The Art of Writing & Speaking the English Language, By Sherwin Cody

8/13/2019 The Art of Writing & Speaking the English Language, By Sherwin Cody

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The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Art Of Writing & Speaking The English Language, bSher!in "o#

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Title) The Art Of Writing & Speaking The English Language Wor#(Stu#Author) Sher!in "o#

*elease +ate) +ece$ber , --. /EBook 012.123

Language) English

444 STA*T O5 T67S P*O8E"T G9TE:BE*G EBOO; T6E A*T O5 W*7T7:G 444

Pro#uce# b An#re! 6o#son

Language < 9SA English "haracters !ith = > aroun# the$ sho! those a##e# as there are so$e

$istakes in the book & for other reasons & ?@CDF HI sho! the eJtras of 0(ab#egilns K7change# $athe$atical & $eter Krhth$ic arrange$ent of sllables in %erse but $abe the arecorrect an# the others are !rong 7 #i# not change Shak{e}spe{a}re, mortgagor& so$e !or#s inlists Broa# ahas 1 #ot before & 1 un#er instea# of #ots un#er it & the character M shoul# ha%e itsline o%er the letter This arro! sign after a !or# sho!s that the neJt 1 shoul# start the neJtcolu$n NSpecial S'STE E#ition brought fro$ frontispiece The n# book of N"o$position &*hetoric is also in this file

T6E A*T QR W*7T7:G & SPEA;7:G U E:GL7S6 LA:G9AGE

SHERWIN CODY

Special S ' S T E E#ition

WORD-STUDY

The Ol# Greek Press Chicago New{ }York Boston

Revised Edition

Copyright,1!",

B S6E*W7: "O+'

Note The thanks of the author are #ue to +r E#!in 6 Le!is, of the Le!is 7nstitute, "hicago, an#to Prof 8ohn 5 Genung, Ph +, of A$herst "ollege, for suggestions $a#e after rea#ing the proof

of this series


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CONTENTS.

THE ART OF WRITING AND SPEAKING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 7

WORD-STUDY

INTRODUCTIONTHE STUDY OF SPELLING

CHAPTER I. LETTERS AND SOUNDS {VOWELS CONSONANTS EXERCISES THE

DICTIONARY}

CHAPTER II. WORD-BUILDING {PREFIXES}

CHAPTER III. WORD-BUILDINGRu!" #$% A&&'(#)'*$" {EXCEPTIONS}

CHAPTER IV. PRONUNCIATION

CHAPTER V. A SPELLING DRILL

APPENDIX

The Art of Writing an# Speaking the English Language

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

7f there is a subject of reall uni%ersal interest an# utilit, it is the art of !riting an# speaking oneVso!n language effecti%el 7t is the basis of culture, as !e all kno! but it is infinitel $ore than that)it is the basis of business :o sales$an can sell anthing unless he can eJplain the $erits of hisgoo#s in e##ectiveEnglish Ka$ong our people, or can !rite an a#%ertise$ent eXuall effecti%e, or

present his i#eas, an# the facts, in a letter 7n#ee#, the !a !e talk, an# !rite letters, largel#eter$ines our success in life

:o! it is !ell for us to face at once the counter(state$ent that the $ost ignorant an# unculti%ate#$en often succee# best in business, an# that $isspelle#, ungra$$atical a#%ertise$ents ha%e

brought in $illions of #ollars 7t is an ackno!le#ge# fact that our business circulars an# letters are

far inferior in correctness to those of Great Britain et the are $ore effecti%e in getting businessAs far as spelling is concerne#, !e kno! that so$e of the $asters of literature ha%e been atrociousspellers an# $an suppose that !hen one can sin in such co$pan, sinning is, as !e $ight sa, aNbeaut spot, a #efect in !hich !e can e%en take pri#e

Let us eJa$ine the facts in the case $ore closel 5irst of all, language is no $ore than a $e#iu$ itis like air to the creatures of the lan# or !ater to fishes 7f it is perfectl clear an# pure, !e #o notnotice it an $ore than !e notice pure air !hen the sun is shining in a clear sk, or the taste of purecool !ater !hen !e #rink a glass on a hot #a 9nless the sun is shining, there is no brightnessunless the !ater is cool, there is no refresh$ent The source of all our jo in the lan#scape, of theluJuriance of fertile nature, is the sun an# not the air :ature !oul# be $ore pro#igal in eJico

than in Greenlan#, e%en if the air in eJico !ere as full of soot an# s$oke as the air ofPittsburg=h>, or loa#e# !ith the aci# fro$ a che$ical factor So it is !ith language Language is$erel a $e#iu$ for thoughts, e$otions, the intelligence of a finel !rought brain, an# a goo#


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$in# !ill $ake far $ore out of a ba# $e#iu$ than a poor $in# !ill $ake out of the best A great%iolinist !ill #ra! such $usic fro$ the cheapest %iolin that the !orl# is astonishe# 6o!e%er is thatan reason !h the great %iolinist shoul# choose to pla on a poor %iolin or shoul# one sa nothingof the s$oke nuisance in "hicago because $ore light an# heat penetrate its $urk at$osphere thanare to be foun# in cities onl a fe! $iles farther northY The truth is, !e $ust regar# the ba# spellingnuisance, the ba# gra$$ar nuisance, the inZrtistic an# ra$bling language nuisance, precisel as !e

!oul# the s$oke nuisance, the se!er(gas nuisance, the stock(ar#sV s$ell nuisance So$e #aintpeople prefer pure air an# correct language but !e no! recogni[e that purit is so$ething $orethan an esthetic fa#, that it is essential to our health an# !ell(being, an# therefore it beco$es a$atter of uni%ersal public interest, in language as !ell as in air

There is a general belief that !hile ba# air $a be a positi%e e%il influence, incorrect use oflanguage is at $ost no $ore than a negati%e e%il) that !hile it $a be a goo# thing to be correct, nospecial har$ is in%ol%e# in being incorrect Let us look into this point

While language as the $e#iu$ of thought $a be co$pare# to air as the $e#iu$ of the sunVsinfluence, in other respects it is like the skin of the bo# a scur% skin sho!s ba# bloo# !ithin, an#a scur% language sho!s inaccurate thought an# a confuse# $in# An# as a #isease once fiJe# on

the skin reacts an# poisons the bloo# in turn as it has first been poisone# b the bloo#, so carelessuse of language if in#ulge# reacts on the $in# to $ake it per$anentl an# increasingl careless,illogical, an# inaccurate in its thinking

The or#inar person !ill probabl not belie%e this, because he concei%es of goo# use of language asan acco$plish$ent to be learne# fro$ books, a pri$ sste$ of genteel $anners to be put on !henoccasion #e$an#s, a sort of superficial e#ucation in the correct thing, or, as the bos !oul# sa,Nthe proper caper 7n this, ho!e%er, he is $istaken Language !hich eJpresses the thought !ithstrict logical accurac is correct language, an# language !hich is sufficientl rich in its resources toeJpress thought full, in all its lights an# bearings, is effecti%e language 7f the !riter or speaker hasa sufficient stock of !or#s an# for$s at his #isposal, he has onl to use the$ in a strictl logical

!a an# !ith sufficient fulness to be both correct an# effecti%e 7f his $in# can al!as be truste# to!ork accuratel, he nee# not kno! a !or# of gra$$ar eJcept !hat he has i$bibe# unconsciouslin getting his stock of !or#s an# eJpressions 5or$al gra$$ar is purel for critical purposes 7t isno $ore than a stan#ar# $easuring stick b !hich to tr the !ork that has been #one an# fin# out ifit is i$perfect at an point Of course constant correction of inaccuracies schools the $in# an# putsit on its guar# so that it !ill be $ore careful the neJt ti$e it atte$pts eJpression but !e cannota%oi# the conclusion that if the $in# lacks $aterial, lacks kno!le#ge of the essential ele$ents ofthe language, it shoul# go to the original source fro$ !hich it got its first suppl, na$el to rea#ingan# hearing that !hich is ackno!le#ge# to be correct an# sufficient\as the chil# learns fro$ its$other All the scholastic an# analtic gra$$ar in the !orl# !ill not enrich the $in# in language toan appreciable eJtent

An# no! !e $a consi#er another objector, !ho sas, N7 ha%e stu#ie# gra$$ar for ears an# it has#one $e no goo# 7n %ie! of !hat has just been sai#, !e $a easil conce#e that such is %erlikel to ha%e been the case A $easuring stick is of little %alue unless ou ha%e so$ething to$easure Language cannot be acXuire#, onl teste#, b analsis, an# gra$$ar is an analtic, not aconstructi%e science

