FOREWORD

In contemporary English, the article is a “form-word” , a particle used to specify or emphasize the meaning of nouns; it is a “determiner” in the structuralist grammar books, and a “determinative part of speech” in the traditional approach. Thus, an important objective of the present work was to establish the place of the article among the larger class of determiners / determinative parts of speech. While the beginning of the first chapter (“The Category of Determination” ) presents the subclasses of determiners, as well as their possible combinations with the article, the final shows the main characteristics of the most significant determiner-the article, with a special emphasis on the categories of nouns that may take it. The following chapters enlarge upon the three articles in English: “The Definite Article” , “The Indefinite Article” and “The Zero Article”; each of them discharges different functions, corresponding to the great number of situations encountered by a person when speaking, reading or writing in the English language. In addition, The Article In English deals with two other major problems: on the one hand, there are many cases when the article displays no function, being a non-significant determiner (with proper nouns), or becoming a habit, because of its frequent use (in set phrases); on the other hand, we should always be aware of the differences between the zero article and the omission of the article (situation presented at the end of the fourth chapter)

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CHAPTER ONETHE CATEGORY OF

DETERMINATION

1.1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION As a flexible part of speech, the noun should change its form in order to express the morphological categoryes of gender, number and case. But English is an analytic language and inflection means not so much the changing of the basic form, as the addition of some morphems: mainly suffixes for the category of number and, sometimes, for the category of gender (car / cars; child / children; hero / heroine; host / hostess) and prepositions for the category of case (of; to; for; with; by). There are also some specific situations when the category is not indicated by any of the morphems mentioned above; the noun has its basic form and we can only guess the number, gender or case taking into consideration its position in the sentence, in other words-the context. And here rises another problem: in a certain context, we need to give some precision to a noun - in various senses - as a known element, as a new element, numerically, etc. Therefore, we need to determine nouns-this is the reason for which some authors considered necessary the category of determination; this fourth gramatical category is also indicated by morphems (a/an; the; this; some; her; any; either; enough; two; once, etc.) having a particular characteristic: they do not modify the semantic value of the accompanied nouns, only lend them precision.

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In the structuralist grammar, these words form the class of DETERMINERS and are divided into: predeterminers, proper determiners and postdeterminers, considering their position in the “chain” attached to the noun - predeterminers precede proper determiners and postdeterminers are placed after proper determiners. 1.2. PROPER DETERMINERS include the article (the; a/an; Ø) and other determiners that can replace the article before nouns/noun equivalents: -the demonstrative determiners: this/that; these/those; -the possessive determiners: my; your; his; her; its; our; your; their -the interrogative/relative determiners: what; which; whose; what/whatever; which/ whichever; how many; how much; -some indefinite determiners: some; any; each; every; either; -the negative determiners: no; neither. e. g.: The boy was running very fast. This week I have been staying in London. I hope you are satisfied with your job. What actor has interpreted that part? You can ask whichever person you want. Will you have some sugar with your tea?

1.2.1. The Demonstrative Determiners (adjectives - in the traditional approach) - denote the nearness or the farness of the determined noun to / from the speaker; they have some of the specific functions discharged by the definite article: a) -The deictic function is displayed when the nouns (to which the demonstratives are attached) belong to a well-known situational context.

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e. g.: This is my desk. (indicates the nearness in space, for the singular) These boys are my brothers. (indicates the nearness in space, for the plural) My father’s picture is on that wall. (the farness in space, for a noun in the singular) What are those children doing? (the farness in space, for plural) This is my seat and that is yours. (shows the contrast nearness/farness) I like these pictures much more than those. (the same contrast) She has been very busy these days. (indicates the nearness in time) That storm destroyed everything last year. (indicates the farness in time)

b) -The anaphoric function shows that the reference is made to something already mentioned or known: e. g.: Who is that man who called yesterday? I saw our English teacher in his new car. This car is really something. c) -The cataphoric function is discharged when the nouns will get further specifications during the communication. e. g.: These little children are very pretty. They are my neighbour’s. I shall buy this book. It is exactly what I need. Those old women are always gossiping. I saw them earlier, too.

d) -The emotional function is used in informal style, expressing an attitude (an emotional state). e. g.: This Tom Brook is always playing the piano at night.

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When I read his poem, I have this feeling of joy. Seen that film?

1.2.2. The Possessive Determiners (possessive adjectives) -

express possession, determining a noun and denoting the possessor. The forms my, your, his, her, its, our, their are equivalent to

the genitive case; their specific categories are the gender (only for the third person in the singular), number and case. e. g.: My books are on the table. You must obey your parents. John’s car is new. /The man’s car is new. /His car is new. Mary’s blouse is red. /The woman’s blouse is red/Her blouse is red. As a general rule, the possessive determiners replace the definite article before nouns denoting parts of the body, clothing articles or other actions related to human activity, when these nouns have the syntactic function of a subject. e. g.: She opened her eyes. It’s cold outside, I’ll put on my cap. I hope you are satisfied with your job. But, when the noun expressing a part of the body is preceded by a preposition, the definite article is used instead of the possessive determiner. (The possessor is not the subject performing the action). The definite article is also used when the noun expressing the part of the body has a general/impersonal meaning. e. g.: He touched her on the face. The woman took the little boy by the hand. We were taught to turn the other cheek when we are hurt. (impersonal meaning) Sometimes, the possessive determiners are followed by the word “own” , to stress the idea of possession. e. g.: The singer composes his own songs.

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1.2.3. The Interrogative / Relative Determiners (adjectives) - accompany the nouns (animates and inanimates) about which the speaker asks something (for the interrogative determiners) or gives further information (for the relative determiners).

a) There is little difference in meaning between “what” and “which” (whatever/whichever), both of them being often possile in the same constructions; there can also be interchange- ability between “what” and “whatever” (which/whichever). e. g.: Which/What people were invited at the Club? Which/What dress shall I put on? Please, read whichever/whatever poem you like best. You can ask which/whichever person you want. He may invite what/whatever colleagues he wants. However, while “which” is selective, being used when the speaker has in mind a limited number of choices, „ what” is more general, with no limitation in the speaker’s mind. e. g.: Which colour do you prefer, blue, red or white? (selective role) What language are these tourists speaking? (general meaning) We stopped a man in the street, which man refused to talk to us. (selective role) Whatever problems you have, come to me for help. (general meaning)

b) “Whose” is a possessive determiner, expressing the genitive case for both animates and inanimates.

e. g.: Whose book is that on the table? On whose side are you? (more formal) /Whose side are you on? (less formal) He asked me whose bag was that left on the table.

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Whose son John is, I do not know.

c) “How much” is used before uncountable nouns and “how many” before countable nouns in the plural. e. g.: How much bread shall we eat to keep healthy? How many persons are present? He wants to know how much money you spend a week. I’d like to know how many athletes participated in the competition.

1.2.4. Indefinite Determiners (adjectives) determine the nouns -numerically or quantitati- vely, in a more or less general manner.

a) “Some” , usually used in affirmative/declarative sentences (having an assertive meaning) indicates a restricted number / amount of things; it may precede countable nouns in the plural and uncountable nouns, when it is less important to mention the exact number or quantity we refer to. e. g.: I bought some books (countable noun in the plural) I’d like to drink some coffee. (uncountable noun) In certain contexts it may precede singular countable nouns, too. e. g.: There must be some man in this world to help him. (refers to a noun not known by the speaker) He must have found this idea in some article he reads. (indicates that the speaker pays no attention to something) That is some car! (shows enthusiasm, in American English)

If no preocupation regarding quantity/number exists, then the zero article is usually used: e. g.: I have decided to buy roses for her party instead of tulips. However, „ some” appears in interrogative sentences, too.

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e. g.: Would you like some more tea? (a polite offer is made and/or the speaker wants to encourage his parner to say” yes” ) Did you ask your sister to lend me some money? (the question does not refer to “some” ) In negative/negative-interrogative clausess “some” suggests an indefinite or a vague number/quantity. e. g.: I never pay her a visit without offering her some flowers. Hasn’t he shown some kindness to you?The form “some of” can be placed before another proper determiner (articles, demonstratives, possessives). e. g.: Some of the books are mine. Some of these books are mine.

b) “Any” has an open, non-assertive/non-specific meaning, being used most commonly in questions and negative clauses. e. g.: Have you bought any cigarettes? We haven’t bought any milk today. We understood that he had left home without any money. When “any” accompanies an uncountable noun or plural countable nouns, it has a meaning of the indefinite article a/an (when used with singular countable nouns, indicating “one particular person/thing, but the listener/reader does not know which one is meant). e. g.: Unfortunately, he hasn’t got a computer, and he hasn’t any money to buy one. Is there a garden around the house and are there any trees?

Anyway, in this case, “any” emphasizes the object, suggesting the idea of an indefinite, rather limited quantity/amount/number. If such an idea is not implied, the zero article is preferred. e. g.: Is there any oil in the tank? (quantity of oil) Is there oil in the country? (existance of oil, not quantity)

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“Any” appears in declarative/affirmative and interrogative/negative sentences as well, but in this situation, it expresses the idea of selection, the meaning being “it is of less importance who/which/what” . e. g.: He can solve any problem you wish. What shall I read?Any books in this library. Can I pay you a visit at any time tomorrow? I don’t put on just any dress. I’ll choose the proper one for this occasion. When placed before another proper determiner (definite article, demonstratives, posse- ssives, the form is “any of “. e. g.: I am interested in any of the books. I am interested in any of these books. I am interested in any of his books.

c) “Every” refers to people/things considered together in a group consisting of three or more members. e. g.: Every word of it is true. Every house has a garden in front of it. This indefinite determiner is also used with nouns expressing divisions of time / distance, indicating a repetitive action. e. g.: I visit my parents every few days. They used to meet every five years. At that time she was very sick and when walking she had to stop for resting every few steps.

Before another proper determiner the form will be “every one of” . In this case, the noun is in the plural form, but the agreement with the verb following it is in the singular. e. g.: Every one of the pets is well-educated. Every one of her pets is well-educated. I have read every one of his poems which are really beautiful.

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d) “Each” refers to people/things considered separately, as units belonging to a group; it is usually used when talking about two or more nouns. e. g.: We should enjoy each moment of our life. You have to stand firmly on each leg. Each student, in turn, has to answer some questions. Before the definite article or the possessive/demonstrative determiners, “each” also takes the preposition “of” . e. g.: Each of the students has got high marks. (formal) Each of the students have problems. (informal)

e) “Either” can be attached to a singular noun, and it means “one or the other” (the idea of two items is implied) e. g.: Please, lend me a book of poems by Byron or Shelley; either poet will do. There is no light at either end of the road. Either of my colleagues is ready to help me. (formal) I am not sure that either of my partners are interested in this business. (informal)

1.2.5. The Negative Determiners (negative adjectives) are, in fact, indefinite determiners used in negative sentences with an affirmative predicate, indicating the absence of things/people, or the absence of their qualities.

a) “No” is a determiner placed before countable /uncountable nouns with the meaning“not any” / “not a” when the speaker wants to emphasize a negative idea. e. g.: He has made no mistakes. I am sorry, I have no money. He has no means and he has no job as well. None of the children was /were in the park.

