples. All of ASEAN member states experience the same
terrorism threat and cooperating as one to counter terrorism seems to be the best idea
for South East Asia. However, has it been an effective way to decrease or even stop
the threat?
The idea of working together in countering terrorism has already started even
before major attacks in Southeast Asian countries occurred153
. ASEAN has always
been concerned in combating transnational crime, and terrorism is their main agenda.
At ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime in 1997, terrorism was the
focus of ASEAN member states154
. In order to keep the stability and peace around
Southeast Asia, they really need to take terrorism into account. ASEAN member
states are willing to put more efforts in counter-terrorism. However, it was pushed
153
ASEAN.ASEAN‘SContributiontoRegionalEffortsinCounter-Terrorism. Retrieved December
28, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/resources/2012-02-10-08-47-56/speeches-statements-of-the-
former-secretaries-general-of-asean/item/asean-s-contribution-to-regional-efforts-in-counter-terrorism
154
Beng,P.K.ASEAN:LittleUnityinthefaceof‗War‘.Asia Time. Retrieved December 29, 2013
from: http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EF19Ae03.html
63
even more ever since the 9/11 occurred. United States have accused Southeast Asia
as the second most dangerous region in terms of terrorism155
. Southeast Asia has
quite a lot of number of Muslims and also extremist Islamic organizations. The
terrorism regime can be rooted in Southeast Asia due to its history. The governments
and citizens in Southeast Asia feel insecure because of this fact. Therefore, protecting
the people from terrorism threats is one of ASEAN‘s commitments, thus in 2001,
ASEAN member states had agreed to hold another meeting to discuss more about it.
As a result, they released the ASEAN Declaration of Joint Action to Counter
Terrorism156
.
In order to combat terrorism, the knowledge of the grass roots in terrorism
should be understood by each of ASEAN members. More importantly, the members
have to commit to their duties and able to cooperate well. Even though ASEAN has
had security cooperation already, cooperation in counter-terrorism needs to be
specialized. ASEAN member states have to put special attention in this area because
terrorist movements are very fast and their network covers a wide range of fields and
regions. These terrorists keep developing ways to plan and conduct their attacks. To
keep up and stop them, there is no way that a state can do the job alone.
For those reasons, strict laws regarding terrorism and law enforcement should
be formed. Each of ASEAN member states should have mutual understanding about
counter terrorism. These laws were already set in the previous declaration. However,
ASEAN needs further discussion and action to counter terrorism. Thus, ASEAN
Convention on Counter Terrorism was held in 2007 by ASEAN member states.
155
Long,T.D.(2011).The―Quiet‖SideofCounterTerrorismOperations:CombatingIslamic
Extremism in Southeast Asia. 156
2001 ASEAN Declaration on Joint Action to Counter Terrorism. Retrieved December 28, 2013
from: http://www.asean.org/news/item/2001-asean-declaration-on-joint-action-to-counter-terrorism
64
IV.1. ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism (ACCT)
Southeast Asian countries face mutual threat of terrorism. It can happen
anywhere and anytime. Terrorists do not care which country they are trying to
threaten as long as they get what they want. Terrorism network in Southeast Asia has
been spread like wildfire already, including in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Thailand and so on. To put more efforts addressing the issue especially in Southeast
Asia, ASEAN member states decided to hold another ASEAN Convention on
Counter-Terrorism in Cebu, The Philippines on January 13 2007157
. In this forum,
they discuss a lot about how to deal with the current issue and the anticipations that
should be taken by each ASEAN member through cooperation.
ASEAN member states have agreed with some methods to counter terrorism
through this forum, including understanding the roots of terrorism in Southeast Asia.
Understanding the roots of terrorism in Southeast Asia is important so they will know
the history of radical Islamic organizations around the states. ASEAN member states
are fully aware that terrorist attacks are indiscriminate violence in nature, which
means anyone in any country could be very well be attack targets158
, but a dangerous
crime which harms the safety their people. The only way to secure the people from it
is by fighting it. ASEAN member states pointed out several cooperation points that
ASEAN could do in counter-terrorism which were being discussed in the forum. The
pointers are as follows:
157
Tisnadibrata, I.L. (2013). ASEAN Counter-Terrorism Deal Spurs Calls for Action. Retrieved
January 3, 2014 from:
http://khabarsoutheastasia.com/en_GB/articles/apwi/articles/features/2013/03/12/feature-03
158
ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Retrieved
January 3, 2014 from: http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-convention-on-
counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process
65
IV.1.1. Exchange information and data
First of all, ASEAN member states have agreed to share information and data
regarding terrorists and its network from each of their respective intelligence
agencies159
. Each state in Southeast Asia has different record and information about
terrorism in their country. They have different focus in the terrorist groups, for
examples, Indonesia focuses on Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) and the Philippines focuses on
Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG).
This method has been used by the Philippines and Indonesia in their
cooperation regarding terrorism. They have exchanged information regarding the
terrorists that are based in their countries160
. The information about their whereabouts,
the records of the attacks that they have caused and many others are important. The
possibility of terrorist groups in Southeast Asia are linked to each other is high. It
would be easier to track the terrorist suspect who ran away to another Southeast
Asian country if ASEAN member states are cooperating.
Exchanging information between ASEAN member states includes giving an
early warning to each other about possible terrorist attack161
. Terrorism on the
internet has become more popular these days, as it is used as radicalization purposes.
These terrorists have found the other ways to radicalize people. Intelligent should
keep up and update each other about it. 159
Aritonang, M.S. Indonesia set to ratify Anti-Terror Pact. The Jakarta Post. Retrieved January 4,
2014 from: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/03/09/indonesia-set-ratify-asean-anti-terror-pact.html 160
Lacorte, G. (2011). Philippines, Indonesia Deepen Cooperation vs Terrorism, Smuggling,
Trafficking. Retrieved January 4, 2014 from: http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/100217/philippines-
indonesia-deepen-cooperation-vs-terrorism-smuggling-trafficking
161
ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Retrieved
January 3, 2014 from: http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-convention-on-
counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process
66
IV.1.2. Blocking the flow of fund to terrorists
Besides agreeing to exchange data and information regarding the threat, they
have also agreed to get to stop the flow of funds to terrorists162
. They have to cut off
the flow of money to terrorists in Southeast Asia. One of the biggest funds for
terrorists in the area comes from Al-Qaeda because they are affiliates163
.
United States has tried a method to cut off the flow of fund of Al-Qaeda.
They found out that the case of kidnappings by the organization had increased. The
organization got the fund by ransoms that governments of those hostages have to
give. To put an end to that, United States suggested them to stop giving ransoms to
Al-Qaeda164
. After giving them what they want, those terrorists will still come back
to do more kidnappings.