We ha%e co$pare# ba# use of language to a scur% con#ition of the skin To cure the skin !e $ust#octor the bloo# an# to i$pro%e the language !e shoul# begin b teaching the $in# to think Butthat, ou !ill sa, is a large un#ertaking 'es, but after all it is the $ost #irect an# effecti%e !a Alle#ucation shoul# be in the nature of teaching the $in# to think, an# the teaching of languageconsists in teaching thinking in connection !ith !or# for$s an# eJpression through language The

unfortunate thing is that teachers of language ha%e faile# to go to the root of the trouble, an#enor$ous effort has counte# for nothing, an# besi#es has le# to #iscourage$ent

The A$erican people are note# for being hast in all the #o Their $anufactures are Xuickl $a#e


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an# cheap The ha%e not hitherto ha# ti$e to secure that perfection in $inute #etails !hichconstitutes NXualit The slo!(going Europeans still eJcel in nearl all fine an# high(gra#e for$sof $anufacture\fine potter, fine carpets an# rugs, fine cloth, fine bron[e an# other art !ares 7nour language, too, !e are hast, an# therefore i$perfect 5ine logical accurac reXuires $ore ti$ethan !e ha%e ha# to gi%e to it, an# !e rea# the ne!spapers, !hich are %er poor $o#els oflanguage, instea# of books, !hich shoul# be far better Our stan#ar# of business letters is %er lo!

7t is rare to fin# a letter of an length !ithout one or $ore errors of language, to sa nothing offreXuent errors in spelling $a#e b ignorant stenographers an# not correcte# b the business $en!ho sign the letters

But a change is co$ing o%er us We ha%e su##enl taken to rea#ing books, an# !hile the are notal!as the best books, the are better than ne!spapers An# no! a oung business $an feels that itis #istinctl to his a#%antage if he can #ictate a thoroughl goo# letter to his superior or to a !ellinfor$e# custo$er Goo# letters raise the tone of a business house, poor letters gi%e the i#ea that itis a cheapjack concern 7n social life, !ell !ritten letters, like goo# con%ersational po!ers, bringfrien#s an# intro#uce the !riter into higher circles A co$$an# of language is the in#eJ of culture,an# the une#ucate# $an or !o$an !ho has beco$e !ealth or has gaine# an special success is

eager to put on this !e##ing gar$ent of refine$ent 7f he continues to regar# a goo# co$$an# oflanguage as a !e##ing gar$ent, he !ill probabl fail in his effort but a fe! !ill #isco%er the !ato self(e#ucation an# acti%el follo! it to its conclusion a##ing to their first success this ne!achie%e$ent

But !e $a e%en go farther The right kin# of language(teaching !ill also gi%e us po!er, a kin# ofeloXuence, a skill in the use of !or#s, !hich !ill enable us to fra$e a#%ertise$ents !hich !ill#ra! business, letters !hich !ill !in custo$ers, an# to speak in that elegant an# forceful !a soeffecti%e in selling goo#s When all a#%ertise$ents are couche# in %er i$perfect language, an# all

business letters are carelessl !ritten, of course no one has an a#%antage o%er another, an# a goo#kno!le#ge an# co$$an# of language !oul# not be $uch of a reco$$en#ation to a business $an!ho !ants a goo# assistant But !hen a fe! ha%e co$e in an# b their superior co$$an# of

language gaine# a #istinct a#%antage o%er ri%als, then the po!er inherent in language co$es intouni%ersal #e$an#]]the business stan#ar# is raise# There are $an signs no! that the businessstan#ar# in the use of language is being #istinctl raise# Alrea# a stenographer !ho #oes not$ake errors co$$an#s a salar fro$ ^ per cent to ^- per cent higher than the a%erage, an# isal!as in #e$an# A#%ertise$ent !riters $ust ha%e not onl business instinct but language instinct,an# kno!le#ge of correct, as !ell as forceful, eJpression=>

Grante#, then, that !e are all eager to better our kno!le#ge of theEnglish language, ho! shall !e go about itY

There are literall thousan#s of publishe# books #e%ote# to the stu# an# teaching of our language7n such a floo# it !oul# see$ that !e shoul# ha%e no #ifficult in obtaining goo# gui#es for ourstu#

But !hat #o !e fin#Y We fin# spelling(books fille# !ith lists of !or#s to be $e$ori[e# !e fin#gra$$ars fille# !ith na$es an# #efinitions of all the #ifferent for$s !hich the language assu$es!e fin# rhetorics fille# !ith the na$es of e%er #e%ice e%er e$ploe# to gi%e effecti%eness tolanguage !e fin# books on literature fille# !ith the na$es, #ates of birth an# #eath, an# lists of!orks, of e%er !riter an one e%er hear# of) an# !hen !e ha%e learne# all these na$es !e are no

better off than !hen !e starte# 7t is true that in $an of these books !e $a fin# prefaces !hichsa, NAll other books err in clinging too closel to $ere sste$, to na$es but !e !ill break a!aan# gi%e ou the real thing But the #onVt #o it the canVt affor# to be too ra#ical, an# so the$erel $o#if in a fe! #etails the sa$e ol# sste$, the sste$ of na$es 'et it is a great point

gaine# !hen the necessit for a change is reali[e#6o!, then, shall !e go about our $aster of the English languageY


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o#ern science has pro%i#e# us a uni%ersal $etho# b !hich !e $a stu# an# $aster an subjectAs applie# to an art, this $etho# has pro%e# highl successful in the case of $usic 7t has not beenapplie# to language because there !as a !ell fiJe# $etho# of language stu# in eJistence long

before $o#ern science !as e%en #rea$e# of, an# that ancient $etho# has hel# on !ith !on#erfultenacit The great fault !ith it is that it !as in%ente# to appl to languages entirel #ifferent fro$our o!n Latin gra$$ar an# Greek gra$$ar !ere $echanical sste$s of en#ings b !hich the

relationships of !or#s !ere in#icate# Of course the relationship of !or#s !as at botto$ logical,but the $echanical for$ !as the chief thing to be learne# Our language #epen#s !holl Kor %ernearl so on arrange$ent of !or#s, an# the ke is the logical relationship A $an !ho kno!s allthe for$s of the Latin or Greek language can !rite it !ith substantial accurac but the $an !ho!oul# $aster the English language $ust go #eeper, he $ust $aster the logic of sentence structureor !or# relations We $ust begin our stu# at just the opposite en# fro$ the Latin or Greek but ourteachers of language ha%e balke# at a co$plete re%ersal of $etho#, the po!er of custo$ an# ti$ehas been too strong, an# in the $atter of gra$$ar !e are still the sla%es of the ancient !orl# As forspelling, the irregularities of our language see$ to ha%e #ri%en us to one sole $etho#, $e$ori[ing)an# to $e$ori[e e%er !or# in a language is an appalling task Our rhetoric !e ha%e inherite# fro$the $i##le ages, fro$ scholiasts, refiners, an# theological logicians, a race of $en !ho got their

li%ing b in%enting #istinctions an# splitting hairs The fact is, prose has ha# a %er lo! place in theliterature of the !orl# until !ithin a centur all that !as !orth saing !as sai# in poetr, !hich therhetoricians !ere force# to lea%e se%erel alone, or in orator, fro$ !hich all their rules !ere#eri%e# an# since !ritten prose language beca$e a uni%ersal possession through the printing pressan# the ne!spaper !e ha%e been too bus to in%ent a ne! rhetoric

:o!, language is just as $uch a natural gro!th as trees or rocks or hu$an bo#ies, an# it can ha%eno $ore irregularities, e%en in the $atter of spelling, than these ha%e Science !oul# laugh at thenotion of $e$ori[ing e%er in#i%i#ual for$ of rock 7t seeks the fun#a$ental la!s, it classifies an#groups, an# e%en if the nu$ber of classes or groups is large, still the ha%e a li$it an# can be$astere# 6ere !e ha%e a solution of the spelling proble$ 7n gra$$ar !e fin# se%en fun#a$ental

logical relationships, an# !hen !e ha%e $astere# these an# their chief $o#ifications an#co$binations, !e ha%e the essence of gra$$ar as trul as if !e kne! the na$e for e%er possibleco$bination !hich our se%en fun#a$ental relationships $ight ha%e Since rhetoric is the art ofappealing to the e$otions an# intelligence of our hearers, !e nee# to kno!, not the na$es of all the#ifferent artifices !hich $a be e$ploe#, but the nature an# la!s of e$otion an# intelligence asthe $a be reache# through language for if !e kno! !hat !e are hitting at, a little practice !illenable us to hit accuratel !hereas if !e kne! the na$e of e%er kin# of blo!, an# et !ereignorant of the thing !e !ere hitting at, na$el the intelligence an# e$otion of our fello! $an, !e!oul# be fore%er striking into the air,\striking cle%erl perhaps, but ineffecti%el

6a%ing got our bearings, !e fin# before us a purel practical proble$, that of lea#ing the stu#entthrough the $a[e of a ne! science an# teaching hi$ the skill of an ol# art, eJe$plifie# in a longline of $asters

B !a of preface !e $a sa that the $aster of the English language Kor an language is al$ostthe task of a lifeti$e A fe! eas lessons !ill ha%e no effect We $ust for$ a habit of languagestu# that !ill gro! upon us as !e gro! ol#er, an# little b little, but ne%er b leaps, shall !e$ount up to the full eJpression of all that is in us

WORD-STUDY

INTRODUCTION

THE STUDY OF SPELLING.