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b) “Neither” (= “not one and not the other” ) is used before a noun in the singular form, the idea of two existing items being implied. e. g.: “John and his friend can be paid daily or weekly” . “I’m afraid, neither worker will agree to it” . Neither of my sisters is here. Neither Mother, Father nor my sister was /were present. 1.3. PREDETERMINERS usually occur before the proper determiners; they can be: -quantifiers (all, both, half) -multipliers (once; double; twice; three times, etc.) -fractions (one third; three quarters; two fifth, etc.) e. g.: All (of) the children learned the lesson. I used to visit my parents twice a week. My house is about one quarter the height of my neighbour’s. Unfortunately, wet has spoiled two thirds of the coffee carried by your company.

1.3.1. The first group includes the quantifiers “all” , “both” and “half” , most often placed before articles, demonstratives or possessives. Being, in their turn, quantifiers, they cannot combine with the other “quantitative” determiners. Sometimes they may be positioned after the proper determiners.

a) “All” is a predeterminer referring to plural countable nouns (three or more items) or to uncountable nouns. The cases when “all” is used with singular countable nouns are rare. e. g.: She drank all the coffee. /She drank all of the coffee. (in American English) We’ll purchase all the meat here. We went all the way without saying a word.

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I have read all the book. I have studied all the day. (the whole book/day” are preferred) If used with the zero article, “all” expresses the generic. e. g.: All men are mortals. All soldiers must wear uniforms. All Bucharest was in shock after the earthquake. “All” can also occur after the head noun, but in this case it comes either immediately or within the predication. e. g.: All the children are happy. /The children all are happy. / The children are all happy.

b) “Both” is used with reference to two items; another possible form is “both of” , preferred in American English. Yet, in many cases “of “can be dropped. e. g.: Both (of) my sisters are students. Both (of) the children are playing in the garden. She loved both parents, even if they had deserted her

When “both” is the predeterminer of a subject, it can be used in mid-position, being placed in front of the verb. e. g.: Both her parents work in a hospital. = Her parents both work in a hospital.

c) “Half „ is used before a noun preceded by another determiner: an article or a possessive/ demonstrative determiner. e. g.: We have spent half (of) our time visiting the town. He offered half (of) a loaf to a begger. They announced that half (of) the people participating in the expedition were saved. Half (of) my colleagues work on this premises. (the agreement with the verb is in the plural as the noun is in the plural, too)

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1.3.2. The second group of predeterminers includes the multipliers: “once” , “double” , “three times” , etc.; (“single” , “twofold” , “threefold” , etc. in literary, technical or official style, in which case they are postdeterminers). e. g.: In my bookcase at home there are double the books here. We need three times this surface to set up a real farm. I think I need twice her courage to act like that. (They bought a threefold quantity of these goods last month.)

1.3.3. Fractions belong to the subclass of predeterminers, too: “one third” , “two fifths” , “five quarters” , etc. . The “of” construction is posible to be used as an alternative. e. g.: One third of the children have got high marks. I couldn’t use three quarters of those potatoes. We ran almost two thirds the distance we did last week. 1.4. POSTDETERMINERS represent items that come after proper determiners, but before modifiers. They include: -the ordinals: first; second; third, etc. (ordinal numerals) / (an) other; next; last (general ordinals) -the cardinal numerals: one; two; three, etc.; -most of the quantifiers: many; few; several; much; little; plenty of; a lot of; a great deal of; a good number of, etc. e. g.: The third month spent in Egypt was extremely hot. There are a few smart children in the sixth form. The next generation of pupils will be better trained. The first three athlets have been awarded already.

1.4.1. The Ordinals co-occur with singular countable nouns, coming after proper determiners- articles, demonstratives, possessives. e. g.: My first flat was large and bright. The last student was not able to answer some questions. The interviewers were in favour of the other candidate.

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“first” can be attached to plural count nouns, too. e. g.: Those first days in Paris were the best in our life.

1.4.2. The Cardinal numerals come after the ordinal numerals and may be placed either before or after the general ordinals, according to the meaning. e. g.: His three younger sisters do not live in the same town. His next two jobs were a failure. = His two next jobs were a failure. In the first five days the children were taught to sing and say poems.

1.4.3. The Quantifiers include the following determiners: “many” , “(a) few” , “several” -used with plural countable nouns; “much” , “ (a) little” -with uncountable nouns. The phrasal quantifiers (always followed by “of” phrases) are preceded by the indefinite article in most cases. e. g.: She bought a few books/a little coffee. (= some books/coffee = positive meaning) She bought few books/little coffee. (= only a small number/amount = negative meaning) Painting is another of her many gifts. We have seen a great number of beautiful paintings at the exhibition. The quantifier “many” can function as a predeterminer as well. e. g.: Many a good book can be found in his library.

1.5. GENERAL vs SPECIFIC DETERMINERS There are different ways in which the determiners can co-occur; yet it is important to mention that we shall never use a definite article together with a possessive determiner or with a demonstrative determiner. It is said that they are in a “choice” relation, meaning that they are mutually exclusive. This type of

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determiners is used when the speaker knows exactly the people/things he is talking about, helping the hearer identify the respective nouns, or clarifying whether the speaker has in view a particular situation, or a general one; that is why they are called specific determiners. In opposition, the general determiners are used when the speaker refers to people/things without saying exactly who/what they are; in their case the hearer cannot identify the nouns meant by the speaker. This latter group includes: the indefinite article and other determiners, most of them being “quantifiers”; they say how much/how many (of something) the speaker has in view: any; no; each; every; either; neither; much; many; more; most; (a) little; less; least; (a) few; fewer; fewest; enough; several; all; both; half; what; which; one; two; three, etc. These determiners can be used together as they are in a “chain” relation; they may also co-occur with specific determiners, being used after them. However, in case the speaker wants to use a general determiner before a specific one, the use of the preposition “of” is necessary. e. g.: Her many ideas impressed us. These few books will not make a library. Neither of those students came to school. Which of the brothers is younger?

1.6. THE ARTICLE-THE MOST SIGNIFICANT DETERMINER In the traditional grammar books, the determinative words are classified, just like the other words, as parts of speech. They can be articles, adjectives or numerals with adjectival value (in case they are placed before nouns). If we analyse them from the morphologic, syntactic and semantic points of view, we will come to an interesting conclusion: while the adjective is a flexible, independent part of speech, having a syntactic

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function, the article is a non-flexible part of speech, has no syntactic function and no independent meaning. Since it has no other function within the sentence, than to determine the noun, the article has been considered the only proper determiner. Besides, almost each noun from an English sentence is accompanied either by the indefinite article (a/an), or by the definite article (the), the latter being by far the commonest word in English. If we also mention that the three forms make up approximately 8% of any text, the article appears, indeed, as the most significant of all determiners. 1.6.1. Definition The article is an invariable part of speech without syntactic function, always attached to the noun/noun equivalent to which it gives precision in a certain linguistic or situational context.

1.6.2. Forms and Characteristics In some approaches, the authors identify two articles: the definite article and the indefinite article, both proclitic, invariable parts of speech, unstressed in fluent speech: -the definite article -the: the; day; the; man; the; hours; the European countries; -the indefinite article-a/an: a; child; an; apple; an; able; man. Other grammarians have added the zero article-its symbol, Ø, representing “an empty set” in Mathematics, emphasizes the fact that the absence of the article is as important as its presence. It means that neither of the definite or indefinite article can be used in certain situations, as the absence displays its own specific function-here is a strong argument to state that in English there are three articles (definite, indefinite and zero). There is no specialisation of the nouns concerning their use with the definite article. Any uncount or count (singular or plural) noun can accept it, depending on the speaker’s

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intention. The situation changes with the indefinite article: it can be usually used with singular count nouns, having the original meaning “the unique, one, unidentified element”. If the forms a/an had no correspondent for the plural of such unidentified count nouns, this absence has been marked by the zero article, which has subsequently developped various of other functions with almost all the classes of nouns.

1.6.2.1. The definite article can be used with most common nouns and with certain proper nouns if the noun is not accompanied by an attribute/attributive clause. Beside nouns, the definite article may precede pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, numerals, past participles and gerunds. a) Categories of nouns: -individual nouns (in the singular/plural): e. g.: The child is in the courtyard. (= anaphorical article) The children were playing in the garden. (= anaphorical) They sell apples by the pound. (= numerical article) “The child is father of the man. „ -Wordsworth (= generic article) -defective individual nouns: e. g.: The scissors are on the shelf. (= situational article) -nouns of material, when the definite article discharges the anaphorical/situational function (the attribute/ attributive clause being understood): e. g.: Pass me the salt, please! (the salt is over there and the salt-cellar is on the table = situational article) -collective nouns, nouns of multitude, individual nouns of multitude (with the anaphoric function): e. g.: The family were out. The people had started work. The deer grazed about in the grove. -some proper equivalent nouns, e. g.: the sun, the moon, etc.

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-some proper nouns, e. g.: the Alps, the Seine, the Thames, etc. The definite article is used irrespective of the class (to which the noun belongs) when an attribute/an attributive clause accompanies the noun. e. g.: The explorers have studied the geography of the island. The friendship between them lasted long.

We learned about the England of Milton’s time.

b) Other parts of speech: -some pronouns/pronominal adjectives: the other (s), the same, the one (s): e. g.: The others did not answer. Now it’s the same for me. I am not the one you need. The same pupils were absent yesterday. The other child couldn’t recite the poem. -adjectives in the superlative degree of comparison: e. g.: This is the most interesting film I’ve seen so far. He used to be the funniest boy in our class. Thomas is the younger of the brothers. -some adjectives, past participles and gerunds, turning them into nouns-mostly nouns of multitude (the poor, the rich, the strong, the weak, the dead, the dying, the living, the aged, the injured, the wounded; the accused, the unemployed, the deceased, etc.) and some unique abstract nouns (the beautiful, the sublime, the good, the new, the old, the evil, etc.). e. g.: The aged should be always helped by their children. The accused have already been sent to prison. (it may have a singular meaning, too) The sublime has nothing to do with the story of this author. The old often clashes with the new.

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-numerals (both ordinal and cardinal): e. g.: The five (countries) have come to an agreement. The eleven (players) did their best, but they couldn’t win. The two children are brothers.