ASEAN has struggled to tackle the transnational crimes happening around
Southeast Asia even before the 9/11 attack occurred165
. It is not only suspected as
terrorists‘ way in getting funded but it also makes citizens feel insecure. In Southeast
Asia case, there were several cases when Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) kidnapped some
citizens and tourists166
. They asked for a sum of money in exchange with their
162
Aritonang, M.S. Indonesia set to ratify Anti-Terror Pact. The Jakarta Post. Retrieved January 4,
2014 from: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/03/09/indonesia-set-ratify-asean-anti-terror-
pact.html
163
Rottenberg, C. The Brewing Storm: The Merger between Jemaah Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf Group.
Retrieved January 4, 2014 from: www.osgoodcenter.org/PDF/thebrewingstorm.pdf
164
Benjamin, D. (2011). Stop Funding Terrorists. New York Times. Retrieved January 4, 2014 from:
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/18/opinion/18iht-edbenjamin18.html?_r=0#h[]
165
Pushpanathan, S. (2003). ASEAN Efforts to Combat Terrorism. Retrieved January 14, 2014 from:
http://www.asean.org/resources/item/asean-efforts-to-combat-terrorism-by-spushpanathan
166
Abu Sayyaf Group: Terrorist Group. National Counter-Terrorism Center (NTCT). Retrieved
January 4, 2014 from: http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/asg.html
67
hostages as well. In order to set free the hostages, the government decided to pay for
the ransom167
. However, even though the hostage will be freed, the ransom will be
used for more dangerous mission to attack the country168
. If this happens again in the
future, the government has to refuse to pay for the ransom. Paying the ransom equals
helping those terrorists in funding their next terror attack. It is one of the ways to stop
the flow of funds to terrorists. The governments in Southeast Asia should also take an
immediate action if they knew someone from their country who supports those
terrorists with some funds. Anyone who helps in funding terrorism acts should be
punished as well.
In addition, to put an end to transnational crimes which happen around
Southeast Asia, ASEAN member states will have to tighten their security. More
intense patrols should be done. ASEAN should conduct some joint patrols, especially
in very important spots in Southeast Asia such as Malacca Strait, or in islands which
are located in the border of Indonesia and the Philippines, which are suspected to be
terrorists‘ lairs169
. These places are where the terrorists trade to obtain supplies of
weapons170
. Terrorists got their money by committing crimes. ASEAN‘s cooperation
will not only be limited by stopping terrorists from terrorizing but also from doing
crimes.
167
Mapping Militant Organization. Abu Sayyaf. Retrieved January 4, 2014 from:
http://www.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/152
168
Benjamin, D. (2011). Stop Funding Terrorists. New York Times. Retrieved January 4, 2014 from:
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/18/opinion/18iht-edbenjamin18.html?_r=0#h[]
169
Malau, I.L.F., Afrianti, D. (2009). Pulau Perbatasan RI-Filipina Rawan Terorisme. Retrieved
January 5, 2014 from: http://nasional.news.viva.co.id/news/read/29358-
pulau_perbatasan_ri_filipina_rawan_terorisme
170
Kompas. Perbatasan Indonesia, Sorga Pasokan Senjata. Retrieved January 5, 2014 from:
http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2012/09/09/22511914/Perbatasan.Indonesia..Surga.Pasokan.Senjata.
Teroris.
68
IV.1.3. Joint investigations and military trainings
Thirdly, law enforcement body in each of Southeast Asian country should
work together in investigations171
and in search of terrorist suspects172
. There are
several cases when terrorist suspects ran away to other countries. This is when
intelligences in Southeast Asia need to work together in capturing the suspects.
ASEAN member states have agreed to hold joint military training between each
state‘s army and more regional meetings as well173
.
The joint military training will be very useful for the intelligence to gain more
knowledge and share information. There are simulations of how to defuse bombs,
how to catch and arrest terrorists, and the other activities related to Counter-
Terrorism.
IV.1.4. Make stricter security and border control mechanisms
The governments will tighten the security. We have to admit that before
various terrorist attacks or bombings occurred, the security was not as tight as today.
171
Aritonang, M.S. Indonesia set to ratify Anti-Terror Pact. The Jakarta Post. Retrieved January 4,
2014 from: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/03/09/indonesia-set-ratify-asean-anti-terror-
pact.html
172
ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Retrieved
January 3, 2014 from: http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-convention-on-
counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process
173
ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Retrieved
January 3, 2014 from: http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-convention-on-
counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process
69
They have to put more efforts on it and create stricter border control mechanisms174
.
The security should not let suspicious people pass the border between countries
easily. They also need to be more careful with terrorists‘ fake identities and
documents175
. Whoever helps them in faking the data should also be punished. In
order to decrease the case, some Southeast Asia countries have applied electronic
national identity card. Electronic ID card will make the government track them
easier176
. It would be more difficult for terrorists to have many electronic identity
cards.
IV.1.5. Cooperating with citizens
Most importantly, ASEAN member states have to convince their citizens to
work together in Counter-Terrorism. The citizens have to realize that terrorist threats
are real, can occur anytime and anywhere and anyone can be a victim. Terrorism is
threatening their peace and stability of the nation. It is the government‘s duty to
educate their citizens about the danger of terrorism and how to overcome it. More
open dialogues and forums should also be held for citizens, so they will have deeper
knowledge about it177
. Citizens can help the government by observing their
174
ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism Completes Ratification Process. Retrieved January 5,
2014 from: http://www.demotix.com/news/2629190/joint-counter-terrorism-training-exercise-given-
green-light
175
ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Retrieved
January 3, 2014 from: http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-convention-on-counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process 176
Elektronik akan Tekan Gerak Teroris di Indonesia. Voice of America. Retrieved January 5, from:
http://www.voaindonesia.com/content/ktp-elektronik-tekan-gerak-teroris-126799828/96345.html
177
ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism Completes Ratification Process. Retrieved January 5,
2014 from: http://www.demotix.com/news/2629190/joint-counter-terrorism-training-exercise-given-
green-light
70
environment and reporting some people who act suspiciously and most likely to be
involved in terrorism acts.
ASEAN member states have to be ready to handle the aftermath of an attack
which already happened. They also have to be ready to prevent the upcoming
possibility of attacks. This is why in depth knowledge about terrorism along with its
scheme and chemical power should be owned by each ASEAN member states‘
governments. Anyone involved in terrorism should be prosecuted. At ASEAN
Convention on Counter-Terrorism in 2007, ASEAN member states also discussed
about creating rehabilitation program for terrorists. These terrorists are going to be
deradicalized through this program. Through counseling programs, it is expected that
those terrorists will turn to help the police, becoming informants and aides178
. Some
countries in Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore have already
applied the rehabilitation program179
.
Beside cooperation among Southeast Asian countries, United States has
committed to build cooperation with ASEAN in Counter-Terrorism180
. For instance,
U.S. government has funded Detachment 88 in chasing terrorist suspects181
. Japan is
also committed in helping ASEAN in Counter-Terrorism. Both ASEAN and Japan
haveopenedadialoguewhichiscalled‗ASEAN-Japan Counter-Terrorism Dialogue‘.