The $aster of English spelling is a serious un#er(taking 7n the first place, !e $ust actuall


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$e$ori[e fro$ one to three thousan# !or#s !hich are spelle# in $ore or less irregular !as Thebest that can be #one !ith these !or#s is to classif the$ as $uch as possible an# suggest $etho#sof association !hich !ill ai# the $e$or But after all, the #ru#ger of $e$ori[ing $ust be gonethrough !ith

Again, those !or#s calle# ho$on$s, !hich are pronounce# alike but spelle# #ifferentl, can bestu#ie# onl in connection !ith their $eaning, since the $eaning an# gra$$atical use in thesentence is our onl ke to their for$ So !e ha%e to go consi#erabl beon# the $ere $echanicalassociation of letters

Besi#es the t!o or three thousan# co$$on irregular !or#s, the #ictionar contains so$ething o%ert!o hun#re# thousan# other !or#s Of course no one of us can possibl ha%e occasion to use all ofthose !or#s but at the sa$e ti$e, e%er one of us $a sooner or later ha%e occasion to use an oneof the$ As !e cannot tell before han# !hat ones !e shall nee#, !e shoul# be prepare# to !rite anor all of the$ upon occasion Of course !e $a refer to the #ictionar but this is not al!as, orin#ee# %er often, possible 7t !oul# ob%iousl be of i$$ense a#%antage to us if !e coul# fin# ake to the spelling of these nu$erous but infreXuentl use# !or#s

The first #ut of the instructor in spelling shoul# be to pro%i#e such a ke We !oul# suppose, off(han#, that the three hun#re# thousan# school(teachers in the 9nite# States !oul# #o thisi$$e#iatel an# !ithout suggestion]]certainl that the !riters of school(books !oul# But $anthings ha%e stoo# in the !a 7t is onl !ithin a fe! ears, co$parati%el speaking, that ourlanguage has beco$e at all fiJe# in its spelling :oah Webster #i# a great #eal to establish

principles, an# bring the spelling of as $an !or#s as possible to confor$ !ith these principles an#!ith such analogies as see$e# fairl !ell establishe# But other #ictionar($akers ha%e set up theiri#eas against his, an# !e ha%e a conflict of authorities 7f for an reason one fin#s hi$self spelling a!or# #ifferentl fro$ the !orl# about hi$, he begins to sa, NWell, that is the spelling gi%en inWorcester, or the "entur, or the Stan#ar#, or the ne! OJfor# So the !or# Nauthorit loo$s bigon the hori[on an# !e think so $uch about authorit, an# about #ifferent authorities, that !e forget

to look for principles, as r Webster !oul# ha%e us #oAnother reason for neglecting rules an# principles is that the lists of eJceptions are often sofor$i#able that !e get #iscourage# an# eJclai$, N7f nine tenths of the !or#s 7 use e%er #a areeJceptions to the rules, !hat is the use of the rules an!a_ Well, the !or#s !hich constitute thatother tenth !ill aggregate in actual nu$bers far $ore than the co$$on !or#s !hich for$ the chief

part of e%er#a speech, an# as the are selecte# at ran#o$ fro$ a %astl larger nu$ber, the onlpossible !a to $aster the$ is b acXuiring principles, consciousl or unconsciousl, !hich !illser%e as a ke to the$ So$e people ha%e the facult of unconsciousl for$ulating principles fro$their e%er#a obser%ations, but it is a slo! process, an# $an ne%er acXuire it unless it is taughtthe$

The spelling proble$ is not to learn ho! to spell nine tenths of our !or#s correctl :earl all of uscan an# #o acco$plish that The goo# speller $ust spell nine hun#re# an# ninet(nine onethousan#ths of his !or# correctl, !hich is Xuite another $atter So$e of us go e%en one figurehigher

Our first task is clearl to co$$it the co$$on irregular !or#s to $e$or 6o! $a !e #o that$ost easilY 7t is a huge task at best, but e%er poun# of life energ !hich !e can sa%e in #oing it isso $uch gaine# for higher efforts We shoul# stri%e to econo$i[e effort in this just as the$anufacturer tries to econo$i[e in the cost of $aking his goo#s

7n this particular $atter, it see$s to the present !riter that $akers of $o#ern spelling(books ha%eco$$itte# a great blun#er in $iJing in#iscri$inatel regular !or#s !ith irregular, an# co$$on

!or#s !ith unco$$on "learl !e shoul# $e$ori[e first the !or#s !e use $ost often, an# thentake up those !hich !e use less freXuentl But the superinten#ent of the E%anston schools hasreporte# that out of one hun#re# first(rea#er !or#s !hich he ga%e to his gra$$ar classes as a


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spelling test, so$e !ere $isspelle# b all but siJteen per cent=> of the pupils An# et these sa$epupils !ere stu#ing busil a!a oncategories, concatenation,an# amphi$io%s The spelling(book$akers feel that the $ust put har# !or#s into their spellers Their books are little $ore than lists of!or#s, an# an one can $ake lists of co$$on, eas !or#s A spelling(book fille# !ith co$$oneas !or#s !oul# not see$ to be !orth the price pai# for it Pupils an# teachers $ust get their$oneVs !orth, e%en if the ne%er learn to spell Of course the teachers are eJpecte# to furnish #rills

the$sel%es on the co$$on, eas !or#s but unfortunatel the take their cue fro$ the spelling(book, each #a $erel assigning to the class the neJt page The ha%enVt ti$e to select, an# no onecoul# consistentl eJpect the$ to #o other!ise than as the #o #o

To $eet this #ifficult, the author of this book has prepare# a %ersion of the stor of *obinson"rusoe !hich contains a large proportion of the co$$on !or#s !hich offer #ifficult in spelling9nluckil it is not eas to pro#uce classic English !hen one is !riting un#er the necessit of usinga %ocabular pre%iousl selecte# 6o!e%er, if !e concentrate our attention on the !or#(for$s, !eare not likel to be $uch injure# b the ungraceful sentence(for$s This stor is not long, but itshoul# be #ictate# to e%er school class, beginning in the fourth gra#e, until everypupil canspell every!or# correctl A high percentage is not enough, as in the case of so$e other stu#ies

An pupil !ho $isses a single !or# in an eJercise shoul# be $arke# [eroBut e%en if one can spell correctl e%er !or# in this stor, he $a still not be a goo# speller, forthere are thousan#s of other !or#s to be spelle#, $an of !hich are not an# ne%er !ill be foun# inan spelling(book The chief object of a course of stu# in spelling is to acXuire t!o habits, thehabit of obser%ing articulate soun#s, an# the habit of obser%ing !or#(for$s in rea#ing

1 Train the Ear 9ntil the habit of obser%ing articulate soun#s carefull has been acXuire#, theniceties of pronunciation are beon# the stu#entVs reach, an# eXuall the niceties of spelling are

beon# his reach, too 7n or#inar speaking, $an %o!els an# e%en so$e consonants are slurre#an# obscure# 7f the ear is not traine# to eJactness, this habit of slurring intro#uces $aninaccuracies E%en in careful speaking, $an obscure soun#s are so nearl alike that onl a finel

traine# ear can #etect an #ifference Who of us notices an #ifferencebet!een erinpardoneran# orin honorY "areful speakers #o not pass o%er the latter sllable Xuiteso hastil as o%er the for$er, but onl the $ost finel traine# ear !ill #etect an #ifference e%en inthe pronunciation of the $ost finel traine# %oice

7n the lo!er gra#es in the schools the ear $a be traine# b gi%ing separate utterance to each soun#in a gi%en !or#, as f(r(e(n(#,#riend,allo!ing each letter onl its true %alue in the !or# Still it $aalso be obtaine# b reXuiring careful an# #istinct pronunciation in rea#ing, not, ho!e%er, to theeJtent of eJaggerating the %alue of obscure sllables, or painfull accentuating sllables naturallobscure