“The” is a definite article only when it is used before a noun/noun equivalent (pronoun, adjective, numeral), or when it accompanies an adjective in the comparative or superlative degree; in this latter case, the noun can be omitted, but it is considered that the article still determines the noun (which is clearly understood from the context). When “the” accompanies two correlated adjectives/adverbs in the comparative/superlative, it becomes an adverb. e. g.: Mary is the prettier of the sisters. He was one of the best. (students) The sooner, the better. (= adverb) “He who remembers the longest, grieves the most!” (= adverb)

1.6.2.2. The indefinite article always implies the idea of grammatical number, namely the singular (a man, a wall, a gate, etc.). Consequently, most determined nouns are individual nouns which cannot be identified. But there wasn’t any correspondent form for the plural of these nouns, so it had to be replaced somehow; the solution was to use the zero article or an indefinite adjective, depending on the context, with the only specification that the adjective is rather restrictive. e. g.: The actress was offered a flower. The actress was offered flowers/many flowers/some flowers.

The uncountable nouns cannot usually take the indefinite article, but in some cases they are used with specific constructions which include the indefinite article. Moreover,

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the uncountable nouns allow the use of the indefinite article in certain contexts (and proper nouns allow it, too). e. g.: For a time they enjoyed a kind of peace. He told me about a sort of glass that cannnot be broken. Give me a piece of advice, please!

You can seldom meet such a beauty. A headquarters was established near the city. A Mrs. Williamson is waiting for you.

1.6.2.3. The zero article is used in those contexts when the other articles cannot be used-with uncountable, plural countable nouns (discharging the generic function) and proper nouns. e. g.: Frienship is a noble feeling. That wall is made of concrete. Cats are expert hunters. Romania lies in the south-east of Europe. In certain situations the zero article may turn count into uncount nouns (and their meaning becomes abstract). e. g.: They left school earlier and went home by bus.

1.6.3. The Attribute and the Articles The use of an attribute is a very subtle way to give specificity to a noun; placed before or after the determined noun, it can influence the use of the article. When the attribute preserves the meaning of the noun expressing the generic (with the zero article), no other article should be added, as the idea of generality has further remained. e. g.: Antiquities are now in the forefront of interest. Greek antiquities are in the forefront of interest nowadays.

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But, if the attribute adds a new idea to the determined noun, an indefinite or a definite article should appear, deppending on the context. e. g.: The Greek antiquities found in the Balkan Peninsula are in the forefront of interest these days.

1.6.4. The Position of the Article Both definite and indefinite articles precede the noun or its attribute. e. g.: -a boy; a nice girl; a race horse; -the boy; the best man; the silver medal; The predeterminers are the exceptions from the rule mentioned above:

1.6.4.1. Both the definite and the indefinite article are placed before the word whole, but after all, quite, just, both (only for the definite article). e. g.: The whole garden was in bloom. I worked at it for a whole week. All the students were present. Both (the) parents were seated at table. The study of architecture is quite the best thing for you. We saw quite a number of Shakespeare’s plays. This is just the house I was looking for. (= exactly) It is just an ordinary bed-sitting room. (= only)

1.6.4.2. The words half and double are followed by an article when they have the meaning of measures. e. g.: half a dozen eggs; half a pint of beer; half a minute’s silance; Half the bottle was empty. double the sum; double the number; double the size;

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We paid double the value. But, when they help making a compound noun or a single idea, they will be preceded by an article. e. g.: We spent a pleasant half-hour reading. The half-hour had struck. We heard the double knock of the postman. The word has a double meaning.

Thursday is a half-holiday. We went to London for the half-holiday.

1.6.5. The Repetition of the Article When two or more nouns or adjectives are in a coordination relation (marked by the conjunction “and” ), only the first term usually gets the article. e. g.: She reads in a slow and distinct voice. A little boy and girl are crossing the road against the lights. The father, brother and uncle were all smelters. He placed the jam, sugar, rice and flour on the shelf. Turn to the fifth and sixth pages. But the article will appear before each noun or adjective when they refer to different people/things; it also can be repeated for the sake of the emphasis. e. g.: The new furniture I bought is the smartest and the best. (emphasis) The professor and poet lectures on Monday. (a single person) The professor and the poet lecture on Monday. (two persons) I have a Romanian and English, dictionary. (a single object) I have a Romanian and an English dictionary. (two objects)

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CHAPTER TWOTHE DEFINITE ARTICLE

2.1. SHORT HISTORICAL SURVEY The definite article derives from a demonstrative adjective and pronoun which in Old English had, at the same time, the meaning of that (as it has in Modern English) and the meaning and functions of the definite article. It had a declension of its own: Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural (Nominative) [sē] [sēo (sion) ] [ðæt] [ðā] Their unification in a single word took place in the period of Middle English (the). In Modern English, the definite article still preserves, in some situations, this demonstrative meaning, even though it is considerably weakened. e. g.: Please, enter the (this) room. There is no comment under the (these) circumstances.

2.2. FORM AND PRONUNCIATION The form of the definite article is always “the” - invariable in spelling, irrespective of the gender, number and case of the noun. e. g.: the boy / the boys (singular/plural; masculine); the girl / the girls (singular/plural; feminine); the teacher’s address / the teachers’ room (singular/plural; genitive); the house you saw / the houses you visited (singular/plural; accusative); The prizes were given to the boy and the two girls. (dative); The hotel was too far. (nominative)

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However, the pronunciation of the article differs, according to the initial sound of the following word: [ðə]-before consonants and semivowels and [ði]-before vowels.

2.2.1. We pronounce [ðə] when the next word begins with: a) -a consonant:

the sky [s]; the host [h]; the glass [g], etc.;

b) -a semivowel (semiconsonant): the wall [w]; the year [j]; the one; the once [w]; the unit; the universe; the uniform; the utility; the

university [j]; the ewe [j];

e. g.: The[ðə] United States of America fight terrorism. She goes to the[ðə] university every day.

2.2.2. The definite article is pronounced [ði] -stressed or unstressed- when it stands before: a) -words beginning with a vowel:

the apple [æ] the enemy [e] the inn [i] the orange [כ] the underground [] the earth [ə: ]

b) -words beginning with a mute “h” : the heir

the honour

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the honest the hour

c) -abbreviations beginning in the following consonants: f, h, l, m, n, r, s, respectively [ef / eit / el / em / en / a: / es]FAO = Food and Agriculture Organization; FBI = Federal Bureau of Investigation; FCO = Foreign and Commonwealth Office; LCD = liquid cristal display; LCM = lowest common multiple; MA = Master of Arts; MBA = Master of British Administration; MD = Doctor of Medicine; MGM = Metro-Goldwin-Mayer (a film company); MI5 = Military Inteligence, section five (in the UK); MI6 = Military Inteligence, section six; NBC = National Broadcasting Company; NSA = National Security Agency; RAF = Royal Air Force; RMA = Royal Military Academy; RNA = ribonucleic acid; SIS = Secret Intelligence Service; SOS = save our souls (an international code-signal of extreme distress and urgent appeal for help). e. g.: They anounced the[ði] FBI. but: They anounced the[ðə] Federal Bureau of Investigations.

2.2.3. “The” has a stressed pronunciation[ði: ] in certain instances:

a) -when it aquires an emphatic form because the speaker wants to contrast it with another element.

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e. g.: I want the[ði: ] book I lend you, not just any English book. (I want a special book, not just any book.) Is this the[ði: ] Shaw? (the only one). b) -when it has been turned into a noun- by conversion -and is used as a subject, the definite article appears italicized if in print. e. g.: “The” [ði: ] is the definite article in English. c) -sometimes it may get the force of a superlativee. g.: Shakespeare is the[ði: ] poet. d) -when an orator needs to make a pause for effect, and, accidentally, this is done on the definite article, he/she may choose to pronounce it [ði: ] in order to avoid the unpleasant sound [əəəəəə]; this emphatic pronounciation may also draw the audience’s attention that something important would follow.

2.3. FUNCTIONS The definite article is used for identifying a certain member/certain members of a class, having the meaning of unique reference.

2.3.1. The Anaphoric Function represents the specific function of the definite

article, indicating that the noun to which it is attached has already been mentioned or, at least, is known to the interlocutor / reader.

e. g.: There is a man who wants to see you; the man has already called us in the morning.

The term “anaphoric” comes from the Greek language: „ ana” = „ up” and “pherein” = „ to carry” , having thus the meaning “which refers to something mentioned or known” .

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Anaphorical elements belong to the “theme” of a sentence, in contrast with its “rheme” (the new part of a sentence) . The definite article is characteristically anaphorical, or “thematic” , but there are other parts of speech discharging this function in a sentence, for instance the personal pronoun. e. g.: “George?He (that is George) is still angry with me. With this anaphoric function the definite article can be considered as being close to the functions of a demonstrative adjective (this; that; these; those) in which case it can be easily replaced without any stylistic changes. It occurs: a) -in structures which refer to notions mentioned in a previous sentence, e. g.: On my way back, I met aboy. The (= this) boy was their friend. b) -in structures which refer to notions mentioned earlier in the course of communication, e. g.: “This book is a study of development of the meaning of music. It is a history, but it must necessarily approach the subject historically, giving some idea of the way in which the art (= this art = that art = music) has taken on new experiences, problems and ideas. „ c) -a number of set phrases may be added: nothing of the (this) kind; at the (that) time; under the (these/those) circumstances; at the (that) price; at the (this) moment; of the (this) daye. g.: It just I want at the moment. Many happy return of the day. He was a child at the time. Don’t do anything of the sort! It was a used car and cheap at the price

2.3.2. The Situational (Deictic) Function

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shows that the reference is made to a noun easily understood by the speaker (s) from a well-known or immediate situation:

-in a room-the door, the window, the table, the radiator, the radio; -in the woods-the wind, the sky, the ground; -in a town-the townhall, the police station, the hospital, the railway station; -in a country-the radio, the press, the telephone, the drama, the film; -in the universe-the sun, the moon, the earth, the Cosmos, etc, e. g.: The door is shut, but the windows are open. Turn off the radio and turn on the TV. The ground is covered with dry leaves. Can you tell me how to get to the townhall? What’s on the radio at eight o’clock? The earth moves round the sun. The Cosmos is a well-ordered system. When a noun comes after a preposition, and we meet this situation quite often in well-known contexts, the definite article is almost always necessary, thus resulting the very common structure: preposition+the definite article+noun, e. g.:

under the table; near the village; on the wall /on the floor; in the street/in the sky; behind the door; beyond the river; from the park; for the children; at the museum, etc.

The situational article is a variety of the anaphorical article: it determines individual nouns - known by the speaker (author)

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and by the interlocutor as current notions, or as notions specifically presented under given circumstances. e. g.: “Have you read the paper? (the usual paper; a certain paper) “Get up and bar the door!” she said (the only door of the room) But, in contrast with the anaphorical article, the situational article cannot be replaced by a demonstrative adjective without stylistic modifications. e. g.: “Get up and bar that door!” (not this one)

2.3.3. The Cataphoric Function indicates that the reference is made to nouns with

further specifications in the context (even for nouns representing proper names). Therefore, in this case, the noun is followed by:

a) a relative clausee. g.: The lady who is speaking was my teacher of hystory. The man who is driving the red car is my neighbour. b) a post-modifying prepositional phrasee. g.: The University in our town has organized a new entrance examination. The London of Dickens’s time is described in his novels. The John at the tennis match was invited by Helen at the party.