In this dialogue, they exchanged views and information about terrorism. Japan has
178
Montero, D. (2009). How effective are terrorist rehabilitation programs? Retrieved January 5,
2014 from: http://www.csmonitor.com/World/terrorism-security/2009/0907/p99s01-duts.html
179
Beam, C. What happened in terrorist rehab? Slate. Retrieved January 5, 2014 from:
http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2009/01/jihadis_anonymous.html 180
U.S – ASEAN Regional Forum Cooperation. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved January 6, 2014
from: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2011/07/169002.htm
181
Davies, E., Rondonuwu, O. (2010). U.S. funded Detachment 88, elite of Indonesia Security.
Reuters. Retrieved January 6, 2014 from: http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/03/18/us-indonesia-
usa-security-idUSTRE62H13F20100318
71
strengthened its relation with ASEAN by funding the Counter-Terrorism program
too182
.
VI. 2. The Implementation of ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism
All sort of agreements are wasted if they are not implemented in real life.
Therefore, to prove that ASEAN member states are committed in countering
terrorism, some agreements in ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism agenda
have been implemented bilaterally and multilaterally. After members of ASEAN
have signed the agreement in ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism, they have
contributed something in order to defeat terrorism in Southeast Asia. They start to
tighten the security, especially in the state borders.
Multilateral Cooperation
ASEAN usually focuses their cooperation in political and economic sectors.
They tend to avoid joint military cooperation. However, in order prove their
commitment in counter-terrorism, ASEAN are willing to have joint military training.
The ASEAN Plus Eight joint training in counter-terrorism was held in Indonesia183
.
The event, that was participated by all ten ASEAN member states plus eight of its
external allies, not only trained and educated military personnel more about counter-
terrorism, but also held simulations and exchange information between the
182
MOFA:OverviewofJapan‘sInternationalCounter-Terrorism Cooperation. Retrieved January 6,
2014 from: http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/terrorism/intl_coop.html
183
Indonesia to Host ASEAN Plus Eight Joint Counter-Terrorism Training. Embassy of Indonesia in
Oslo. Retrieved January 15, 2014 from: http://indonesia-oslo.no/indonesia-to-host-asean-plus-eight-
joint-counter-terrorism-training/
72
participants184
. To add the exchange of information between ASEAN member states,
Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Cambodia signed the Agreement
of Information Exchange and Establishment of Communication Procedures185
. It
means that these countries are willing to share confidential information, yet still keep
it as a secret among them. This is needed because each country has its own
information and data regarding terrorism. The variety of information they exchange
would be an advantage for them in breaking down the terrorist network around
Southeast Asia.
Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar and the Philippines put their
efforts in creating Cross Border Transport Agreement, in addressing the issue of
terrorism186
. Terrorists tend to cross the border in countries illegally, either to run
away from the police, recruiting people or conducting their attacks. Not only that,
they also do a lot of illegal transactions such as selling drugs, weapons and so many
others. In order to prevent terrorist from crossing the borders, ASEAN member states
should be more careful in letting people pass. With the existence of this agreement,
the six countries have agreed to conduct more workshops regarding cross-border
control capacity and also share information. They also need to train their staffs, so
they will improve the skills in detecting document fraud.
Bilateral Cooperation
So far, ASEAN member states have improved their bilateral cooperation in
military. For example, Indonesia and Philippines have engaged in defense
184
Indonesia to Host ASEAN Plus Eight Joint Counter-Terrorism Training. (2013). Antara News.
Retrieved January 15, 2014 from: http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/88704/indonesia-to-host-
asean-plus-eight-joint-counter-terrorism-training
185
Agreement of Information Exchange and Establishment of Communication Procedures. Retrieved
January 22, 2014 from: www.asean.org/archive/17346.pdf 186
International Cooperation/Partnership. Retrieved January 21, 2014 from:
http://www.immigration.gov.kh/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=38&Itemid=528
73
cooperation by exchanging information about terrorists, joint military training and
they both are willing to back up each other. The other bilateral relationships also
occur between Malaysia and Singapore, Singapore and Indonesia, Indonesia and
Thailand, Brunei and Singapore, and Singapore and Thailand187
. The multilateral
cooperation between ASEAN, however, do not extend to joint military training.
The joint military training is helpful. The cooperation between polices in
Southeast Asia in counter-terrorism becomes stronger. Since 2002, ASEAN Chiefs of
Police have agreed to monitor and combat all terrorists‘ activities together. Polices‘
cooperation is really important. They have to make the terrorists fear them. They help
each other in chasing and capturing the terrorist suspects. Indonesian police has been
successful in capturing the terrorist prisoners that escaped from Indonesia to
Malaysia188
. Since Indonesian police do not have full authority to act in the
neighboring country, polices of Malaysia helped them in chasing and capturing the
prisoners. The willingness of Malaysian police in helping to arrest the terrorist is one
of their efforts in countering terrorism together.
The cooperation between police in Southeast Asia have resulted in a lot more
terrorist suspects to be arrested, for example, in August 2003 Thai police with CIA
successfully captured one of the key persons in Jemaah Islamiyah, Hambali. Not only
that, the expert of explosive materials in JI was also captured in Manila in 2002 by
police of the Philippines. In February 2003, the leader of Jemaah Islamiyah based in
Singapore was captured in Riau, Indonesia189
.
187
Acharya, A. A Survey of Military Cooperation among the ASEAN States: Bilateralism or Alliance?
Centre for International and Strategic Studies 188
Ayyubi, S.A. (2013). Buronan Teroris Tanjung Gusta tertangkap di Malaysia. Retrieved January 16,
2014 from: http://daerah.sindonews.com/read/2013/12/03/24/812917/buronan-teroris-tanjung-gusta-
tertangkap-di-malaysia
189
Ramakrishna, K. (2005). The Southeast Asian Approach to Counter-Terrorism: Learning from
Indonesia and Malaysia.
74
When Indonesia successfully captured Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir, the spiritual
leader of Jemaah Islamiyah suspected to be involved in Bali Bombing incident,
Malaysian and Singaporean governments were helping Indonesia by sending the
video of Jemaah Islamiyah members in both countries190
. The video contains their
testimonials about the radical Islamic group and the spiritual leader.
In 2002, Indonesia, Malaysia and The Philippines agreed to sign Anti-
Terrorism Pact. They realized that terrorists tended to fly and stay in those three
countries. Thus, they have agreed that if they found any terrorist suspect in the three
countries, local police can detain them191
. This would be an effective and efficient
way to counter terrorism. Even though some countries hesitated at first, especially
Singapore, in October 2003 Thailand, Cambodia and Brunei Darussalam signed the
pact as well192
.
Indonesia ratified International Convention for the Suppression of the
Financing of Terrorism in 1999193
. To prove their commitment in stopping the flow
of fund to terrorist, Indonesia has finally ratified Law on Crime of Terrorism
Financing194
. The governments believe that terrorism acts will begin when certain
terrorist groups are funded195
. It is to accelerate terrorists‘ plans of attack.
190
Ramakrishna, K. (2005). The Southeast Asian Approach to Counter-Terrorism: Learning from
Indonesia and Malaysia.