A#ults Kbut sel#o$ chil#ren $a train the ear b rea#ing poetr alou#, al!as guar#ing against the

sing(song stle, but tring to har$oni[e nicel the sense an# the rhth$ A traine# ear is absolutelnecessar to rea#ing poetr !ell, an# the constant rea#ing alou# of poetr cannot but affor# ana#$irable eJercise

5or chil#ren, the use of #iacritical $arks has little or no %alue, until the necessit arises forconsulting the #ictionar for pronunciation The are but a $echanical sste$, an# the sste$ !eco$$onl use is so #e%oi# of per$anence in its character that e%er #ictionar has a #ifferentsste$ The one $ost co$$on in the schools is that intro#uce# b Webster but if !e !oul# consultthe Stan#ar# or the "entur or the OJfor#, !e $ust learn our sste$ all o%er again To the chil#,an sste$ is a clog an# a hin#rance, an# Xuite useless in teaching hi$ phonetic %alues, !herein the%oice of the teacher is the true $e#iu$

5or ol#er stu#ents, ho!e%er, especiall stu#ents at ho$e, !here no teacher is a%ailable, phonetic!riting b $eans of #iacritical $arks has great %alue4 7t is the onl practicable !a of representingthe soun#s of the %oice on paper When the stu#ent !rites phoneticall he is oblige# to obser%e


8/99

closel his o!n %oice an# the %oices of others in or#inar speech, an# so his ear is traine# 7t alsotakes the place of the %oice for #ictation in spelling tests b $ail or through the $e#iu$ of books

4There shoul# be no $ore $arks than there are soun#s When t!o %o!els ha%e the sa$e soun# oneshoul# be !ritten as a substitute for the other, as !e ha%e #one in this book

Train the Ee :o #oubt the $ost effecti%e !a of learning spelling is to train the ee carefull to

obser%e the for$s of the !or#s !e rea# in ne!spapers an# in books 7f this habit is for$e#, an# thehabit of general rea#ing acco$panies it, it is sufficient to $ake a nearl perfect speller The greatXuestion is, ho! to acXuire it

Of course in or#er to rea# !e are oblige# to obser%e the for$s of !or#s in a general !a, an# if this!ere all that is nee#e#, !e shoul# all be goo# spellers if !e !ere able to rea# fluentl But it is notall The obser%ation of the general for$ of a !or# is not the obser%ation that teaches spelling We$ust ha%e the habit of obser%ing e%er letter in e%er !or#, an# this !e are not likel to ha%e unless!e gi%e special attention to acXuiring it

The N%isuali[ation $etho# of teaching spelling no! in use in the schools is along the line oftraining the ee to obser%e e%er letter in a !or# 7t is goo# so far as it goes but it #oes not go %er

far The reason is that there is a li$it to the po!ers of the $e$or, especiall in the obser%ation ofarbitrar co$binations of letters What habits of %isuali[ation !oul# enable the or#inar person toglance at such a co$bination as the follo!ing an# !rite it ten $inutes after!ar# !ith no ai# but thesingle glance) hwg%#ht$i&wskop'mne(7t !oul# reXuire so$e $inutesV stu# to $e$ori[e such aco$bination, because there is nothing to ai# us but the sheer succession of for$s The $e$or!orks b association We buil# up a %ast structure of kno!le#ge, an# each ne! fact or for$ $ust beas securel attache# to this as the ne! !ing of a buil#ing an# the $ore points at !hich attach$entcan be for$e# the $ore easil is the a##ition $a#e

The aster of 7rregular Wor#s

6ere, then, !e ha%e the real reason for a long stu# of principles, analogies, an# classifications

The help us to re$e$ber 7f 7 co$e to the !or# co'onnadein rea#ing, 7 obser%e at once that the#ouble nis an irregularit 7t catches $ ee i$$e#iatel NAh_ 7 reflect al$ost in the fraction of asecon# as 7 rea# in continuous flo!, Nhere is another of those eJceptions Buil#ing on !hat 7alrea# kno! perfectl !ell, 7 $aster this !or# !ith the %er slightest effort 7f !e can buil# up asste$ !hich !ill ser%e the $e$or b !a of association, so that the slight effort that can begi%en in or#inar rea#ing !ill ser%e to fiJ a !or# $ore or less full, !e can soon acXuire a$ar%ellous po!er in the accurate spelling of !or#s

Again) 7n a spelling(book before $e 7 see lists of !or#s en#ing in ise, i&e,an#yse,all $iJe#together !ith no #istinction The arrange$ent suggests $e$ori[ing e%er !or# in the languageen#ing !ith either of these ter$inations, an# until !e ha%e $e$ori[e# an particular !or# !e ha%e

no $eans of kno!ing !hat the ter$ination is 7f, ho!e%er, !e are taught that i&eis the co$$onen#ing, that iseis the en#ing of onl thirt(one !or#s, an#yseof onl three or four, !e re#uce ourtask enor$ousl an# ai# the $e$or in acXuiring the fe! eJceptions When !e co$eto#ranchisein rea#ing !e reflect rapi#l, NAnother of those %erbs in ise_ or topara'yse,NOne ofthose %er fe! %erbs inyse_ We gi%e no thought !hate%er to all the %erbs en#ing in i&e,an# sosa%e so $uch energ for other acXuire$ents

7f !e can sa, NThis is a %iolation of such an# such a rule, or NThis is a strange irregularit, orNThis belongs to the class of !or#s !hich substitutes eafor the long soun# of e,or for the shortsoun# of e

We ha%e an association of the unkno!n !ith the kno!n that is the $ost po!erful possible ai# to the

$e$or The sste$ $a fail in an# of itself, but it $ore than ser%es its purpose thus in#irectl inai#ing the $e$or

We ha%e not spoken of the association of !or# for$s !ith soun#s, the grouping of the letters of


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!or#s into sllables, an# the ai# that a careful pronunciation gi%es the $e$or b !a ofassociation for !hile this is the $ost po!erful ai# of all, it #oes not nee# eJplanation

The aster of *egular Wor#s

We ha%e spoken of the $aster of irregular !or#s, an# in the last paragraph but one !e ha%ereferre# to the ai# !hich general principles gi%e the $e$or b !a of association in acXuiring the

eJceptions to the rules We !ill no! consi#er the great class of !or#s for$e# accor#ing to fiJe#principles

Of course these la!s an# rules are little $ore than a string of analogies !hich !e obser%e in ourstu# of the language The language !as not an# ne%er !ill be built to fit these rules The usage ofthe people is the onl authorit E%en clear logic goes #o!n before usage Languages gro! like$ushroo$s, or lilies, or bears, or hu$an bo#ies Like these the ha%e occult an# profoun# la!s!hich !e can ne%er hope to penetrate,\!hich are kno!n onl to the creator of all things eJistentBut as in botan an# [o`log an# phsiolog !e $a obser%e an# classif our obser%ations, so !e$a obser%e a language, classif our obser%ations, an# create an e$pirical science of !or#(for$ation Possibl in ti$e it !ill beco$e a science so$ething $ore than e$pirical

The la!s !e are able at this ti$e to state !ith $uch #efiniteness are fe! K#oubling consonants,#ropping silent eVs, changing Vs to iVs, accenting the penulti$ate an# antepenulti$ate sllables,lengthening an# shortening %o!els 7n a##ition !e $a classif eJceptions, for the sole purpose ofai#ing the $e$or

7gnorance of these principles an# classifications, an# kno!le#ge of the causes an# sources of theirregularities, shoul# be pronounce# cri$inal in a teacher an# failure to teach the$, $ore thancri$inal in a spelling(book 7t is true that $ost spelling(books #o gi%e the$ in one for$ or another,

but in%ariabl !ithout #ue e$phasis or special #rill, a lack !hich ren#ers the$ !orthless Pupilsan# stu#ents shoul# be #rille# upon the$ till the are as fa$iliar as the $ultiplication table

We kno! ho! $ost persons stu$ble o%er the pronunciation of na$es in the Bible an# in classic

authors The are eXuall nonplusse# !hen calle# upon to !rite !or#s !ith !hich the are no $orefa$iliar The cannot e%en pronounce si$ple English na$es like Cody,!hich the call N"o##, inanalog !ith $ody,because the #o not kno! that in a !or# of t!o sllables a single %o!elfollo!e# b a single consonant is regularl long !hen accente# At the sa$e ti$e the !ill spell the!or# in all kin#s of Xueer !as, !hich are in analog onl !ith eJceptions, not !ith regularfor$ations 9nless a person kno!s !hat the regular principles are, he cannot kno! ho! a !or#shoul# regularl be spelle# A strange !or# is spelle# Xuite regularl nine ti$es out of ten, an# ifone #oes not kno! eJactl ho! to spell a !or#, it is $uch $ore to his cre#it to spell it in a regular!a than in an irregular !a

The truth is, the onl possible ke !e can ha%e to those thousan#s of strange !or#s an# proper

na$es !hich !e $eet onl once or t!ice in a lifeti$e, is the sste$ of principles for$ulate# bphilologists, if for no other reason, !e shoul# $aster it that !e $a co$e as near as possible tospelling proper na$es correctl

CHAPTER I.