2.3.4. The Generic Function is displayed when, accompanying nouns / noun

equivalents, the article shows that they are used in their most general sense (as a whole class of objects). The generic function is specific to the zero article, but it may also be discharged by the other two articles. The definite article displays a generic function:

a) -before the singular number of: -individual nouns

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e. g.: The nightingale is a singing bird. The adverb is a part of speech. The rose is a flower. In all these examples individualization is only apparent, since plurality (the whole class) is implied: all nightingales are singing birds, all roses are flowers, etc. -certain abstractions and unique abstract nounse. g.: The new will defeat the old. The good and the evil are always at fight. -nouns of multitudee. g.: „ The poor sleep little. „ (Otway) The wounded were carried to the hospital. “The English are a race of humorists” (Emerson-“Compensation” )

b) -before the plural number of different classes of nouns, almost exclusively when these are modified by some attribute in post-positione. g.: “The waves of the sea speedily seek a level from their loftiest tossing” (Emerson-“Compensation” c) -before some nouns which have become so generalized due to the use of the definite article, that they aquired an additional meaninge. g.: the School = education; the Law = legal system; the Church = organized religion; the Radio = broadcasting, etc

2.3.5. The Anticipatory (Epiphoric) Function In contradiction to the anaphoric function, which

refers to something known or presumably known by the reader (interlocutor or “recipient” ), the definite article can sometimes discharge the epiphoric function, showing that the noun (to which it is attached) is a “rheme” -a new element - “new” from the recipient’s

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standpoint or rather considered by the emitter as “new” for the recipient.

The epiphorical definite article can be accompanied by some anaphorical elements, or by other epiphorical elements. e. g.: I met him on the bank of the river. (the former is an epiphorical article, while the latter is an anaphorical one) I met him on the bank of a river. (both of articles are epiphorical) In the examples above, the epiphoric function of the definite article is doubled by the generic function (as “bank” is an attribute of rivers and every river has “banks” ) and by the anaphoric function: “on the bank of the river” somehow implies the idea that the recipient is already aquainted with, or at least must not confuse the particular bank of the river mentioned in the utterance. However, there are cases when the generic function is absent, or when the epiphorical article has only a selective role. e. g.: Did you read the addres on that letter? (the is an epiphorical element, and that is an anaphorical element) Give me the red pencil, please! (the selective role shows that it cannot be the blue or the black pencil).

2.3.6. The Numerical (Distributive) Function a less important function than the others, it allows

the substitution by a numerale. g.: They sold apples by the pound. (= by one pound)

2.4. THE NON-SIGNIFICANT DEFINITE ARTICLE-WITH PROPER NOUNS

Proper Nouns designate “objects” which are different from all the others belonging to the same category, by using a specific name; they are written with initial capital letters and

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include: names of beings (persons and animals), geographical names, names of peoples, names of historical events, of heavenly bodies, of natural phenomena-hurricanes, typhoons, etc. , of literary, scientific or artistic works, of different titles; names of companies, institutions, or of brands, of languages and nationalities, of papers and magazines, of ships, etc. The months of the year, the days of the week and other unique things belong to the category of proper nouns, too. There are also some unique nouns asimilated to proper nouns: the east, the west, the north, the south, the tropics, the equator, spring, summer, autumn, winter, etc. -they are not usually written with initial capital letters and form the category of proper equivalent nouns. Due to their “unique” character, the names cannot be either generalized, or presented as known / unknown elements; although their individualization is denoted by themselves, there is a large number of proper names /proper equivalents that are accompanied by the definite article; in those cases the article has no function, being a non-significant determiner, justified only by the historical conditions of language evolution. However, when the proper nouns have some restrictive modifications giving a partitive meaning, they can take a definite cataphorical article. (e. g.: The London of Dickens’s times) The categories of proper nouns preceded by the definite article are:

2.4.1. Geographical Namesa) -range of mountains/hills (even in the singular form) and other isolated mountains:

the Atlas;

the Caucasus, the Carpathians, the Alps, the Balcans;

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the Cheviot Hills; the St. Godard, the St. Bernard, the Mount of

Olives; But the peaks do not take the article, e. g.:

Mont Blanc, Everest, etc. b) -rivers:

the Danube, the Thames, the Mississippi; But no article is used if the name of the river formes a compound name, e. g.:

Stratford-upon-Avon, Newcastle-on-Tyne, etc.

c) -seas, oceans, some lakes, firths: the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Irish Sea; the Pacific, the Atlantic the Lake of Commo, the Leman, the Lake of

Geneva; the Firth of Forth etc.

d) -isles, groups of isles, half islands, capes (used with an adjective):

the British Isles, the Isle of Man, the Shetland Islands

the Italic Peninsula; the Cape of Good Hope, the North Cape, the Cape

Verde, etc. e) -gulfs, channels, canals, staits:

the Bay of Biscay, the Bay of Naples, the Persian Gulf;

the Straits of Dover, the Strait of Gibraltar; But: Cape Horn, Cape Code; and, similarly, the nouns loch, head, harbour, haven, firth, point, hill, land, preceded by proper/common names, have no article, e. g.: Pearl Harbour Milford Haven, Moray Firth, Lizard Point, Tonga Land, Spurn Head, etc. f) -regions, provinces, deserts:

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the Antarctic, the Arctic, the Midwest; the Crimea, the Riviera, the Ruhr, the Peloponnes; the Sahara; the Gobi, the Arabian Desert, the

Kalahari Desert, etc. g) -names of some countries which have alternatives, the tendency being to use the form without the definite article:

(the) Sudan, (the) Lebanom, (the) Cameroon, (the) Yemen, (the) Ivory Coast;

the Argentine (Argentina); the Ukraine (Ukraina). -names of countries that include an adjective or a common name:

the United Kingdom, the United States of America, the People’s Republic of China.

-names of countries/continents/regions: the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hebrides, the

Bermudes, the Baleares; the Americas, the Low Countries, the Highlands, the

Midlands, the Shetlands -names of some places/towns:

the City, the Mall, the Bronx; the Hague, etc.

2.4.2. Proper Names No Longer Uniquea) -proper nouns in the plural:

the Smiths, the Browns; -proper nouns preceded by an adjective or followed by an adjective (apposition representing a nickname):

the beautiful Mary, the unique Edward, the famous Diana;

Stephen the Great, Richard the Lionheart, Jude the Obscure, George the Fifth, Canto the Third.

But, if the adjective that precedes the proper noun has an emotional character (and is a nickname), or constitutes only one meaning with the noun (a name), then no definite article is used, e. g.:

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Dear John, Darling Sister, Lazy Sissy, Little Dorrit, Modern English, Ancient Rome, etc.

b) -common nouns originating in proper nouns: e. g.: Have you seen the Reynold at the exhibition? (Reynold’s painting) Today, Mary will drive the Ford. (car’s brand)

2.4.3. Proper Names Accompanied by Titles/Ranks take the definite article: a) -when the titles are preceded by an adjective or followed by the preposition “of” :

the clever Mr. Smith; the beautiful Princess Ann; the King of Spain; the Prince of Wales; the Duke of York; the Earl of Southampton.

But, if the title is followed by the preposition “of” in apposition, then no article is used:

Juan, King of Spain; Charles, Prince of Wales

b) -when the titles are in the plural, or followed by proper names in the plural: e. g.: The Misses Stuart/the Miss Stuarts live in a house next to ours. In most of the cases when the proper names are accompanied by titles (professional, nobiliary, academic, or expressing politeness) or by military ranks (captain, general, commander), the definite article is dropped; exceptions are the situations already mentioned above. We should also mention that all titles/ranks are preceded by the definite article when are used alone. e. g.: The professor entered the classroom on time.

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The general was invited to the party. I went to see the doctor. But: Professor Johnson has already entered the class. Could I talk to you for a minute, professor? Doctor Brown is the best neurologist in our city. May I ask you something, doctor? General Hamilton has taken over the command of the army.

2.4.4. Names of Important Buildings or Public Places: a) -institutions, hotels, restaurants:

the University of London, the House of Commons, the British Broadcasting Corporation, the Ford Foundation, the Oxford University Library, the Institute of Psychyatry;

the Hilton, theLido; the Cecil, the Savoy;

b) -museums, churches, art galleries (formed by an adjective and a common noun):

the National History Museum, the British Museum; the Tate Gallery, the Hermitage;

c) -theatres, cinema halls, clubs: the Shakespeare Royal Company, the Globe, the

Old Vic; the Atheneum, the Mermaid, the Albert Hall;

d) -streets (which are very well-known), parks, monuments: the High Street, the Strand, the Mall; the Pensylvania Turnip, the Merrit Parkway, the

Zoo; the Lincoln Memorial, the Mansion House, the

Tower, the Admiralty Arch, the Cenotaph, the Townhall Square;

But there are exceptions, too: Pall Mall, Covent Garden;

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Soho, Belgravia, Mayfair, etc.

2.4.5. Names of Organizations (abbreviations, too): a) -If the name is pronounced letter for letter, the definite article is obligatory. e. g.: the UN, the BBC, the CIA, the FBI, etc. b) -If the abbreviation is pronounced as a word, then there is no article, although the expaned name does have the definite article. e. g.: OPEC = the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; NATO = the North Atlantic Treaty Organization; UNICEF = the United Nations Children’s Found, etc.

2.4.6. Names of Nationalities (nouns which are used generically).

the Africans the Americans the Arabs the Asians the Australians the Belgians the Brazilians the Europeans the Germans the Greeks the Hungarians the Italians the Israelis the Scots/Scotch the British the Dutch the English the French

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the Irish the Welsh the Danish/Danes the Finish/Finns the Polish/Poles the Spanish/Spaniards the Sweedish/Swedes the Burmese the Chinese the Japanese

a) -names of vessels, ships, steamers: the Augusta, the Transilvania, etc.

But: “Ajax” , because it is a warship. b) -names of some newspapers and daily publications:

the Economist, the Times, the Observer, the Guardian, the Spectator, the Washington Post, etc.

c) -some frozen constructions: the Navy, the Bible, the Tropic, the Equator, etc.

d) -cardinal points and the respective geographical regions, districts, etc.: the east, the west, the Near East, the East End, the Far East, the Middle East, etc. When they represent geographical names, the cardinal points are written with initial capital letters, rule that does not apply when they are adverbials of place, in different phrases (the article being dropped, too). e. g.: We go to the North, where the weather is colder. The wind blows south. They travelled from north to south. e) -names of dances:

the tango, the rock, the walz, etc. f) -names of the days, months, seasons in some circumstances. e. g.: On the Sunday we used to go to church. (the noun expresses a general moment)

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The spring when we met was very special. (the article has the deictic function)

2.5. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IN SET PHRASES (structures having no clear logical explanation, but their usage)

in the morning; in the mountains; in the country; in the end; in the seventh heaven; in the long run;

on the one/other hand; on the way; on the whole; on the right/left; on the first gaze; on the rocks, on the spur of the moment, on the contrary;

at the beginning; at the latest, at the same time, at the end;

behind the scenes; the day after tomorrow; by the way; by the day/week/year/hour; to work by the day; to be paid by the week; to rent a

house by the year; “Many Happy Returns of the Day!” to tell the truth; to tell the time; “What’s the time?”; to break the law; to break the ice; to take the trouble; to paint the devil blacker than he is; to join the colours; to have the time of one’s life; to go through the mill; to play the guitar/the harp/the flute/the piano, etc.

e. g.: On the whole, we enjoyed the TV program last night. Please, tell us the truth about the accident. In the end, the two policemen caught the thief.