191
Trio signs off on Anti-Terrorism Pact. (2002). Lubbock Online. Retrieved January 16, 2014 from:
http://lubbockonline.com/stories/022202/wor_022202057.shtml
192
John, W., Parashar, S. (2005). Terrorism in Southeast Asia: Implication for South Asia.
193
Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia No. 9 Tahun 2013 tentang Pencegahan dan Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Pendanaan Terorisme
194
RUU Pendanaan Terorisme disahkan. (2013). Republika Online. Retrieved January 15, 2014 from:
http://www.republika.co.id/berita/nasional/hukum/13/02/12/mi45sq-uu-pendanaan-terorisme-disahkan
195
Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia No. 9 Tahun 2013 tentang Pencegahan dan Pemberantasan
Tindak Pidana Pendanaan Terorisme
75
With the ratification of this law, Indonesia now has full authority to judge
whoever helps the terrorists group by funding them or conducting any crimes to get
the money for the terrorists. The existence of law firm should help the government in
blocking their flow of financing. There are seven suspects of terrorism financing
cases which are ready to be judged in courts and sentenced196
.
The government in Singapore have to ensure that the religious teachers in
Singapore are eligible to teach religion, with the help of The Singaporean Council of
Clerics or Majelis Ulama Islam Singapura (MUIS)197
. They have to make sure that
they do not indoctrinate their students. There were several self-radicalized cases in
Singapore which were successfully uncovered. A self-radicalized terrorist almost
flew to Afghanistan to get military training. Luckily, he was captured before
conducting any terrorist acts. The government of Singapore works hard in
rehabilitation of self-radicalized victims and expects them to be able to come back to
society once more198
.
To raise the awareness of Southeast Asian civilians, ASEAN member states
have worked in several seminars and promote it on television or newspaper. There
are several websites which can be accessed as well. For instance, Malaysia has
created Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism (SEARCCT)199
. They
provide a lot of information regarding terrorism especially in Southeast Asia. They
also line up the programs to counter terrorism on the websites. It is necessary to help
196
2012 APEC Counter-Terrorism Action Plan. Retrieved January 16, 2014 from:
www.apec.org/~/media/Files/Groups/.../2013_cttf1_009_Indonesia.pdf
197
Singh, B. Youth-Self-Radicalization: Lessons from Singapore Narrative. Retrieved January 17,
2014 from: http://www.searcct.gov.my/publications/our-publications?id=66 198
Presentation of Mr. Albert Chua, Permanent Representative of Singapore. Southeast Asia
Challenges in Countering Terrorism. Retrieved January 13, 2014 from:
http://www.mfa.gov.sg/content/mfa/overseasmission/newyork/nyemb_statements/plenary/2012/20120
6/press_20120627.html
199
Official Websites of Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism. Retrieved January 17,
2014 from: http://www.searcct.gov.my/our-courses/training-introduction
76
the citizens to gain more knowledge about the current issue and get updated. The
ones who should cooperate are not only the governments of Southeast Asia, but also
their citizens. By this cooperation, the terrorism problem will become easier to tackle.
ASEAN member states have proven that they are committed in cooperating in
counter-terrorism. Indeed, it is the problem of every state in Southeast Asia. Even
though some people still doubt their multilateral cooperation, they have improved. It
is proven by their cooperation in joint military training and capturing the terrorists.
IV.3 The Obstacles that ASEAN Faces during Cooperating in Countering
Terrorism
In any kind of cooperation, ASEAN will find a lot of challenges in order to
bring their Counter-Terrorism programs into reality. ASEAN consists of 10 different
countries and each country has its own problems already. They have their own
interests and difficulties. Perhaps, not all of ASEAN countries consider it as their
biggest threat or more important than border conflicts and the other disputes.
Singaporean diplomat, Albert Chua, lined up the three big challenges that
Southeast Asia will face in countering terrorism, such as: how to dismantle the
terrorist networks around Southeast Asia and fight them, put an end to radicalization
and the growing of self-radicalization in society200
. Those will be tough tasks for
ASEAN to accomplish. Terrorist network around Southeast Asia is wide already.
They associate with each other, as well as with the huge terrorist group Al-Qaeda.
Alhough some of the terrorists have been arrested or killed, the threats still remain.
200
Presentation of Mr. Albert Chua, Permanent Representative of Singapore. Southeast Asia
Challenges in Countering Terrorism. Retrieved January 13, 2014 from:
http://www.mfa.gov.sg/content/mfa/overseasmission/newyork/nyemb_statements/plenary/2012/20120
6/press_20120627.html
77
The situation can be even worse if the arrests and killings trigger the other terrorists
to revenge.
IV.3.1. Trust issues between ASEAN member states
ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism is only a forum where ASEAN
member states can discuss about terrorism, make solutions and agreement on what
ASEAN should do in handling terrorism. Some of their goals are yet to be applied in
practice by all of ASEAN member states. Even though ASEAN‘s bilateral
cooperation has improved, they are still struggling with multilateral cooperation201
. If
the organization is willing to put more effort on it, they have to improve their
capabilities in multilateral cooperation. The problem that ASEAN member states face
during their multilateral cooperation is their lack of trust to one another.
As the Prime Minister of Vietnam said himself, ASEAN has been lacking in
unity202
. Competition among Southeast Asia countries and territorial disputes are the
causes why they lack in trust in each other. While actually, in order to strengthen
their cooperation, they need to trust and help each other. ASEAN member states
should not just think their own interest or trying to take sides to a country, especially
super power countries, to get benefits203
.
201
Abuza, Z. (2003). The War of Terrorism in Southeast Asia. Retrieved January 8, 2014 from:
http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=83#.Utajg_vKS8g
202
Nguyen Tan Dung: Building Strategic Trust for Peace, Cooperation and Prosperity in Asia-Pacific
Region. Retrieved January 15, 2014 from:
http://www.iiss.org/en/events/shangri%20la%20dialogue/archive/shangri-la-dialogue-2013-
c890/opening-remarks-and-keynote-address-2f46/keynote-address-d176
203
Nguyen Tan Dung: Building Strategic Trust for Peace, Cooperation and Prosperity in Asia-Pacific
Region. Retrieved January 15, 2014 from:
http://www.iiss.org/en/events/shangri%20la%20dialogue/archive/shangri-la-dialogue-2013-
c890/opening-remarks-and-keynote-address-2f46/keynote-address-d176
78
Territorial disputes or conflicts among ASEAN member states will create
tension and uncomfortable situation between ASEAN member states during their
mission204
. A great teamwork is needed in order to accomplish this mission. Counter-
Terrorism in Southeast Asia is not something which can be done only by one or two
countries. All the ten members of ASEAN with the help of its allies should work
together to improve the security, blocking and chasing the terrorists. Trust issue
among ASEAN member states should be solved, so they will be able to improve their
multilateral relationship.