LETTERS AND SOUNDS.

We $ust begin our stu# of the English language !ith the ele$entar soun#s an# the letters !hichrepresent the$

:a$e the first letter of the alphabet]]a The $outh is open an# the soun# $a be prolonge#in#efinitel 7t is a full, clear soun#, an unobstructe# %ibration of the %ocal chor#s

:o! na$e the secon# letter of the alphabet]]$ 'ou sa $eeor $%h 'ou cannot prolong the


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soun# 7n or#er to gi%e the real soun# of $ou ha%e to associate it !ith so$e other soun#, as thatof eor % 7n other !or#s, $is in the nature of an obstruction of soun#, or a $o#ification of soun#,rather than a si$ple ele$entar soun# in itself There is in#ee# a slight soun# in the throat, but it isa close# soun# an# cannot be prolonge# 7n the case ofp,!hich is si$ilar to $,there is no soun#fro$ the throat

So !e see that there are t!o classes of soun#s Krepresente# b t!o classes of letters, those !hichare full an# open tones fro$ the %ocal chor#s, pronounce# !ith the $outh open, an# capable of

being prolonge# in#efinitel an# those !hich are in the nature of $o#ifications of these opensoun#s, pronounce# !ith or !ithout the help of the %oice, an# incapable of being prolonge# Thefirst class of soun#s is calle# %o!el soun#s, the secon#, consonant soun#s Of the t!ent(siJ lettersof the alphabet, a, e, i, o,an# %Kso$eti$esyan# w represent %o!el soun#s an# are calle# %o!elsan# the re$ain#er represent consonant soun#s, an# are calle# consonants

A sllable is an ele$entar soun#, or a co$bination of ele$entar soun#s, !hich can be gi%en easan# #istinct utterance at one effort An %o!el $a for$ a sllable b itself, but as !e ha%e seenthat a consonant $ust be unite# !ith a %o!el for its perfect utterance, it follo!s that e%er sllable$ust contain a %o!el soun#, e%en if it also contains consonant soun#s With that %o!el soun# one

or $ore consonants $a be unite# but the !as in !hich consonants $a co$bine !ith a %o!el tofor$ a sllable are li$ite# 7n general !e $a place an consonant before an# an consonant afterthe %o!el in the sa$e sllable) butyfor instance, can be gi%en a consonant soun# onl at the

beginning of a sllable, as inyet at the en# of a sllableybeco$es a %o!el soun#, asin theyor on'y 7n the sllable twe'#ths!e fin# se%en consonant soun#s but if these sa$e letters!ere arrange# in al$ost an other !a the coul# not be pronounce# as one sllable\as forinstance wte'th#s

A !or# consists of one or $ore sllables to !hich so$e #efinite $eaning is attache#

The #ifficulties of spelling an# pronunciation arise largel fro$ the fact that in English t!ent(siJletters $ust #o #ut for so$e fort(t!o soun#s, an# e%en then se%eral of the letters are unnecessar,

as for instance c,!hich has either the soun# ofsor of k),!hich has the soun# either of ks,gs,or& *,!hich in the co$bination *%has the soun# of kw All the %o!els represent fro$ t!o tose%en soun#s each, an# so$e of the consonants interchange !ith each other

The Soun#s of the o!els\K1 Each of the %o!els has !hat is calle# a long soun# an# a shortsoun# 7t is i$portant that these t!o sets of soun#s be fiJe# clearl in the $in#, as se%eral necessarrules of spelling #epen# upon the$ 7n stu#ing the follo!ing table, note that the long soun# is$arke# b a straight line o%er the letter, an# the short soun# b a cur%e

+ong Shortte t g%e $n n$e bg

thdse pt $d tn Kco$pldte br#

kte st rce $ll l$e rpnte nt r#e r# sle T$

cre bt cte rn Kabse crst

scMthe Klikel

7f !e obser%e the foregoing list of !or#s !e shall see that each of the !or#s containing a long%o!el follo!e# b a single consonant soun# en#s in silent e After the short %o!els there is nosilent e 7n each case in !hich !e ha%e the silent ethere is a single long %o!el follo!e# b a singleconsonant, or t!o consonants co$bining to for$ a single soun#, as thinscythe Such !or#s as ro'',to'',etc, en#ing in #ouble 'ha%e no silent ethough the %o!el is long an# such !or#s asgreat,

meet, pai',etc, in !hich t!o %o!els co$bine !ith the soun# of one, take no silent eat the en# Weshall consi#er these eJceptions $ore full later but asing'e 'ong%o!el follo!e# basing'econsonant a'waystakes silent eat the en# As carefull state# in this !a, the rule has no


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eJceptions The re%erse, ho!e%er, is not al!as true, for a fe! !or#s containing a short %o!elfollo!e# b a single consonant #o take silent e but there are %er fe! of the$ The principalare have, give,=K7> 'ive, 'ove, shove, dove, a$ovealso none, some, come,an# so$e !or#s in threeor $ore sllables, such as domici'e

Besi#e the long an# short soun#s of the %o!els there are se%eral other %o!el soun#s

A has t!o other #istinct soun#s)m q vwxy aw,as in a'', ta'k,etc

z 7talian, like ah,as in#ar, #ather,etc

+ouble o has t!o soun#s #ifferent fro$ long or short oalone)

long as in room, soon, mood,etc

short , as ingood, took, wood,etc

O! has a soun# of its o!n, as in how, crowd, a''ow,etc an# o%so$eti$es has the sa$e soun#, asin 'o%d, ro%t, $o%gh,etc

K-wan# o%are also so$eti$es soun#e# like long o,as in own, crow, po%r,etc, an# so$eti$es ha%estill other soun#s, aso%in $o%ght

Oi an# o ha%e a #istinct soun# of their o!n, as in oi', toi', oyster, void, $oy, emp'oy,etc

-wan# oiare calle# proper #iphthongs, as the t!o %o!els co$bine to pro#uce a soun# #ifferentfro$ either, !hile such co$binations as ei, ea, ai,etc, are calle# i$proper #iphthongs Kor#igraphs, because the ha%e the soun# of one or other of the si$ple %o!els

{ 7n the prece#ing paragraphs !e ha%e gi%en all the #istinct %o!el soun#s of the language, though$an of the$ are slightl $o#ifie# in certain co$binations But in $an cases one %o!el !ill begi%en the soun# of another %o!el, an# t!o or $ore %o!els !ill co$bine !ith a %ariet of soun#s

These irregularities occur chiefl in a fe! hun#re# co$$on !or#s, an# cause the $ain #ifficultiesof spelling the English language The follo!ing are the lea#ing substitutes)

e! !ith the soun# of %long, as in#ew, chew,etc Kperhaps this $a be consi#ere# a proper#iphthong

e K., / !ith the soun# of along, as in#.te, a$$/,an# all foreign !or#s !ritten !ith an accent,especiall 5rench !or#s

i !ith the soun# of elong, as in machine,an# nearl all 5rench an# other foreign !or#s

o has the soun# of #ouble olong in tom$, wom$, prove, move,etc, an# of #ouble oshort in wo'#,women,etc

o also has the soun# of %short in a$ove, 'ove, some, done,etcu has the soun# of #ouble olong after r,as in r%de, r%'e

it also has the soun# of #ouble oshort inp%t, p%'', $%'', s%re,etc

ea has the soun# of along, as ingreat of elong, as in heat of eshort, as in head of a7talian Kah,as in heart, hearth,etc

ei has the soun# of elong, as in receive of along, as in#reight, weight so$eti$es of ilong, asin eitheran# neither,pronounce# !ith either the soun# of elong or ilong, the latter being theEnglish usage

ie has the soun# of ilong, as in 'ie,an# of elong, as in $e'ie#,an# of ishort, as insieve

ai has the soun# of along, as in 'aid, $ai', train,etc, an# of ashort, as inp'aid

a has the soun# of along, as inp'ay, $etray, say,etc


12/99

oa has the soun# of olong, as in moan, #oam, coarse,etc

There are also $an peculiar an# occasional substitutions of soun#s as in anyan# manyKa as, womenKo as , $%syKu as ,saidKai as ,peop'eKeo as d, $%i'dKu as ,ga%geKau as, whatKa as , etc