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In the long run, the English language will be very important to you. On the spur of the moment, he decided to leave. In the event of a fire, call the fire department right away. Both of the boys spoke at the same time.

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CHAPTER THREETHE INDEFINITE ARTICLE

3.1. ORIGINS One of the most frequently used words in the actual English language, the indefinite article comes from Old English, when “an” was both a numeral and an adjective; their differentiation occurred in the 12th century: the weak form has given rise to the indefinite article, while the strong form to the numeral “one” .

3.2. FORMS AND PRONUNCIATION The indefinite article has two forms-a/an-for all the genders, implying no agreement with the noun (a boy; a girl; an egg, etc.). The two forms follow the same rules of pronunci-ation as the definite article: where the definite article is pronounced [ðə], the indefinite article is pronounced [ə]; where the definite article is pronounced [ði], the indefinite article is pronounced[ən]. It also has strong forms-[ei] / [æn], and weak forms[ə] / [ən], corresponding to[ði: ], respectively [ðə].

3.2.1. a) “A” is pronounced [ə] in fluent English and is used before a consonant or a semiconsonant sound { [w], [y], [j] }:

a book [b]; a horse [h]; a river [r]; a war [w]; a yard [y]; a wall [w];

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a ewe

b) Sometimes, when speaking with special emphasis, “a” is pronounced [ei], with or without a pause. The strong form is also pronounced when the indefinite article is used as a subject of the sentence. e. g.: And do you call this a [ei] car?

(emphasis) She said she saw a [ei] man. (emphasis) “A” [ei] is the indefinite article in English. (subject)

3.2.2. “An” , pronounced [ən]/[n] (unstressed), or [æn] when stressed for emphasis, is used before vowel sounds and bafore a mute [h]: an apple [æ]; an envelope [e]; an inkstand [i]; There are several words beginning with “h” which may be preceded either by “a”

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or by “an” , at the discretion of the speaker:

3.3. POSITIONThe two forms of the indefinite article precede the

nouns and their modifiers, but they can be placed either before or after the determiners

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3.3.1. The Indefinite Article is placed before: a) -nouns in the singular (a book, a fox, a student, a barracks, a sheep, an employee, etc.); b) -modifying adjectives placed before nouns (a good book, an interesting article, a famous singer, etc); c) -quantitative/numeric determiners (a bit, a few of, a great deal of, a good many, a large number of, a lot of, etc.); e. g.: We bought a great deal of goods. He asked a lot of questions. A good many students failed the exam. d) -nouns preceded by “as” or “no less”; e. g.: The children shall not use a knife as a toy. As a teenager, he was extremely serious. She was no less a beauty than her sister. e) -“half” and “double” , when they help making a compound noun or a single idea; e. g.: We spent a pleasant half-hour reading. His words have always a double meaning.

3.3.2. The Indefinite Article is placed after: a) -the determiners what, half, many, such; the preposition without also implies the use of the indefinite article in certain contexts; e. g.: What an interesting man! This is a question without an answer. Such a good book! He bought half a loaf. Half a nice coffee is enough for me. Many a girl came to the party. Many a beautiful girl were present to the party.

But, when the words mentioned above accompany an uncount / plural count noun/, or the noun is preceded by no /some, then no article will be used: e. g.: I have no such experience. Have you thought of some such trip? He left without documents. We met such fine people there. What fine silk!b) -adjectives preceded by: as, how, however, so, too; e. g.: I got as good a job as yours. How wonderful a day! This too long a poem to learn it by heart. c) -the adverbs quite, rather, too; e. g.: I had quite a busy day. This is rather a good book. (= a rather good book) That was too an important event to miss. d) -qualifying adjectives preceded by how and so; e. g.: So great a man! How nice a cake!e) -contructions like: the part /role of, the business of, the profession of, the trade of, etc. e. g.: That is not the business of a child. In this play he acts the part of a killer.

3.4. FUNCTIONS As a general rule, the indefinite article is used with nouns in the singular, having different functions (epiphoric, numerical, generic) in different contexts.

3.4.1. The Epiphoric (Anticipatory) Function

represents the specific function of the indefinite article, indicating that the determined noun has not been mentioned before, during the communication.

The anticipatory indefinite article is therefore used in those contexts where the person/ thing is not known for the recipient (interlocutor, reader), or when the speaker does not want to identify the person/thing, while he/she refers to a member of a class. e. g.: I read an interesting novel last month. (unknown thing) There is a young boy waiting for you. (unknown person) I saw a cat on the stairs. (a member of a class) In this last situation, when the determined noun represents just a member of a class, the indefinite article may also have a selective role, showing that the class is somehow restricted/limited. e. g.: Give me a fountain pen, please! (not a penholder, not a pencil, etc.) She wanted a yellow dress. (not a black or a white one, etc.) The indefinite article is characteristically epiphoric; it belongs to the “rheme” of an utterance, meaning the new, unknown part of it, in opposition to the definite article which is characteristically anaphorical, or “thematic” (the known part of an utterance). With this function, the indefinite article is mainly used with individual nouns, with uncountable nouns (in some phrases) and in certain syntactic structures.

a) -With individual nouns, especially after a predicates as “there is /there was/there will be” , etc.: e. g.: There is a book on the table. There was a practitioner in the lab.

There is a lady in the garden. But, when “there is” is followed by the definite article, the meaning of the sentence will change, e. g.:

There is the President speaking!

b) -Before certain abstract nouns in phrases: e. g.: He had caught a chill. / Have a care! -before abstract nouns which have an “intensive plural” : e. g.: He had done it from a fear of the consequences.

c) -Before proper nouns, emphasizing the idea that the respective person is not known or, on the contrary, the person is so well-known that he/she symbolizes a quality (with stylistic connotations). e. g.: A Mary Brown cannot be accepted here. (a totally unknown person) Only a Dickens could have written such a sketch! (a famous person)

d) -Before predicatives (expressed by nouns in the singular) denoting profession, rank, title, position, quality, nationality, religion, age, politics; e. g.: John is a student; he is no longer a child. Is Mike an actor or a stage director? He is a lover of beauty. She is a Romanian and an ortodox. James Smith is an engineer. Tom used to be a Republican. Nouns-predicatives preceded by the indefinite article denote one of the many possible representatives of a

profession, rank, title, etc. , in contrast with nouns-predicatives denoting a unique representative which are preceded by the zero article. e. g.: He is manager in this factory, isn’t he? He was chairman of the committee.

These predicatives can be followed by a construction showing a definite character, and then they are preceded by the definite article, e. g.: John was the doctor of the village.

e) -Before appositions, when the person/thing expressed by the respective noun is considered rather unfamiliar for the speaker/hearer: e. g.: John, a friend of mine, saw this film. Byron, a well known romantic poet, died in Greece. But, when the apposition denotes the unicity of that representative of a profession, it will be preceded by the zero article, e. g.: The essay was written by W. Hazlitt, British critic and essayist. 3.4.2. The Numerical Function

becomes obvious when the indefinite article precedes numerals or nouns belonging to a sequence determined by numerals; in these cases, a/an are used instead of one (they are interchangeable).

e. g.: I have an/one apple and two oranges. More than a/one thousand people were present at the meeting. The indefinite article has the same numerical function when it is used: a) -before nouns expressing measures, chronological divisions, fractions (a metre, a pound, an inch, a year, a week, a quarter, a third, a half, etc.);

-before numeratives (a piece of, a cup of, a slice of, etc.), or quantitative/numeric determiners{a bit, a few (of), a little (of), a great deal of, a good many, a large number of} -to express numbers such as “a couple” , “a dozen” , etc. e. g.: It should be longer by a metre. He is my elder by a year.

She usually eats only a slice of bread at breakfast. There is a little sugar left, but it’s enough for the cake. He ordered a pint of beer and a cup of coffee. There were a lot of flowers in this park last year. A good many athlets were taking part in the demonstration.

b) -with the meaning “each/every” , the reference being to the frequency of an action (a day, a piece, etc.); -in some set phrases: at a time, once upon a time, at a blow, all of a sudden, once in a blue moon, etc.; -with the meaning “one and the same” (of a size, of a feather, etc.); e. g.: “An apple a day (each day) keeps the doctor away. „ We play tennis twice a week. (each week) It costs a penny a piece. (each piece) They were both of a size. (the same size) Birds of a feather (the same feather) flock together.

The indefinite article and the numeral “one” are interchangeable when referring to: whole numbers, fractions, money, weigh, measure, but they are not interchangeable when we want to denote “any one” (we always use a/an) or when we oppose one to two/more, inwhich case we always use one.

e. g.: a /one hundred; a /one quarter; a /one pound; a /one kilo, etc.; She could not say a single word. (a word = one word) “A bird in the bush is worth two in the hand. „ (a bird = one bird) Can you lend me a pen, please? (any one, any pen)

The old man has only one leg. (one of two) In expressions of measurement, when we refer to one unit of measurement in terms of another, “per” may be used instead of “a/an” (when we want to emphasize “each” ); in this case a/an are never replaced by one. -price in relation to weigh (90 p a /per kilo); -distance in relationto speed (80 km a /per hour); -distance in relation to fuel consumption (50 miles a /per gallon); -frequency in relation to time (twice a /per week).

The numerical function of the indefinite article is characteristic for individual nouns, whether they are preceded by an attribute or not (a man, a tall man, an idea, a most interesting idea, etc.). Other categories of nouns can also take the indefinite article, but only if they are accompanied by an attribute. e. g.: A pale moon was rising out of the sea. (moon = proper equivalent noun) Years ago I met a more earnest John than today. (John = proper noun) This factory is exporting a high quality steel. (steel = uncount noun)

Anyone could have seen that they shared a most tender love. (love = uncount noun)

3.4.3. The Generic Function shows that the noun in the singular form is used in

its most general sense, as an exemplar of a class of things, e. g.: “A wolf is an animal” .