IV.3.2. Stopping the flow of fund to terrorists is time consuming
Apart from that, one of ASEAN‘s cooperation in Counter-Terrorism is to put
an end on terrorism financing. The governments need to stop paying ransoms to
terrorists. They have to solve the transnational crimes which also caused by some
terrorists in order to get money. It seems like their job in stopping the flow of funding
in terrorism is a tough job. It is quite time consuming205
.
ASEAN has struggled in stopping the transnational crimes even before
terrorism became one of the biggest threats for Southeast Asia, especially in maritime.
The crimes mainly occur in Malacca Strait, around Celebes Sea and South China
Sea206
. It can be the obstacle for the governments because of the danger that terrorists
caused. No matter how much the governments have put their efforts on joint patrols
204
ASEAN Hadapi Tantangan Besar. (2013). Berita Satu. Retrieved January 15, 2014 from:
http://www.beritasatu.com/nasional-internasional/138930-okky-asokawati-asean-hadapi-tantangan-besar.html
205
Terrorists‘Funding:Howcan we stop the money supply? BBC News. Retrieved January 8, 2014
from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/talking_point/1562640.stm
206
Bulkeley, J.C. (2003). Regional Cooperation on Maritime Piracy: a Prelude to Greater
Multilateralism in Asia? Princeton University: Princeton.
79
or individual patrol, however, the fund to terrorists in Southeast Asia continues to
flow in so many ways, including the aid from Al-Qaeda. Blocking the fund by
freezing suspicious bank account would be even harder especially in democratic state,
unless the government make stricter rules and monitoring in those accounts207
. In this
case, the governments should find a way to stricter the rules regarding suspicious
bank account.
Moreover, terrorists have various ways in getting funded. They are willing to
do anything to get the money. Not only by kidnapping, but they also do drug dealing,
robbery, piracy and the other transnational crimes208
. Because there are so many
crimes that are done by the terrorist groups, it would take a longer time to tackle the
problem one by one.
IV.3.3. Deradicalization is not easy
On the other hand, ASEAN seems to be optimistic in terrorist rehabilitation
program. However, has the program been effective to deradicalize the terrorist?
According to Richard Dawkins, former University of Oxford‘s professor and an
emeritus fellow of New College of Oxford, radicalization in religion is very easy209
.
It is easy because most people were taught to believe in religion ever since they were
born. Anything that religion teaches is right even though people never see any
207
Terrorists‘Funding:Howcanwestopthemoneysupply?BBC News. Retrieved January 8, 2014
from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/talking_point/1562640.stm 208
Feliantiar, O.D. (2013). APEC: Countries must work together to tackle terrorism funding.
Retrieved January 15, 2014 from:
http://khabarsoutheastasia.com/en_GB/articles/apwi/articles/features/2013/04/12/feature-02 209
Richard Dawkins: Radicalized Religion is Easy. Before It‟s News. Retrieved January 8, 2014 from:
http://beforeitsnews.com/alternative/2013/05/richard-dawkins-radicalized-religion-is-easy-
2634800.html
80
evidence in it210
. Therefore, some people are easily indoctrinated without knowing
that what they have taught is wrong.
Terrorists have strong faith in what they are doing and strong loyalty to their
group211
. They are considered as heroes in their community. The ideas have been
planted on their mind. It is difficult to deradicalize them. Therefore, some people
doubt if this method will really work in practice. It is possible when they have been
released from rehabilitation program to society that they will come back to their
group. To determine that the terrorists are willing to be deradicalized and becoming
normal persons will be complicated and hard to define.
IV.3.4. Keeping up with the development of technology
In the era of globalization, technology is much more improved. Almost
everybody can access internet and rely on it. Internet appeals people especially
teenagers because they can find almost everything on it. For that reason, terrorists
group take advantage of it and make use of the internet as their media to spread their
ideology. The increasing danger of self-radicalization on internet is a challenge for
ASEAN member states212
. Uploading the information or tutorial of self-radicalization
on websites is fast and easy. There are a lot of self-radicalization and tutorials on
210
Richard Dawkins: Radicalized Religion is Easy. Before It‟s News. Retrieved January 8, 2014 from:
http://beforeitsnews.com/alternative/2013/05/richard-dawkins-radicalized-religion-is-easy-
2634800.html
211
Sherzai, D. (2014). Extremism and Terrorism are Reciprocal. Retrieved January 8. 2014 from:
http://outlookafghanistan.net/topics.php?post_id=9011
212
Presentation of Mr. Albert Chua, Permanent Representative of Singapore. Southeast Asia
Challenges in Countering Terrorism. Retrieved January 13, 2014 from:
http://www.mfa.gov.sg/content/mfa/overseasmission/newyork/nyemb_statements/plenary/2012/20120
6/press_20120627.html
81
how to terrorize on websites. It is also called as online radicalization213
. Using the
soft power, they are trying to appeal lone wolfs with their teachings.
Self-radicalization is considered as very dangerous because their movement is
unpredictable214
. They are unexpected until they did something which surprised the
government and law enforcement. In Southeast Asia, the websites which contain of
self-radicalized materials are already available not only in Arabic, but also in English,
Indonesian, and even Bahasa Melayu215
. They can be easily accessed by civilians.
Controlling this movement and internet expansion by the terrorist would be a
big challenge for ASEAN to face and they have to solve it immediately. Blocking the
websites will be tough job as well. People use internet for private reasons. Because of
its privacy, it is a bit difficult to detect people‘s access at the same time and there is
also no record on it216
. This is a huge advantage for some terrorists group that use this
method because of the possibility of getting caught has reduced. On the other hand,
some terrorist can disguise their radicalization website into another category217
. It
would be a bit difficult to detect the disguising websites.
213
Hallet, M. (2013). Self Radicalized by Internet? Retrieved January 13, 2014 from:
technorati.com/social-media/article/self-radicalized-by-the-internet/
214
FBI – Self-Radicalized Incited Violent Jihad Online. Retrieved January 13, 2014 from:
http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/july/self-radicalized-american-incited-violent-jihad-online
215
Youth Self-Radicalization: Lessons from the Singapore Narrative. Official Website of Southeast
Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism. Retrieved January 13, from:
http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/july/self-radicalized-american-incited-violent-jihad-online
216
Presentation of Mr. Albert Chua, Permanent Representative of Singapore. Southeast Asia
Challenges in Countering Terrorism. Retrieved January 13, 2014 from:
http://www.mfa.gov.sg/content/mfa/overseasmission/newyork/nyemb_statements/plenary/2012/20120
6/press_20120627.html
217
Youth Self-Radicalization: Lessons from the Singapore Narrative. Official Website of Southeast
Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism. Retrieved January 13, from:
http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/july/self-radicalized-american-incited-violent-jihad-online
82
The governments of ASEAN will have another task to improve the
technology education for civilians. It is to prevent them to believe everything they
see on internet. Civilians need to understand that this type of cybercrime exists on
internet and they have to be careful of it.