When an of these co$binations are to be pronounce# as separate %o!els, in t!o sllables, t!o #ots

shoul# be place# o%er the secon#, as in na0ve| The chief $o#ifications of the ele$entar soun#s are the follo!ing)

before reach of the %o!els e, i, o, %,an#yhas al$ost the sa$e soun# K$arke# like the Spanish }as in her, $irth, honor, $%rr,an# myrt'e obefore rso$eti$es has the soun# of aw,as in or, #or,etc

in unaccente# sllables, each of the long %o!els has a slightl shortene# soun#, as in f~a~talit,n~e~gotiate, int~o~nation, ref~u~tation, in#icate# b a #ot abo%e the sign for the long soun# Kin afe! !or#s, such as #~i~gress, the soun# is not shortene#, ho!e%er

long aK is slightl $o#ifie# in such !or#s as care, #are, $are,etc, !hile ehas the sa$e soun# in!or#s like there, their,an# where y v yvy wy athe short soun# in such !or#s

as care,etc, an# pronounce therean# where!ith the short soun# of a,!hile theiris pronounce#!ith the short soun# of e) this is not the best usage, ho!e%er

inpass, c'ass, command, 'a%gh,etc, !e ha%e a soun# of abet!een 7talian aan# short aKin#icate#b a single #ot o%er thea, though $ost A$ericans pronounce it as short, an# $ost English gi%e the7talian soun#) the correct pronunciation is bet!een these t!o

The Soun#s of the "onsonants We ha%e alrea# seen that there are t!oclasses of consonant soun#s, those !hich ha%e a %oice soun#, as $,calle#sonant,an# those !hich are $ere breath soun#s, likep,calle#s%rdsor aspirates The chief #ifference bet!een $an#pis that one has the %oice soun# an# the other has not ost of the

other consonants also stan# in pairs We $a sa that the sonantconsonant an# its correspon#ing sur# are the har# an# soft for$s ofthe sa$e soun# The follo!ing table contains also si$ple consonantsoun#s represente# b t!o letters)Sonant S%rd

b p # t % f g Khar# k j ch [ s

th Kin thine th Kin thin [h Kor [ as in a&%re sh ! l $ n r h

7f !e go #o!n this list fro$ the top to the botto$, !e see that $is the $ost close# soun#, !hile histhe $ost slight an# open, an# the others are gra#e# in bet!een Kthough not precisel as arrange#

abo%e These #istinctions are i$portant, because in $aking co$binations of consonants in thesa$e sllable or in successi%e sllables !e cannot pass abruptl fro$ a close# soun# to an opensoun#, or the re%erse, nor fro$ a sur# soun# to a sonant, or the re%erse+, m, n,an# rare calle#


13/99

liXui#s, an# easil co$bine !ith other consonants an# so #o the sibilants Ks, &,etc 7n the gro!thof the language, $an changes ha%e been $a#e in letters to secure har$on of soun# Kaschanging $topins%$port22s%pport,an#s,to#in di##er\fro$disan##ero So$e co$binationsare not possible of pronunciation, others are not natural or eas an# hence the alterations Thestu#ent of the language $ust kno! ho! !or#s are built an# then !hen he co$es to a strange !or#he can reconstruct it for hi$self While the short, co$$on !or#s $a be irregular, the long, strange

!or#s are al$ost al!as for$e# Xuite regularlost of the sonants ha%e but one soun#, an# none of the$ has $ore than three soun#s The $osti$portant %ariations are as follo!s)

" an# G ha%e each a soft soun# an# a har# soun# The soft soun# of cis the sa$e ass,an# the har#soun# the sa$e as k The soft soun# ofgis the sa$e as3,an# the har# soun# is the true soun#ofgas hear# ingone, $%g, str%gg'e

7$portant *ule Can# 4are soft before e, i,an#y,an# har# before all the other %o!els, before allthe other consonants, an# at the en# of !or#s

The chief eJceptions to this rule are a fe! co$$on !or#s in !hichgis har# before eor i The

inclu#e\give, get, gi'', gim'et, gir', gi$$erish, ge'ding, gerrymander, gewgaw, geyser, giddy,gi$$on, gi#t, gig, gigg'e, gi'd, gimp, gingham, gird, girt, girth, eager,an# $egin G is soft before aconsonant in3%dgment{,} 'odgment, acknow'edgment,etc Also in a fe! !or#s fro$ foreignlanguages cis soft before other %o!els, though in such cases it shoul# al!as be !ritten !ith ace#illa K

: !hen $arke# } in !or#s fro$ the Spanish language is pronounce# nyKca}on like canyon

:g has a peculiar nasal soun# of its o!n, as hear# in the sllable ing

: alone also has the soun# of ngso$eti$es beforegan# k,as in ang'e, ank'e, sing'e,etcKpronounce# angg'e, angk'e, singg'e

Ph has the soun# of#,as in prophetTh has t!o soun#s, a har# soun# as in the, than, $athe, scythe,etc, an# a soft soun# as in thin, kith,$ath, Smith,etc "ontrast $reathean# $reath, 'athan# 'athe an# $athan# $aths, 'athan# 'aths,etc

S has t!o soun#s, one its o!n soun#, as insin, kiss, #istKthe sa$e as cin 'ace, rice,etc, an# thesoun# of&,as in riseKcontrast !ith rice, is, $aths, men5s,etc

has t!o co$$on soun#s, one that of ksas in $o), si),etc, an# the other the soun# ofgs,asin e)act, e)aggerateKb the !a, the firstgin this !or# is silent At the beginning of a !or#)hasthe soun# of&as in6er)es

"h has three soun#s, as hear# first in chi'd,secon# in machine,an# thir# in character The first is

peculiar to itself, the secon# is that ofsh,an# the thir# that of kThe soun# ofshis %ariousl represente#)

bsh{,}as inshare, shi#t, shirt,etc

b ti,as in condition, mention, sanction,etc

bsi,as in tension, s%spension, e)tension,etc

b ci,as ins%spicion KAlso, cr%ci#i)ion

The kin#re# soun# of&his represente# b&as in a&%re,an#sas inp'eas%re,an# b so$eco$binations

' is al!as a consonant at the beginning of a !or# !hen follo!e# b a %o!el, as inyet, year,ye'',etc but if follo!e# b a consonant it is a %o!el, as in Ypsi'anti At the en# of a !or# it is=al>!as a %o!el, as in all !or#s en#ing in the sllable'y


14/99

EJercises 7t is %er i$portant that the stu#ent shoul# $aster the soun#s of the language an# thes$bols for the$, or the #iacritical $arks, for se%eral reasons)

5irst, because it is i$possible to fin# out the true pronunciation of a !or# fro$ the #ictionar unlessone clearl un#erstan#s the $eaning of the principal $arks

Secon#, because one of the essentials in accurate pronunciation an# goo# spelling is the habit of

anal[ing the soun#s !hich co$pose !or#s, an# training the ear to #etect slight %ariationsThir#, because a thorough kno!le#ge of the soun#s an# their natural s$bols is the first stepto!ar# a stu# of the principles go%erning !or# for$ation, or spelling an# pronunciation

5or purposes of instruction through correspon#ence or b $eans of a teJtbook, the #iacritical $arksrepresenting #istinct soun#s of the language affor# a substitute for the %oice in #ictation an# si$ilareJercises, an# hence such !ork reXuires a $aster of !hat $ight at first sight see$ a purel$echanical an# useless sste$

One of the best eJercises for the $aster of this sste$ is to open the unabri#ge# #ictionar at anpoint an# cop out lists of !or#s, !riting the !or#s as the or#inaril appear in one colu$n, an# inan a#joining colu$n the phonetic for$ of the !or# When the list is co$plete, co%er one colu$n

an# repro#uce the other fro$ an application of the principles that ha%e been learne# After a fe!#as, repro#uce the phonetic for$s fro$ the !or#s as or#inaril !ritten, an# again the or#inar!or# fro$ the phonetic for$ A%oi# $e$ori[ing as $uch as possible, but !ork solel b theapplication of principles :e%er !rite #o!n a phonetic for$ !ithout full un#erstan#ing its$eaning in e%er #etail A ke to the %arious $arks !ill be foun# at the botto$ of e%er page of the#ictionar, an# the stu#ent shoul# refer to this freXuentl 7n the front part of the #ictionar there!ill also be foun# an eJplanation of all possible soun#s that an letter $a ha%e an# e%er soun#that an letter $a ha%e $a be in#icate# b a peculiar $ark, so that since se%eral letters $arepresent the sa$e soun# there are a %ariet of s$bols for the sa$e soun# 5or the purposes of this

book it has see$e# best to offer onl one s$bol for each soun#, an# that s$bol the one $ostfreXuentl use# 5or that reason the follo!ing eJa$ple !ill not correspon# precisel !ith the for$sgi%en in the #ictionar, but a stu# of the #ifferences !ill affor# a %aluable eJercise