In some analyses the generic indefinite article is but a variety of the anticipatory one, and this is more obvious than ever in those questions refering to definitions. e. g.: “What is a nightingale?” (not “What is the nightingale?” ) “What is a rose?” (not “What is the rose?” ) As a matter of fact, the general sense of a noun/noun equivalent can be rendered in various ways, the indefinite article being one of them (more often used than the definite article, but not so much used as the zero article). e. g.: A nightigale is a singing bird. (= All nightigales are singing birds. = Any nightingale is a singing bird.) A car must be ensured. (= All cars must be ensured. = Any car must be ensured.) A child needs love. (= All children need love. = Any child needs love.) With the generic function the indefinite article has much the same sense as the determinative adjective “any” in affirmative sentences. (like in the examples above). However, this identity, although insisted upon in many grammar books, is far from being perfect because of two reasons: the generic indefinite article is less “indefinite” than “any” , and then, the indefinite article sometimes involves comparisons and contrasts between classes of notions, which “any” does not (in most cases).

e. g.: A dog is a faithful animal. (a cat, as a rule, is not) Besides, there are certain instances when the generic indefinite article simply cannot be replaced by “any” . e. g.: A breeze of wind may announce the storm. Sometimes, we can use all the three articles, alternatively, to express the generic function, while in other situations the meaning does not allow the use of a certain article.

e. g.: A dog is a friendly animal. = The dog is a friendly animal. = Dogs are friendly animals. But: The koala bear is in danger of becoming extinct. = Koala bears are in danger of becoming extinct. *A koala bear is in danger of becoming extinct. (the death of one bear cannot logically endanger the whole species.) The indefinite article also displays the generic function in certain grammatical constructios:

- “as a” + noun; - “the business of” , “the part/role of” , “the

profession of” , „ the trade of” +a +noune. g.: As a friend, I advise you not to do that. He was acting the part of a judge. He had followed the way of a potter.

3.4.4. The Indefinite Article used Anaphoricaly In spite of its specific anticipatory/epiphoric

function, the indefinite article can be associated to other elements with which it forms some anaphoric structures.

e. g.: What a man! (The man about whom we are speaking is very queer, brave, intelligent, etc.) What an idea! (meaning that the idea is brilliant, interesting, etc.) Such an idea! (the idea that you suggest is not at all agreeable, interesting, plausible, practical, etc.) I have never read so interesting a thriller. (I have read a lot of thrillers, but none of them was as interesting as this particular one) A man like him cannot do that. (I know this man; and he-or a man of this kind-cannot do that)

He was such a good worker. /He was so good a worker. They moved to as nice a house as yours. How perfect a view! However truthful a girl (she may be), this time she told me a lie. This is a most lovely story!But when the determiner “such” is preceded by “some” / “no” , or when the word “what” is an interrogative determiner the noun will never take the indefinite article. e. g.: There is no such thing. I had some such itinerary in my mind when I started on my present trip. What day of the month is this?If the words “such” and “what” precede count nouns in the plural or uncount nouns (nouns expressing materials, collective and certain abstract nouns), the indefinite article will be dropped. Yet, there is an exception: the uncountable noun “pity” in the phrase “What a pity!” . e. g.: Such lovely September days!

One of the museum show-cases contains such exquisite old silver. Such fine cattle were raised on the farm! We had such fun! What interesting folk dances! What fine paper! What good news! What trouble you took!

3.5. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE IN SET PHRASES in most cases discharges the generic function, quite often having stylistic effects, too. In some structures it is the numerical

function which is emphasized, while in others the use of the indefinite article has no explanation, but the frequent usage. 3.5.1. Set Phrases with Stylistic Effects: a) the simile:

as fast as a deer as fat as a pig as gentle as a lamb as mad as a March hare as proud as a peacock as slow as asnail as fresh as a daisy as light as a feather, etc.

b) the metaphor, e. g.: He has a heart of a stone. (He is not easily moved) That child is a monkey. (He is very naughty) He is a fox. (He is so cunning)

3.5.2. Other Set Phrases: as a rule

as a matter of fact at a distance all of a sudden on an average once upon a time once in a blue moon three times a week it’s a pitty it’s a shame to kep an eye on to have a chance to have a headache/a pain/a cough to give a hand to make a fire/a fortune/a noise/a fuss

totake a seat to go for a walk/a sail/a ride to pay a compliment to take an examination to take a trip to put a limit/a stop, etc.

CHAPTER FOURTHE ZERO ARTICLE

4.1. ZERO DETERMINATION vs OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE Although it represents something “alogistic” , “which is not expressed” , the zero article is a real and useful category: real because, in certain contexts, it lends precision to the nouns, like any other determiners, and useful as it makes one aware of the great difference between the cases of zero determination and those of mere article omission. It is true that the zero article appears in those situations when the other articles cannot be usually used-with uncount, plural count or proper nouns, which apparently have no article, e. g.: She drinks tea every morning. Clothes do not make the man. Maradona was a good football player. The absence of the article, in the exemples above, is equivalent to the presence of an article; we cannot say that the definite/indefinite article is omitted, but only that we must not use neither of them in the mentioned contexts. Yet, there are other circumstances when the article is omitted for some stylistic effects in poetry, prose, advertising, titles, etc., e. g.: -in poetry: “In Xanadu did Kubla Khan A stately pleasure-dome decree: Where Alph, the sacred river ran Through caverns measureless to man Down to a sunless sea” (S. T. Coleridge-“Kubla Khan” ) “She found me roots of relish sweet, And honey wild, and manna dew, And sure in language strange she said

‘I love thee true’” (John Keats-“La Belle Dame sans Merci” -headlines in newspapers: “Life Insurance-Happiness for All” “Duch Will Pay Higher Taxes-advertisments: “Enjoy sea with cream-Lee” -informal/familiar language: “We left house in hurry” “Pity they won’t be here!” “Car still working?” “Friend of mine told me about it”

4.2. THE CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTION OF THE ZERO ARTICLE (THE GENERIC FUNCTION) The zero article is mainly used with individual reference to any member of a class of objects, but without a unique identification; this is the specific (the generic) function of the zero article. It may also have an indefinite numerical function in some contexts, and an anaphorical function in others. With proper nouns/proper equivalents, the zero article has no function, being a non-significant determiner. There are three categories of nouns with which the zero article displays the generic function: uncountable nouns, countable nouns in the plural, and some countable nouns in the singular turned into uncountable nouns when their meaning becomes abstract.

4.2.1. Uncountable Nounsa) -nouns denoting materials/natural produce (coal, gold, gas, oil, flour, bread, meat, beer, coffee, cheese, corn, milk, jam, steel, wine, tea, milk, wood, air, dust, rain, snow, water, etc.); e. g.: Some people never eat meat.

I ordered coffee for everybody. Oil is lighter than water. Gold is precious metal. But: The diamond is a precious stone.

b) -abstract nouns having their form and agreement in the singular, but a plural meaning (advice, business, evidence, information, knowledge, nonsense, progress, practice, etc); e. g.: He has always given me good advice. “Knowledge is power. „ “Practice makes perfect. „ He achieved remarkable progress in maths last year.

c) -abstract nouns expressing feelings, states, qualities, such as: love, beauty, peace, pity, fear, shame, wisdom, poverty, strength, hope, freedom, friendship, hunger, pride, prejudice, courage, suspicion, etc.; e. g.: “Beauty is in the eyes of beholders. „ Love is a wonderful thing. All we need is peace. We never gave up hope.

d) -abstract nouns denoting doctrines, trends, schools of thinking, such as: art, aesteticismliterature, poetry, romanticism, philosophy, realism, classicism, etc.; e. g.: Art makes people better. Aesteticism flourished in Europe towards the end of the 19th

century. American literary modernism began with Walt Whitman’s “Leaves of Grass” .

Concrete uncountable nouns that can become countable nouns: bread = aliment bread (breads) = variety of breadchange = money in small coins

change (changes) = variation, alternation

coffee = drink coffee (coffees) = cup of coffee; kind ofcoffee

fish = flesh of fish (food)

fish (fishes) = species of fish

gas = petrol (in U. S.) gas (gases) = aeriform fluidglass = brittle, transparent substance

glass (glasses) = drinking-vessel; (spectacles)

lamb = meat of lamb lamb (lambs) = animallace = trimming-braid (material)

lace (laces) = cord used to tighten boots

meat = food meat (meats) = variety of meatpepper = aromatic condiment

pepper (peppers) = sort of vegetables

paper = substance, usually made of wood

paper (papers) = newspaper

rubber = elastic substance

(rubber) rubbers = rubber boots, galoshes

soup = liquid food soup (soups) = portion of souptea = leaves of tea-plant; infusion

tea (teas) = cup of tea

tin = silvery-white metallic element

tin (tins) = box of tin-for preserving aliments

whisky = distilled spirit whisky (whiskies) = a glass of whisky

Mention must be made of the fact that many other nouns expressing drinks, food, or substance can be countable or uncountable depending on the context (beer, gin, wine, Coke, brandy, sugar, yoghurt, cheese, sauce, wood, perfume, etc).

Abstract uncountable nouns that can become countable nouns: beauty = a quality that delights sight or mind

beauty (beauties) = a beautiful person

company = guests; being with others

company (companies) = factory; military sub-division

good = profit; well-being goods = merchandisee) -concrete nouns in those contexts when they are considered abstractions (equipment, money, furniture, luggage, produce, etc.); e. g.: They have bought very fine furniture. What is money? We found very interesting medical equipment. The generic function is no more displayed if the re+spective uncountable nouns change their meaning and, according to the context, they get either a definite or an indefinite article – concrete uncountable nouns become countable, and abstract uncountable nouns become countable nouns (with a change in their meaning). e. g.: The book is made of paper. / Have you brought the paper? I like black coffee. / I usually drink a coffee at breakfast. She doesn’t drink whisky. / Would you like a whisky, sir?When the uncountable nouns are followed by a prepositional structure/an attributive clause, they can take a definite article, case in which the generic function is not displayed. e. g.: The tea I drank in the morning was too sweet. He had the wisdom of an old man. The death of the President was a real tragedy for the country.

4.2.2. Countable Nouns turned into Uncountable Nouns (their meaning is abstract):

a) -nouns indicating place, location, institution, in prepositional cons used with the verbs “to come” , “to go” , „ to be” , “to live” : bed, break, camp, church, college, court, harbour, home, hospital, jail, market, port, prison, school, sea, shore, table, term, town, work, etc. (places which are visited/used for their primary purpose), e. g.: She is going to college next year. I went to bed late at night. Tom goes to school every day. He never goes to work by bus. Shall we have dinner in town today? If the mentioned places/locations/institutions are not used for their primary purpose, then the nouns will take an anaphorical definite article, emphasizing the concrete meaning-a certain bed/college/school/town/home/church, etc. e. g.: They looked at the bed; it was empty. The college stood at a crossroads. We saw the school before us. They were approaching the town. The guests have already arrived at the bride’s home. The tourists went to the church to see the paintings. The definite article is always used in the following structures: -to go to the cinema / circus / opera / theatre (nouns representing a certain category of entertainment); -to go to the Institute / laboratory / university (only in the U. S.); -to live in the country; -to be at the office; to go to the office (as a place of work); e. g.: We are going to the opera tonight. My friends have such a big house in the country! He always goes to the office by car. But: to be in office = to hold an official position; to be out of office = to be no longer in power.

b) -nouns indicating means of transport: bicycle, boat, bus, car, plane, taxi, train, tube, underground, etc. , used with verbs of motion (go, come, leave, travel) + the preposition “by”; e. g.: Yesterday, they left for London by train. The boy is going by motorbike to join them, and the girl by car with some friends. You may go by underground to Piccadily Circus. I sent the parcel by air. When the noun has its basic concrete meaning we shall use the definite article (with or without the prepositions “in”, “on”). e. g.: We had lunch on the train. She took the tube to Oxford Circus. He washes the car two times a month. c) There are many other situations when countable nouns become uncountable. If they are used with a general (abstract) meaning, they take the zero article discharging the generic function. e. g.: She was proud of the victory. (countable) Some people become famous in victory. (uncountable, with abstract meaning) They remembered their previous conflicts. (countable noun) We do not want to be in conflict to anyone. (uncountable noun, expressing the generic) 4.2.3. Countable Nouns in the Plurala) -nouns that indicate animates/inanimates in general, with reference to all the members of a class; e. g.: Squares have four sides. Cats are expert hunters. Boys will be boys. It is the definite article that discharges the generic function with individual nouns in the singular, but there are several nouns of the kind which take the zero article: man, mankind, woman, womankind, nature, society, posterity.