83
CHAPTER V
Conclusion
Terrorism is the problem of every state. Terrorist groups have found many
ways to recruit people. Some people are easily radicalized by the idealism of jihad,
stating that it is instructed in Holy Koran. However, this idealism is misinterpreted by
terrorist groups and they end up killing hundred thousand of innocent civilians. They
are not only radicalized, but also trained to conduct some attacks, thinking that it is to
fight the infidels. What is even scarier is that radicalization is much easier these days
with the founding of advance technology. Self-radicalization has gotten very popular
among people, especially youth because it can be easily accessed on internet.
Therefore, terrorist network has become very wide and invaded a lot of
regions, including Southeast Asia. The attacks in Southeast Asia were carried by
some terrorist groups, supported by Al-Qaeda. The most infamous terrorist group in
Southeast Asia is Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), which has already crowned as the biggest
terrorist group in Southeast Asia, and also some splinter groups such as Abu Sayyaf
Group (ASG), as an example.
Most of terrorist groups in Southeast Asia are funded by Al-Qaeda. Not only
they are funded, they are also facilitated with some trainings as well. Terrorists also
conducted some other crimes in order to get money, which will be used to conduct
another terror attacks. ASEAN as a regional group has been concerned with
transnational crimes and has been eager to tackle the problems. Apparently, ASEAN
has been aware with terrorism as a problem even before the 9/11 occurred. Therefore,
after 9/11 incident occurred, ASEAN member states decided to put more attention to
this problem. They realize that terrorist attacks can occur everywhere, including their
84
states. Thus, they are willing to cooperate in countering terrorism. They consider
terrorism threatens their civilians.
To promote regional peace and stability, and also the prosperity of their
civilians, ASEAN has worked together in a lot of areas, including in politics,
economy, and socio-cultural. Even though they have been cooperating for so long
already, their bilateral cooperation still works better than multilateral cooperation,
especially in security cooperation. Competition, conflicts and disputes between
Southeast Asian countries create distance between them. This is one of those
obstacles that ASEAN need to overcome in order to cooperate. Meanwhile, terrorist
groups have worked hard in forming alliance and expanding their network
throughout Southeast Asia. In order to tackle this problem, the ASEAN member
states have to put aside some of the conflicts for a second and work together in
countering the terrorists.
Despite of those obstacles, their cooperation in countering terrorism need to
continue, otherwise, terrorist networks in Southeast Asia will not be able to be
stopped. ASEAN member states have agreed in several cooperation, such as:
exchanging information and data regarding terrorism, joint military training and
investigation, blocking the flow of fund to terrorists, making stricter rules in border
of states, rehabilitation programs for terrorists, and cooperate and educate citizens
about terrorism.
ASEAN member states have done a good job in cooperating through a lot of
bilateral and multilateral cooperation, especially their police officers. Polices have
worked together in capturing terrorist suspects in all over Southeast Asia. A lot of
terrorist suspects have been arrested or executed for justice. Some of them are sent to
terrorist rehabilitation program, to deradicalize and make them as informants. The
security has been tightened as well, especially after several bombings which occurred
in Southeast Asia, the Bali Bombing, for instance.
85
The governments in Southeast Asia have put their efforts in order to counter
terrorism. However, not only should the governments, the citizens are supposed to
also put the same effort in combating terrorism. They need to be educated about how
to prevent radicalism and what to do if they found suspicious activities conducted by
people in their surroundings. They need them because terrorism is not a problem
which can be solved by individual. To break its network, ASEAN member states, its
alliances, and the citizens should be committed to the tasks, cooperating as one. The
cooperation should be done not only to handle the issues which already happened,
but also to prevent the upcoming unwanted attacks which is conducted by these
terrorist groups.
86
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Appendices
A. ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism
ASEAN Convention on Counter Terrorism
Member Countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) -
Brunei Darussalam, the Kingdom of Cambodia, the Republic of Indonesia, the
LaoPeople‘sDemocraticRepublic,Malaysia,theUnionofMyanmar,the
Republic of the Philippines, the Republic of Singapore, the Kingdom of
Thailand,andtheSocialistRepublicofVietNam,hereinafterreferredtoas―the
Parties‖;
RECALLING the Charter of the United Nations and relevant principles of
international law, the relevant international conventions and protocols relating to
counter terrorism and relevant resolutions of the United Nations on measures
aimed at countering international terrorism, and reaffirming our commitment to
protect human rights, fair treatment, the rule of law, and due process as well as
the principles enshrined in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast
Asia done at Bali on 24 February 1976;
REAFFIRMING that terrorism cannot and should not be associated with any
religion, nationality, civilisation or ethnic group;
RECALLING also the ASEAN Declaration on Joint Action to Counter
Terrorism and the Declaration on Terrorism adopted at the ASEAN Summits in
2001 and 2002 respectively;
REAFFIRMING our commitment to the Vientiane Action Programme done at
Vientianeon29November2004,particularlyitsthruston―shapingandsharing
ofnorms‖andtheneed,amongothers,toworktowardstheconclusionofan
ASEAN Mutual Legal Assistance Agreement, and an ASEAN Convention on
Counter Terrorism, and the establishment of an ASEAN Extradition Treaty as
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envisaged by the 1976 Declaration of ASEAN Concord;
DEEPLY CONCERNED over the grave danger posed by terrorism to innocent
lives, infrastructure and the environment, regional and international peace and
stability as well as to economic development;
REALISING the importance of identifying and effectively addressing the root
causes of terrorism in the formulation of any counter terrorism measures;
REITERATING that terrorism, in all its forms and manifestations, committed
wherever, whenever, and by whomsoever, is a profound threat to international
peace and security and a direct challenge to the attainment of peace, progress and
prosperity for ASEAN and the realisation of ASEAN Vision 2020;
REAFFIRMING our strong commitment to enhance cooperation in countering
terrorism which covers the prevention and suppression of all forms of terrorist
acts;
REITERATING the need to improve regional cooperation on counter terrorism
and undertake effective measures through deepening cooperation among
ASEAN law enforcement agencies and relevant authorities in countering
terrorism;
ENCOURAGING the Parties to become parties as soon as possible to the
relevant international conventions and protocols relating to counter terrorism;
Have agreed as follows:
Article I
Objective
This Convention shall provide for the framework for regional cooperation to
counter, prevent and suppress terrorism in all its forms and manifestations and to
deepen cooperation among law enforcement agencies and relevant authorities of
the Parties in countering terrorism.
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Article II
Criminal Acts of Terrorism
1. ForthepurposesofthisConvention,―offence‖meansanyof the offences
within the scope of and as defined in any of the treaties listed as follows:
a. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, signed at The Hague on 16 December 1970;
b. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, concluded at Montreal on 23 September 1971;
c. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons, Including Diplomatic Agents, adopted in New York on 14 December 1973;
d. International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages, adopted in New York on 17 December 1979;
e. Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, adopted in Vienna on 26 October 1979; f. Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation, supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, done at Montreal on 24 February 1988;
f. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, done at Rome on 10 March 1988;
g. Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, done at Rome on 10 March 1988;
h. International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, adopted in New York on 15 December 1997;
i. International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, adopted in New York on 9 December 1999;
j. International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, adopted in New York on 13 April 2005;
k. Amendment to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, done at Vienna on 8 July 2005;
l. Protocol of 2005 to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, done at London on 14 October 2005; and
m. Protocol of 2005 to the Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, done at London on 14 October 2005.