7llustration4

47n this eJercise, %o!els before r $arke# in !ebster !ith the #ouble cur%e use# o%er the Spanish n,are left un$arke# +ouble o !ith the short soun# is also left un$arke#

The first place that 7 can !ell re$e$ber !as a large, Th first pls tht 7 kan !l rd$$ber !o[ lzrj,

pleasant $ea#o! !ith a pon# of clear !ater in it So$e plsnt $# !ith pn# % kldr !ter init S$

sha# trees leane# o%er it, an# rushes an# !ater(lilies sh# trd[ ldn# %er it, n# rshd[ n# !ter(lli[

gre! at the #eep en# O%er the he#ge on one si#e !e looke# gr t thd #dp n# %er thd hj n !ns# !d lookt

into a plo!e# fiel#, an# on the other !e looke# o%er a int plo!# fdl#=,> n# n thd ther !dlookt %er

gate at our $asterVs house, !hich stoo# b the roa#si#e gt t o!r $sterV[ ho!s, h!ich stoo# bthd r#s#

At the top of the $ea#o! !as a gro%e of fir(trees, an# at

At thd top % the $d# ![ gr% % fir(trd[, n# tthe botto$ a running brook o%erhung b a steep bank thd bt$ a rning brook %erhng b a stdp

bnk


15/99

Whilst 7 !as oung 7 li%e# upon $ $otherVs $ilk, as 7 coul# 6!ilst 7 ![ ng 7 li%# pn $ $therV[ $ilk, [ 7 koo#

not eat grass 7n the #ati$e 7 ran b her si#e, an# at night nt dt grs 7n thd #t$ 7 rn b her s#,n# t nt

7 la #o!n close b her When it !as hot !e use# to stan#

7 l #o!n kls b her 6!n it ![ ht !d [# t stn#b the pon# in the sha#e of the trees, an# !hen it !as col# b thd pn# in thd sh# % thd trd[, n#h!dn it ![ kl#

!e ha# a nice, !ar$ she# near the gro%e !d h# ns, !a!r$ sh# ndr thd gr%

:ote 7n WebsterVs #ictionar letters !hich are un$arke# ha%e an obscure soun# often not unlike uh,or are silent, an# letters printe# in italics are nearl eli#e#, so %er slight is the soun# the ha%e if itcan be sai# to eJist at all 7n the illustration abo%e, all %er obscure soun#s ha%e been replace# bthe apostrophe, !hile no #istinction has been $a#e bet!een short %o!els in accente# an#unaccente# sllables

Stu#ies fro$ the +ictionarThe follo!ing are taken fro$ WebsterVs +ictionar)

Ab(#$(i(nos) The ain a$is onl a little shorter than ain at,an# the iis short being unaccente#,!hile the ois silent, the sllable ha%ing the soun# ns as in#icate# b the $ark o%er the %

Lssen, Klsn, lsson, Klssn, lsser, lssor) Each of these !or#s has t!o #istinct sllables,though there is no recogni[able %o!el soun# in the last sllables of the first t!o This eli#ing of the%o!el is sho!n b printing the ean# the oof the final sllables in italics 7n the last t!o !or#s the%o!els of the final sllables are not $arke#, but ha%e nearl the soun# the !oul# ha%e if $arke#in the usual !a for ean# obefore r As the sllables are not accente# the %o!el soun# is slightlobscure# Or in 'essorhas the soun# of the !or# orKnearl, not the soun# of orin honor,!hich

!ill be foun# re(spelle# Knur 7t !ill be note# that the #ouble s is #i%i#e# in t!o of the !or#s an#not in the other t!o 7n 'esseran# 'essenall possible stress is place# on the first sllables, since theter$inations ha%e the least possible %alue in speaking but in'essonan# 'essor!e put a little $orestress on the final sllables, #ue to the greater #ignit of the letter o,an# this #ra!s o%er a part ofthe s soun#

6on(ec$b Khnk$) The hea% hphen in#icates that this is a co$poun# !or# an# thehphen $ust al!as be !ritten The hphens printe# lightl in the #ictionar $erel ser%e toseparate the sllables an# sho! ho! a !or# $a be #i%i#e# at the en# of a line The stu#ent !illalso note that the oin com$has its full long %alue instea# of being slighte# This slight a##e# stresson the ois the !a !e ha%e in speaking of in#icating that com$!as once a !or# b itself, !ith an

accent of its o!nEJercise Select other !or#s fro$ the #ictionar, an# analse as !e ha%e #one abo%e, gi%ing so$eeJplanation for e%er peculiarit foun# in the printing an# $arks "ontinue this until there is no#oubt or hesitation in regar# to the $eaning of an $ark that $a be foun#

CHAPTER II.

WORD-BUILDING.

English speaking peoples ha%e been incline# to eJaggerate the irregularities of the English !or#(

for$ation The fact is, onl a s$all nu$ber of co$$on !or#s an# roots are irregular in for$ation,!hile full nine tenths of all the !or#s in the language are for$e# accor#ing to regular principles,or are regularl #eri%e# fro$ the s$all nu$ber of irregular !or#s We use the irregular !or#s so


16/99

$uch $ore freXuentl that the #o in#ee# constitute the greater part of our speech, but it is %ernecessar that !e shoul# $aster the regular principles of !or#(buil#ing, since the gi%e us a ke tothe less freXuentl use#, but far $ore nu$erous, class !hich fills the #ictionar, teaching us boththe spelling of !or#s of !hich !e kno! the soun#, an# the pronunciation of !or#s !hich !e $eetfor the first ti$e in rea#ing

Accent 7n English, accent is an essential part of e%er !or# 7t is so$ething of an art to learn tothro! it on to an sllable !e choose, for unless !e are able to #o this !e cannot get the true

pronunciation of a !or# fro$ the #ictionar an# !e are helpless !hen !e are calle# on topronounce a !or# !e ha%e ne%er hear#

Perhaps the best !a to learn the art of thro!ing accent is b co$paring !or#s in !hich !e are inthe habit of shifting the accent to one sllable or another accor#ing to the $eaning, as for instancethe follo!ing)

1 Accent

a What ac7centhas this !or#Y

b With !hat accent7%ation#o ou accent7this !or#Y

"oncert

a +i# ou go to the con7certlast nightY

b B concert7edaction !e can #o anthing

{ "ontrast

=a>C What a con7trastbet!een the rich $an an# the poor $an_

b Contrast7goo# !ith ba#, black !ith !hite, greatness !ith littleness

| Per$it

a 7 ha%e a buil#ing~(per$it~b $other !ill notpermit7$e to go

^ Present

a 6e recei%e# a beautiful "hrist$aspres7ent

b She !aspresent7edat court

PrefiJ

a Sub is a co$$onpre7#i)

b8re#i)7sub to port an# ou get support

. "o$poun#

a 6e can compo%nd7$e#icine like a #ruggist

b :itroglcerine is a #angerous com7po%nd

As a further illustration, rea# the follo!ing stan[a of poetr, especiall accenting the sllables as$arke#)

Tell $e not in $ournful nu$bers, NLife is but an e$pt #rea$_ 5or the soul is #ea# that slu$bers,

An# things are not !hat the see$This is calle# scanning, an# all %erse $a be scanne# in the sa$e !a 7t is an eJcellent #rill inlearning the art of thro!ing the stress of the %oice on an sllable that $a be #esire#


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T!o La!s of Wor#(5or$ation

We are no! prepare# to consi#er the t!o great la!s go%erning !or#(for$ation These are)

1 La!) All %o!els in co$bination !ith consonants are naturall short unless the long soun# isgi%en b co$bination !ith other %o!els, b accent, or b position in the sllable !ith reference toconsonants

La!) Wor#s #eri%e# fro$ other !or#s b the a##ition of prefiJes or suffiJes al!as retain theoriginal for$ as far as possible

1 We are likel to suppose that the natural or original soun# of a %o!el is the long soun#, becausethat is the soun# !e gi%e it !hen na$ing it in the alphabet 7f !e !ill eJa$ine a nu$ber of !or#s,ho!e%er, !e shall soon see that in co$bination !ith consonants all %o!els ha%e a ten#enc to ashort or obscure pronunciation The soun#s of the consonants are naturall obscure, an# the #ra!the %o!els to a si$ilar obscurit