4.2.3. Countable Nouns in the Plurala) -nouns that indicate animates/inanimates in general, with reference to all the members of a class; e. g.: Squares have four sides. Cats are expert hunters. Boys will be boys. It is the definite article that discharges the generic function with individual nouns in the singular, but there are several nouns of the kind which take the zero article: man, mankind, woman, womankind, nature, society, posterity. As about the word “nature” , it may have another meaning (the basic characteristic of a person/animal, or the basic quality of something), and then it will be accompanied by the definite/ indefinite article. e. g.: I could never understand the nature of their frequent fights. Farm animals usually have a gentle nature. b) -nouns used as predicatives indicating trades, professions (quality in general), preceded or not by qualifiers; e. g.: His parents are famous singers. For years, they have been miners in the same place. We were students at that time.

4.3. OTHER FUNCTIONS

4.3.1. The Indefinite Numerical Function is considered, by some grammarians, as being close to the generic function. Without offering it the idea of generality, the zero article used with this function makes the noun express a general meaning of uncertain number/unprecised quantity . It has a meaning similar to “some” , “a few” , “a number of” , “a quantity of” , etc. and it “accompanies” both uncounable nouns and countable nouns that take the indefinite numerical article when they are in the singular.

e. g.: I intended to buy a book. I intended to buy books. (plural count noun, uncertain number) There was an orange on the table. There were oranges on the table. (plural count noun, uncertain number) In London we visited parks, museums and monuments. (plural count nouns, uncertain number) They grew maize, corn and oats. (uncount nouns, uncertain quantity) We bought sugar, jam, milk and eggs. 4.3.2. The Anaphoric Function Some nouns can be preceded by an anaphorical zero article instead of by the usual definite article in the same function: -nouns expressing divisions of time (such as seasons) or meals; -nouns-predicatives having unique reference; -nouns denoting the jobs of some people very close to the speaker (cook = our cook, nurse = our nurse, gardner = our gardner, milkman = our milkman, teacher = our teacher, etc). Acquiring thus a unique reference, they actually become proper nouns and are written with initial capital letters. e. g.: Summer was ending. (= the summer = that summer) Breakfast is ready! (= the breakfast I have just cooked) They appointed him Mate of this ship. (= the Mate) He is President of the Company. (the president of a certain company) Teacher is going to give us a test today. (= our teacher) Why is Nurse late tonight? (= our nurse)

4.4. THE ZERO ARTICLE AS A NON-SIGNIFICANT DETERMINER expresses the unique reference of some proper nouns and of some categories of common nouns asimilated to proper nouns. The zero article as a non-significant determiner plays a role which is comparable to that of the

definite article before proper nouns/proper equivalents (the Danube, the Hague, the Black Sea, the north, the east, etc.). 4.4.1. Proper Nounsa) names of beings (people and animals) -accompanied, or not, by appositions (with/without titles):

Mary, John, James Brown, Linda O’Donovan; Mr. And Mrs. Adams, Lady Ann, Dr. Smith, Judge

Swanson, President Bush, Profesor Jones;

Queen Victoria; Edward, Prince of Wales, etc. -names preceded by adjectives having an emotional character or a unity of meaning:

darling Mother, dear Susan, good old Jones, poor little Ann;

Saint Joan, young Fred, old Mrs. Brown; -nicknames:

crazy Tom, brave Robin Hood, lazy Mary; Some proper nouns accompanied by titles (usually from abroad: Emperor, Empress, Sultan, etc,) must take the definite article, e. g.:

the Archduke Franz Joseph; the Chalif Harun-al-Rashid; the Czar (Tzar) Peter the Great; the Emperor Napoleon; the Duke Wellington; the Lord God;

b) some geographical names: -continents (singular forms, with/without modifiers):

Europe, North America, Western Asia, Central Africa;

But: the Arctic, the Antarctic, the Americas. -most of the countries/states, counties, cities, towns (accompanied or not by adjectives:

Romania, Moldavia, England, France, (West) Indies;

Essex, (Northern) Arkansas, (industrial) Straffordshire;

Bucharest, Devon, Plymouth, (foggy) London, (sunny) Paris, (ancient) Rome;

But: the Congo, the Sudan, the Ukraine, the U. S. A. , the Netherlands, the Highlands, the Baleares, the Bermudes, the Hebrides, the Riviera, the Levant, the Ruhr, etc.

-mountain peaks: Mont Blank, Everest, Kenya, Killimandjaro,

Vesuvius, etc. -names of lakes, capes, lochs, ports, preceded/followed by the respective common nouns:

Cape Fnisterre, Cape Cannaveral; Lake Windermere, Silver Lake, Loch Lomond; Port Arthur, Port Said, etc.

But if the noun is accompanied by an attribute, it will take the definite article, e. g.:

the Cape of Good Hope, the North Cape; the Lake of Geneva, the Lake of Como;

c) proper names followed by common nouns indicating institutions/ buildings, streets, crosses, squares, parks, bridges, etc:

Westminster Abbey, Windsor Castle, Westminster Hall, Buckingham Palace, Hampton Court, Somerset House, Scotland Yard;

Hyde Park, St. James’s Park, Kensington Gardens, Kew Gardens;

Trafalgar Square, Oxford Circus, Leicester Square, Piccadilly Circus;

Wall Street, Oxford Street, Park Lane, Madison Avenue, Petticoat Lane;

Tower Bridge, Waterloo Bridge; Yale University, Brown University (universities

named after a person), London University (= the University of London);

Charing Cross, Marble Arch; Kennedy Airport, Heathrow Airport; China Town, etc.

As a general rule, those proper names formed by an adjective + a common noun must take the definite article (e. g.: the Green Park, the British Museum); very well-known streets, buildings, monuments are also preceded by the definite article. Yet, there are a few exceptions in both situations, e. g.:

Broad Street, Broadway, Cheapside, Whitehall; Pall Mall, Covent Garden, Soho, Belgravia,

Mayfair.

d) certain temporal divisions (always written with initial capitals:

-the months of the year: January, March, November, etc.; -the days of the week: Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, etc.; -festivals/holidays: Christmas (Day), Easter (Sunday), Thanksgiving Day, New Year’s Eve, Good Friday, Independence Day, etc. e. g.: Monday is the first day of the week in Romania. Children always look forward for Christmas. February is the shortest month of the year. e) names of languages spoken by people: Denmark Danish but: the Danish

languageEngland English the English

languageFinland Finnish the Finnish

language France Fench the French

language Ireland Irish the Irish languageThe Netherlands Duch the Duch languagePoland Polish the Polish languageSpain Spanish the Spanish

languageSweden Swedish the Swedish

languageScotland Scottish the Scottish

languageWales Welsh the Welsh languageArabia Arabic the Arabic

languageAustralia Australian the Australian

languageBelgium Belgian the Belgian

languageBrazil Brazilian the Brazilian

languageGreece Greek the Greek languageItaly Italian the Italian languageHungary Hungarian the Hungarian

languageIndia Indian the Indian languageNorway Norwegian the Norwegian

languageRomania Romanian the Romanian

languageRussia Russian the Russian

language

China Chinese the Chinese language

Japan Japanese the Japanese language

Portugal Portuguese the Portuguese language

Vietnam Vitnamese the Vietnamese language

Israel Israeli the Israeli languagePakistan Pakistani the Pakistani

languageSwitzerland Swiss the Swiss language

e. g.: He translated a book from German into French. Millions of people speak English. The Romanian language is spoken by more than twenty million people. What is the Italian (word) for “book” ? I have read a novel translated from the Russian (language). We notice that the existence of the second noun “language” is clearly expressed in the third example, and understood in the next two sentences.

f) other proper nouns -names of magazines/periodicals:

Time, Punch, Vogue, Newsweek, Life, etc. -names of organizations (abbreviations pronounced as a word, while the whole name does take the definite article):

NATO (= the North Atlantic Treaty Organization); NAFTA (= the North American Free Trade

Agreement); EFTA (= the European Free Trade Agreement); UNICEF (= the United Nations Children’s Found);

OPEC (= the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), etc.

-personifications can become proper nouns, especially in poetry: Liberty, Wealth, etc. e. g.: “The pilgrim gazed around on Moslem luxury Till quickly wearied with that spacious seat Of Wealth and Wantonness, the choice retreat Of sated Grandeur from the city’s noise” (G. G. Lord Byron-“Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage” ) There are situations when person’s names can be used with reference to something they have produced (paintings, sculptures, music, books, etc.). In these cases, the object is referred to by using the proper name as if it were a common name, though it continues to be written with initial capital letters. e. g.: We used to play a Chopin every night. At that time you could buy a Matisse at a low price. Some years ago he translated an Austen which was highly appreciated. Did you see the Gauguin at the Tate?The proper nouns mentioned in the previous paragraphs are usually determined by the zero article, but the other articles can also accompany the names in some cases (when the names precede/follow an attributive phrase/sentence, they take either the definite or indefinite article). e. g.: On the Monday following, he came home. He tried to imitate the famous Charlie Chaplin. We haven’t spent a more pleasant Easter so far.

4.4.2. Proper Equivalent Nouns (some of them are written with initial capitals, but only in certain contexts). a) common nouns having a special meaning (time divisions/prepositional constructions with reference to time, parts of the day, etc.)