2. On depositing its instrument of ratification or approval, a Party which is not a
Party to a treaty listed in paragraph 1 of this Article may declare that, in the
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application of this Convention to that Party, that treaty shall be deemed not to be
included in paragraph 1 of this Article. This declaration shall cease to have an
effect as soon as the treaty enters into force for the Party having made such a
declaration, which shall notify the depositary as stated in paragraph 2 of Article
XX of this entry into force.
3. When a Party ceases to be a party to a treaty listed in paragraph 1 of this
Article, it may make a declaration as provided for in this Article, with respect to
that treaty.
Article III
Sovereign Equality, Territorial Integrity and Non-Interference
The Parties shall carry out their obligations under this Convention in a manner
consistent with the principles of sovereign equality and territorial integrity of
States and that of non-interference in the internal affairs of other Parties.
Article IV
Preservation of Sovereignty
Nothing in this Convention entitles a Party to undertake, in the territory of
another Party, the exercise of jurisdiction or performance of functions which are
exclusively reserved for the authorities of that other Party by its domestic laws.
Article V
Non-Application
This Convention shall not apply where the offence is committed within a single
Party, the alleged offender and the victims are nationals of that Party, the alleged
offender is found in the territory of that Party and no other Party has a basis
under this Convention to exercise jurisdiction.
Article VI
Areas of Cooperation
1. The areas of cooperation under this Convention may, in conformity with the
domestic laws of the respective Parties, include appropriate measures, among
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others, to:
a. Take the necessary steps to prevent the commission of terrorist acts, including by the provision of early warning to the other Parties through the exchange of information;
b. Prevent those who finance, plan, facilitate, or commit terrorist acts from using their respective territories for those purposes against the other Parties and/or the citizens of the other Parties;
c. Prevent and suppress the financing of terrorist acts; d. Prevent the movement of terrorists or terrorist groups by effective border
control and controls on issuance of identity papers and travel documents, and through measures for preventing counterfeiting, forgery or fraudulent use of identity papers and travel documents;
e. Promote capacity-building including trainings and technical cooperation and the holding of regional meetings;
f. Promote public awareness and participation in efforts to counter terrorism, as well as enhance inter-faith and intra-faith dialogue and dialogue among civilisations;
g. Enhance cross-border cooperation; h. Enhance intelligence exchange and sharing of information; i. Enhance existing cooperation towards developing regional databases under
the purview of the relevant ASEAN bodies; j. Strengthen capability and readiness to deal with chemical, biological,
radiological, nuclear (CBRN) terrorism, cyber terrorism and any new forms of terrorism;
k. Undertake research and development on measures to counter terrorism; l. Encourage the use of video conference or teleconference facilities for court
proceedings, where appropriate; and m. Ensure that any person who participates in the financing, planning, preparation
or perpetration of terrorist acts or in supporting terrorist acts is brought to justice.
2. Subject to the consent of the Parties concerned, Parties shall cooperate to
address the root causes of terrorism and conditions conducive to the spread of
terrorism to prevent the perpetration of terrorist acts and the propagation of
terrorist cells.
Article VII
State Jurisdiction
1. A Party shall take such measures as may be necessary to establish its
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jurisdiction over the offences covered in Article II of this Convention when:
a. The offence is committed in the territory of that Party; or b. The offence is committed on board a vessel flying the flag of that Party or an
aircraft which is registered under the laws of that Party at the time the offence is committed; or
c. The offence is committed by a national of that Party.
2. A Party may also establish its jurisdiction over any such offence when:
a. The offence is committed against a national of that Party; or b. The offence is committed against a state or government facility of that Party
abroad, including its embassy or other diplomatic or consular premises; or c. The offence is committed in an attempt to compel that Party to do or to
abstain from doing any act; or d. The offence is committed by a stateless person with habitual residence in the
territory of that Party.
3. A Party shall likewise establish its jurisdiction over the offences covered in
Article II of this Convention in cases where the alleged offender is present in its
territory and it does not extradite that person to any of the Parties that have
established their jurisdiction in accordance with paragraph 1 or 2 of this Article.
4. This Convention does not exclude the exercise of any criminal jurisdiction
established by a Party in accordance with its domestic laws.
Article VIII
Fair Treatment
1. Any person who is taken into custody or regarding whom any other measures
are taken or proceedings are carried out pursuant to this Convention shall be
guaranteed fair treatment, including enjoyment of all rights and guarantees in
conformity with the laws of the Party in the territory of which that person is
present and applicable provisions of international law, including international
human rights law.
2. Upon receiving information that a person who has committed or who is
alleged to have committed an offence covered in Article II of this Convention
may be present in its territory, the Party concerned shall take such measures as
may be necessary under its domestic laws to investigate the facts contained in
the information.
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3. Upon being satisfied that the circumstances so warrant, the Party in whose
territory the offender or alleged offender is present shall take the appropriate
measuresunderitsdomesticlawssoastoensurethatperson‘spresenceforthe
purpose of prosecution or extradition.
4. Any person regarding whom measures referred to in paragraph 3 of this
Article are being taken shall be entitled:
a. To communicate without delay with the nearest appropriate representative of the State of which that person is a national or which is otherwise entitled to protect that person's rights;
b. To be visited by a representative of that State; c. To be informed of that person's rights under subparagraphs (a) and (b) of
paragraph 4 of this Article.
5. The rights referred to in paragraph 4 of this Article shall be exercised in
conformity with the laws and regulations of the Party in the territory of which
the offender or alleged offender is present, subject to the provision that the said
laws and regulations must enable full effect to be given to the purposes for
which the rights accorded under paragraph 4 of this Article are intended.
6. When a Party, pursuant to the present Article, has taken a person into custody,
it shall immediately notify, directly or through the Secretary-General of ASEAN,
the Parties which have established jurisdiction in accordance with paragraph 1 or
2 of Article VII, and, if it considers it advisable, any other interested Parties, of
the fact that such person is in custody and of the circumstances which warrant
thatperson‘sdetention.ThePartywhichiscarryingouttheinvestigation
referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article shall promptly inform the said Parties of
its findings and shall indicate whether it intends to exercise jurisdiction over the
said person.
Article IX
General Provisions
1. The Parties shall adopt such measures as may be necessary, including, where
appropriate, national legislation, to ensure that offences covered in Article II of
this Convention, especially when it is intended to intimidate a population, or to
compel a government or an international organisation to do or to abstain from
doing any act, are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations of a
political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other similar
nature.
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2. Pursuant to Article VI of this Convention, the Parties shall, where possible,
establish channels of communication between their competent agencies to
facilitate the exchange of information to prevent the commission of offences
covered in Article II of this Convention.