-seasons: spring, summer, autumn, fall (in American English), winter; -parts of the day: dawn/daybreak, sunrise, sunset, noon, midnight, night (used with the prepositions at, by, after, before) e. g.:

We usually go to the seaside in summer. Children must go to bed before midnight. Suddenly spring was there with all its beauty. It is now late winter; about this time last year it was

already early spring. (the underlined words are the only modifiers which do not imply the use of the definite article before seasons)

It is important to mention that the emitter of an utterance has an alternative to the zero article when he/she speaks about seasons: this is the definite article, which, in some situations, denotes the concrete meaning of the noun (while the zero article expresses the abstract meaning) and in other situations displays the anaphoric function. When all these nouns are accompanied by an attribute (except for “early” and “late” ), they may take either the definite or the indefinite article, deppending on the context. e. g.:

The spring was slow to come. (concrete meaning)

The autumn was beautiful. (= that autumn, anaphoric function)

We shall go to the seaside in the summer. (= this summer, anaphoric function)

In the winter of 1998, snow had fallen in masses and paralized much of the country. (the noun is accompanied by an attribute)

That year we had a lovely autumn, followed by an intensely cold winter. (the nouns are preceded by attributes)

b) -names of diseases: to have earache, (a/the) toothache, measless, mumps, stomachache, influenza, (the) flu, (the) gout, (the) plague, anaemia, appendicites, diabetis, rheumatism; the zero article is preferred for the sake of simplicity. e. g.: Anaemia is a serious disease. He suffered from rheumatism for a long time.

c) -nouns used in the nominative of address: e. g.: Come on, man/Man! Somebody is looking for you, doctor! Wake up, girl/Girl! Come here, dog/Dog!

d) -nouns expressing family relations with unique reference: Mother, Father, Dad, Mum, Uncle, Aunt, Nurse, Teacher, etc. e. g.: Father usually arrives on time. Wait a minute, Uncle!

e) -nouns expressing professions/titles considered unique; they are often used after verbs like: to be, to elect, appoint, to declare, etc. People’s names accompanied by ranks are also determined by the zero article. e. g.: He was elected President of the committee. The government required that the minister should be appointed head of the comission. He held the office of secretary. He was awarded the rank of colonel. Mr. Thomas Brown was guest of honour at their party. Captain Jones was talking to Doctor Black. This book is written by John Smith, Lecturer in English.

Similarly, after the verb “to turn” the noun denoting a profession takes the zero article (only if the noun has no attribute) e. g.: Mary’s parents wanted her a lawyer, but she turned

physician. He had turned soldier.

f) -names of subjects, games, sports: e. g.: At school I learnt geography, chemistry, drawing, etc. He was fond of football and tennis, but he used to watch a game of billiards whenever he had a chance. Favourite with the public were skating and fencing. Certainly, when they are preceded/followed by an attribute/attributive clause, the respective nouns must get the definite article. e. g.: He wants a book on the chemistry of metals. I cannot forget the hockey we played when we were children; it was so funny. g) names of cardinal points (when they show direction, having an adverbial value, or when used in some expressions): e. g.: The wind blows east. We went due south. (nautic) They scoured the wood from north to south and from east to west. 4.5. OTHER CASES WHEN THE ZERO ARTICLE IS

USED

4.5.1. -After a noun in the possessive case: e. g.: This is the children’s timetable for tomorrow. Have you met Jimmy’s brother? I didn’t read yesterday’s newspaper. -Before nouns that are already determined by a possessive/demonstrative determiner:

e. g.: Her daughter always gets good marks at school. That mountain is the highest I have ever seen so far. I shall never leave this country.

4.5.2. Before the postdeterminers “last” and “next” (+noun), when they express divisions of time reported to the present: e. g.: He came back home last Sunday. They are leaving for the seaside next week. But, if these adjectives are not considered as being reported to the present time, they become ordinals and are preceded by the definite article when attached to a noun clearly expressed or understood; if the two words appear alone, with an adverbial /prepositional value, they have no article. , e. g.:

The last Monday of this month is a holiday. (+expressed noun)

He was there on Tuesday, but left the next day. (+expressed noun)

Jerry was the next patient to be seen by the doctor, while Will was the last. (the first noun is clearly expressed, but the latter is only understood)

When I last met Lena, she was flourishing. (= adverb)

I should like to see you when next you come this way. (= adverb)

He was wearing a blouse next his skin. (= preposition)

4.5.3. Before nouns having the syntactic function of a subject, when they are immediately preceded by “never” / “ever”; yet, there is an alternative-with the indefinite article, e. g.: If ever author was harder to translate! (= If ever an author was harder to translate!)

Never husband had a more faithful wife. (= Never had a husband a more faithful wife) 4.6. THE ZERO ARTICLE IN SET PHRASES almost always discharges the generic function-the noun/noun equivalent has an abstract meaning, thus being very frequently used with stylistic effects. (and not only in the case of the simile or of those phrases which are buit simetrically, but in other phrases, too). 4.6.1. The Simile, a comparison of equality using elements that belong to different spheres of notions, is meant to emphasize a certain characteristic of one element. Some nouns of this kind of phrases are determined by the indefinite article, others-by the zero article, e. g.:

as bitter as gall as black as coal as cold as ice as green as grass as hard as iron as hot as fire as quick as lightning as sour as vinegar as sweet as honey, etc.

4.6.2. Phrases built simetrically-consist of two nouns put together with the help of some prepositions/conjunctions, e. g.:

from beginning to end from day to day from head to foot from time to time from top to bottom arm in arm shoulder to shoulder day by day hand in hand over mountain and plain, etc.

4.6.3. Other Phrass: at best/last/first/least/present/hand/sight/dawn at random/first sight/ease/times by hand/heart/day/mistake/word of mouth for fun/good/love/fear of in future/addition/wear/time for/plain English

on foot/paper/occasion/time/account of/condition

to be out of place/order/date/sight/style to be at sea/water to change colours/ sides to lose courage to make use of/fun of/noise to pay attention to, etc.

The students pay attention to the teacher. He frequently makes fun of my

pronuntiation. Do you know the new verbs by heart? The children are making too much noise

now. Those girls make all of their dresses by

hand. Did Charles learn the wrong lesson by

mistake? At first, I had a lot of trouble with this

language. We are studying the irregular verbs at

present. Please write this lesson; in addition, study

all of the new words.

The fire was very bad. In fact, it destroyed several buildings.

Did those students do that on purpose? At times, she enjoys a good hystorical novel. Robert wrote three letters in succession. Why didn’t they take advantage of your

offer? I came in time for the second half of the

movie.

4.7. THE OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE

The instances of zero determination should be carefully distiguished from those of “article ellipsis” , when the omitted article can be easily supplied. While the zero article has its specific functions (mainly the generic function) –displayed by missing from the context instead of being present, the omission presuposes the intentionate removing of the article for the sake of effect (emphasis) in telegrams, titles, advertisments, stage-directions, dictio- naries, notes, etc.

4.7.1. The omission of the article occurs very often in titles: -of newspaper’s articles: e. g.: “Thief picks pocket of woman in crowded boat train. „ “Finance Minister to Increase Tax on Petrol before End of Month” (= the tax on Petrol before the End of the Month); “Peace Treaty Talks Plan” (= A Plan for Peace Treaty Talks); “Ban Lifted” (= A Ban which was lifted); “She’ll Sing at Festival” (= She’ll Sing at the Festival), etc. -of books and their chapters:

“Invasion of Scotland. Defeat at Bannockburn”; “Fission and Chain Reaction”; “Nuclear Fission and Atomic Energy”; “Conditions of Contract” , etc.

4.7.2. The article is also omitted in telegrams, advertisments, notes, dictionaries: e. g.: “Please, send money school fee” (telegram); “Designer required by company” (advertisment); “Section along equator” (explanation on a map); “North door of screen, inner face” (legend of a picture); “wolf = n. wild patruped, allied to dog” (dictionary), etc.

4.7.3. The ellipsis of the article occurs in stage directions, too: e. g.: “Smith goes table left”; “Enters by front door, goes to telephone on table right, picks receiver, dials number and speaks” , etc.

4. 8. STYLISTIC USES of the omission of the article are sometimes met in literary works-in poetry as well as in prose, e. g.: “Ah, you should keep dogs-fine animals-sagacious creatures-dog of my own once-pointer-surprising instinct-dog stopped-dog transfixied-looked up, saw an inscription: ‘Gamekeeper has order to shoot all dogs in this inclosure’-wonderful dog-valuable dog, etc. „ (Charles Dickens- “Pickwik Papers” );

“For she was prophesing of her glory;

And in her wide imagination stood Palm-shaded temples’and high rival fanes, By Oxus or in Ganges’ sacred isles. „ (John Keats- “Hyperion” ) If in the first fragment the omission of the article occurs as a mannerism (to characterize a personage’s manner of speaking), in the second the article is omitted as a “poetic licence” . Very often, the omission of the article with a stylistic purpose entails personification, e. g.: “I said to Earth, so cold and grey, ‘An emblem of myself thou art’ ‘Not so’ the Earth did seem to say, ‘For Spring shall warm my freezing heart’. „ The poet, J. G. Whittier (“Autumn Thoughts”) speaks to “Earth” , and “he” seems to give him an answer.

But, it is not only the omission of the article that leads to stylistic effects in literary works, but also the presence of the article: In order to introduce somebody /something as a “known“ person/object, as if the reader were already acquainted with them, a writer can use the anaphorical definite article. Thus determined, the noun throws into prominence the object it denotes, transforming it into a sort of proper-noun equivalent, device best illustrated by the first sentence of almost all the epic works of Oscar Wilde with whom it assumes the character of a mannerism, e. g.:

“Every evening the young Fisherman went out upon the sea” . (“The Fisherman and His Soul” ); “Every afternoon, as they were coming from school, the children used to go to play in the Giant’s garden. „ (“The Selfish Giant” ); “One morning the Water-Rat put his head out of his hole. „ (“The Devoted Friend” ); “The studio was filled with the rich odour of roses and when the light summer wind stirred among the trees of the garden, there came through the open door the heavy scent of the lilac. „ (“The Portrait of Dorian Gray” ), etc. The generic definite article may also have stylistic implications, since it lends more graphicalness to individual nouns in the singular than does the indefinite article, the zero article, or the definite article with nouns of multitude, e. g.: “St. Agnes’ Eve –Ah!bitter chill it was! The owl, for all his feathers, was a cold; The hare limp’d trembled through the frozen grass…” (John Keats- “The Eve of St. Agnes” )

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bădescu, Alice, Gramatica limbii engleze, Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1984;

2. Chiriacescu, Adriana, The Noun and Determiners, Editura Teora, Bucureşti, 2003;

3. Gălăţeanu-Fârnoagă, Georgiana/Comişel, Ecaterina, Gramatica limbii engleze, Editura Omegapress, Bucureşti, 1993;

4. Leviţchi Leon, Gramatica limbii engleze, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1971;

5. Leviţchi, Leon / Preda, Ioan, Gramatica limbii engleze, Editura Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti, 1967;

6. Nedelcu, Carmen, English Grammar, Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2004;

7. Panovf, Irina, English Descriptive Grammar, Editura Lucman, Bucureşti, 2001;

8. Paidos, Constantin, English Grammar, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 2003;

9. Thomson, A. J. / Martinet, A. V. , A Practical English Grammar, Oxford University Press, 1995

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