3. The Party where the alleged offender is prosecuted shall, upon the request of
the other Parties claiming jurisdiction over the same, communicate the status of
the case at any stage of the proceedings to those other Parties.
Article X
Status of Refugees
The Parties shall take appropriate measures, in conformity with the relevant
provisions of their respective domestic laws and applicable international law,
including international standards of human rights, before granting refugee status,
where the Parties recognise and grant such status, for the purpose of ensuring
that the asylum seeker has not planned, facilitated or participated in the
commission of terrorist acts.
Article XI
Rehabilitative Programmes
The Parties shall endeavour to promote the sharing of best practices on
rehabilitative programmes including, where appropriate, social reintegration of
persons involved in the commission of any of the offences covered in Article II
of this Convention with the objective of preventing the perpetration of terrorist
acts.
Article XII
Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters
1. The Parties shall, in conformity with their respective domestic laws, afford the
widest measure of assistance in connection with investigations or criminal
proceedings brought in respect of the offences covered in Article II of this
Convention.
2. The Parties shall, where they are parties to the Treaty on Mutual Legal
108
Assistance in Criminal Matters done in Kuala Lumpur on 29 November 2004,
carry out their obligations under paragraph 1 of this Article in conformity with
that Treaty.
Article XIII
Extradition
1. The Party in the territory of which the alleged offender is present shall, in
cases to which Article VII of this Convention applies, if it does not extradite that
person, be obliged, without exception whatsoever and whether or not the offence
was committed in its territory, to submit the case without undue delay to its
competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution, through proceedings in
accordance with the domestic laws of that Party. Those authorities shall take
their decision in the same manner as in the case of any other offence of a grave
nature under the domestic laws of that Party.
2. The offences covered in Article II of this Convention shall be deemed to be
included as extraditable offences in any extradition treaty existing between any
of the Parties before the entry into force of this Convention. The Parties
undertake to include such offences as extraditable offences in every extradition
treaty to be subsequently concluded between them.
3. When a Party which makes extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty
receives a request for extradition from another Party with which it has no
extradition treaty, the requested Party may, at its option, and in conformity with
its domestic laws, consider this Convention as a legal basis for extradition in
respect of the offences covered in Article II of this Convention.
Article XIV
Political Offences Exception
None of the offences covered in Article II of this Convention shall be regarded
for the purposes of extradition under Article XIII of this Convention or mutual
legal assistance in criminal matters under Article XII of this Convention as a
political offence or as an offence connected with a political offence or as an
offence inspired by political motives. Accordingly, a request for extradition or
for mutual legal assistance in criminal matters based on such an offence may not
be refused on the sole ground that it concerns a political offence or an offence
connected with a political offence or an offence inspired by political motives.
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Article XV
Designation of Central Authorities or Coordinating Structures
Each Party shall designate, as appropriate, a central authority or coordinating
structure to enhance cooperation under this Convention.
Article XVI
Implementation, Monitoring and Review
The relevant ASEAN sectoral bodies involved in ASEAN cooperation on
countering terrorism shall be responsible for monitoring and reviewing the
implementation of this Convention.
Article XVII
Confidentiality
1. Each Party shall preserve the confidentiality and secrecy of documents,
records and other information received from any other Party, including the
source thereof.
2. No document, record or other information obtained pursuant to this
Convention shall be disclosed to or shared with any other Party, State or person
except with the prior written consent of the Party which provided such
document, record or information.
Article XVIII
Relationship with Other International Instruments
This Convention shall not derogate from obligations subsisting between the
Parties pursuant to other international agreements nor, where the Parties agree,
shall it prevent the Parties from providing assistance to each other pursuant to
other international agreements or the provisions of their respective domestic
laws.
Article XIX
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Settlement of Disputes
Any difference or dispute between the Parties arising from the interpretation or
application of the provisions of this Convention shall be settled amicably
through consultation and negotiation between the Parties through diplomatic
channels or any other peaceful means for the settlement of disputes as agreed
upon between the Parties.
Article XX
Ratification, Approval and Depositary
1. This Convention shall be subject to ratification or approval in accordance with
the internal procedures of the Parties.
2. The instruments of ratification or approval shall be deposited with the
Secretary-General of ASEAN who shall promptly inform the other Parties of
such deposit.
Article XXI
Entry into Force and Amendment
1. This Convention shall enter into force on the 30th (thirtieth) day following the
date of the deposit of the 6th (sixth) instrument of ratification or approval with
the Secretary-General of ASEAN in respect of those Parties that have submitted
their instruments of ratification or approval.
2. For any Party ratifying or approving this Convention after the deposit of the
6th (sixth) instrument of ratification or approval, but before the day the
Convention enters into force, the Convention shall also apply to that Party on the
date the Convention enters into force.
3. In respect of a Party ratifying or approving this Convention subsequent to its
entry into force pursuant to paragraph 1, it shall enter into force for that Party on
the date its instrument of ratification or approval is deposited.
4. This Convention may be modified or amended at any time by mutual written
consent of the Parties. Such modification or amendment shall enter into force on
such date as shall be mutually agreed upon by Parties and shall form part of this
Convention.
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5. Any modification or amendment shall not affect the rights and obligations of
the Parties arising from or based on the provisions of this Convention before the
entry into force of such modification or amendment.
Article XXII
Withdrawal
1. Any Party may withdraw from this Convention at any time after the date of
the entry into force of this Convention for that Party.
2. The withdrawal shall be notified by an instrument of withdrawal to the
Secretary-General of ASEAN.
3. The withdrawal shall take effect 180 (one hundred and eighty) days after the
receipt of the instrument of withdrawal by the Secretary-General of ASEAN.
4. The Secretary-General of ASEAN shall promptly notify all the other Parties
of any withdrawal.
Article XXIII
Registration
This Convention shall be registered by the Secretary-General of ASEAN to the
United Nations Secretariat pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United
Nations.
DONE at Cebu, Philippines, this Thirteenth Day of January in the Year Two
Thousand and Seven, in a single original copy in the English language.
For Brunei Darussalam:
112
HAJI HASSANAL BOLKIAH
Sultan of Brunei Darussalam
For the Kingdom of Cambodia:
SAMDECH HUN SEN Prime Minister
For the Republic of Indonesia:
DR. SUSILO BAMBANG YUDHOYONO President
FortheLaoPeople‘sDemocraticRepublic:
BOUASONE BOUPHAVANH
Prime Minister
For Malaysia:
DATO’ SERI ABDULLAH AHMAD BADAWI
Prime Minister
For the Union of Myanmar:
113
GENERAL SOE WIN Prime Minister
For the Republic of the Philippines:
GLORIA MACAPAGAL-ARROYO
President
For the Republic of Singapore:
LEE HSIEN LOONG Prime Minister
For the Kingdom of Thailand:
GENERAL SURAYUD CHULANONT (RET.)
Prime Minister
For the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam:
NGUYEN TAN DUNG Prime Minister