Since such is the case, !hen a %o!el is gi%en its long soun# there is al!as a special reason for it7n the si$ple !or#s not, pin, her, rip, rid, c%t, met,!e ha%e the short soun#s of the %o!els but if!e #esire the long soun#s !e $ust a## a silent e,!hich is not pronounce# as e,but has its soun#

%alue in the greater stress put upon the %o!el !ith !hich it is connecte# B a##ing silent eto theabo%e !or#s !e ha%e note, pine, here, ripe, ride, mete 7n each of these cases the efollo!s theconsonant, though reall co$bining !ith the %o!el before the consonant but if !e place thea##itional ejust after the first ein met!e ha%e meet,!hich is a !or# e%en $ore co$$onthan mete9 Eis the onl %o!el that $a be place# after the consonant an# still co$bine !ith the%o!el before it =!hile being silent> but nearl all the other %o!els $a be place# besi#e the %o!elthat !oul# other!ise be short in or#er to $ake it long, an# so$eti$es this a##e# %o!el is place#

before as !ell as after the %o!el to be lengthene# Thus !e ha%e $oat, $ait, $eat, #ie'd, chie#,etcThere are a %er, %er fe! irregular !or#s in !hich the %o!el soun# has been kept short in spite ofthe a##e# %o!el, as for instance, head, sieve,etc 7t appears that !ith certain consonants the longsoun# is especiall #ifficult, an# so in the case of %er co$$on !or#s the !ear of co$$on speechhas shortene# the %o!els in spite of original efforts to strengthen the$ This is peculiarl true of theconsonant v,an# the co$bination th,an# less so ofsan#& So in =K7 >'ive, have, give, 'ove, shove,move,etc, the %o!el soun# is $ore or less obscure# e%en in spite of the silent e,though in the lessco$$on !or#s a'ive, $ehave,etc, the long soun# strengthene# b accent has not been lost So as arule t!o silent %o!els are no! use# to $ake the %o!el before the vlong, as in 'eave, $e'ieve,receive, $eeves, weave,etc 7n the single !or#sievethe %o!el re$ains short in spite of t!o silent%o!els a##e# to strengthen it T!o %o!els are also so$eti$es reXuire# to strengthen a long %o!el

before th,as in $reathe,though !hen the %o!el itself is a strong one, as ain $athe,the secon# %o!elis not reXuire#, an# oin $othis so easil increase# in soun# that the t!o consonants alone aresufficient 7t !ill be seen, therefore, that $uch #epen#s on the Xualit of the %o!el:an# oare the

strongest %o!els, ithe !eakest K!hich accounts for sie%e Aftersan#&!e $ust also ha%e asilent ein a##ition to the silent %o!el !ith !hich the soun#e# %o!el is co$bine#, as !e $a seein cheese, increase, #ree&e,etc The a##e# %o!el in co$bination !ith the long %o!el is not al!asnee#e#, ho!e%er, as !e $a see in contrasting raisean# rise

:ot onl %o!els but consonants $a ser%e to lengthen %o!el soun#s, as !e see in right, night,$right,an# insco'd, ro'',etc Onl ois capable of being lengthene# b t!o si$ple consonants suchas !e ha%e insco'dan# ro'' 7n ca'man# $a'',for instance, the ahas one of its eJtra %alues ratherthan its long soun# Theghis of course a po!erful co$bination Once it !as pronounce# but it

beca$e so #ifficult that !e ha%e learne# to gi%e its %alue b #!elling a little on the %o!el soun#

Another po!erful $eans of lengthening a %o!el is accent When a %o!el recei%es the full force of

the accent b co$ing at the en# of an accente# sllable it is al$ost in%ariabl $a#e long We seethis in $onosllables such as he, no,etc 7t is often necessar to strengthen b an a##itional silent%o!el, ho!e%er, as in tie, s%e, view,etc, an# ahas a peculiarit in that !hen it co$es at the en# of


18/99

a sllable alone it has the soun# of ah,or a7talian, rather than that of along, an# !e ha%epa,ma,etc, an# for the long soun#yis a##e#, as insay, day, ray9 ;has a great #isinclination to appearat the en# of a !or#, an# so i=s>H usuall change# toy!hen such a position is necessar, or it takessilent eas in#icate# abo%e !hile this ser%ice on the part ofyis reciprocate# b iVs taking the placeofyinsi#e a !or#, as $a be illustrate# b cityan# cities

When a %o!el gets the#%'' #orceof the accent in a !or# of t!o or $ore sllables it is boun# to belong, as for instance the first ain ma7di a E%en the stress necessar to keep the %o!el fro$ runninginto the neJt sllable !ill $ake it long, though the soun# is so$e!hat obscure#, so$e other sllablerecei%ing the chief accent, as the first ain ma gi7cian 7n this last !or# isee$s to ha%e the full forceof the accent, et it is not long an# !e note the sa$e in such !or#s as condi7tion,etc The fact is,ho!e%er, that ibeing a !eak %o!el easil runs into the consonant soun# of the neJt sllable, an# if!e note the soun#s as !e pronounce condition!e shall see that theshsoun# represente#

b tiblen#s !ith the ian# takes the force of the accent We cannot separate the tior cifro$ thefollo!ing portion of the sllable, since if so separate# the coul# not ha%e theirsh%alue but in

pronunciation this separation is $a#e in part an# theshsoun# ser%es both for the sllable thatprece#es an# the sllable that follo!s 7n a !or# like di men7sion!e fin# the iof the first sllable

long e%en !ithout the accent, since the accent on menattaches the mso closel to it that it cannot inan !a relie%e the i So !e see that in an accente# sllable the consonant before a short %o!el, as!ell as the consonant follo!ing it, recei%es part of the stress This is especiall noticeable in the!or# ma gi7cianas co$pare# !ith mag7ic 7n $agic the sllable icis in itself so co$plete thatthegis kept !ith the aan# takes the force of the accent, lea%ing the ashort 7n magicianthegis#ra!n a!a fro$ the ato help out the short ifollo!e# b anshsoun#, an# the ais lengthene# e%ento altering the for$ of the si$ple !or# 7n the !or# ma7gi an,again, !e fin# along, thegbeingnee#e# to help out the i

Since accent $akes a %o!el long if no consonant inter%enes at the en# of a sllable, an# as a singleconsonant follo!ing such a %o!el in a !or# of t!o sllables Kthough not in !or#s of three or $oreis likel to be #ra!n into the sllable follo!ing, a single consonant follo!ing a single short %o!el

$ust be #ouble# 7f t!o or $ore consonants follo! the %o!el, as inmasking, standing, wi'ting,the%o!el e%en in an accente# sllable re$ains short But inpining!ith one nfollo!ing the iin theaccente# sllable, !e kno! that the %o!el $ust be long, for if it !ere short the !or# !oul# be!rittenpinning

9ni%ersal *ule)


19/99

7n !or#s of t!o sllables an# other !or#s in !hich the accent co$es on the neJt to the last sllable,a short %o!el in an accente# sllable shoul# logicall al!as be follo!e# b $ore than oneconsonant or a #ouble consonant We fin# the #ouble consonant in such !or#s ass%mmer, pretty,mamma',etc 9nfortunatel, our secon# la!, !hich reXuires all #eri%e# !or#s to preser%e the for$of the original root, interferes !ith this principle %er seriousl in a large nu$ber of English !or#sThe roots are often #eri%e# fro$ languages in !hich this principle #i# not appl, or else these roots

originall ha# %er #ifferent soun# %alues fro$ those the ha%e !ith us So !e ha%e $ody,!ithone d,though !e ha%eshoddyan# toddyregularl for$e# !ith t!o dVs, an# !e ha%e#inish,e)hi$it,etc in co'7onnadethe nis #ouble# in a sllable that is not accente#

The chief eJception to the general principle is the entire class of !or#s en#ing in ic,such as co'ic,cynic, civic, antithetic, peripatetic,etc 7f the root is long, ho!e%er, it !ill re$ain long after thea##ition of the ter$ination ic,as m%sicKfro$m%se, $asicKfro$ $ase, etc

But in the case of !or#s !hich !e for$ oursel%es, !e !ill fin# practicall no eJceptions to the rulethat a short %o!el in a sllable ne)tto the last m%stbe follo!e# b a do%$'e consonant!henaccente#, !hile a short %o!el in a sllable $e#orethe neJt to the last is notfollo!e# b a #oubleconsonant !hen the sllable is accente#

Our secon# la! tells us that the original for$ of a !or# or of its root $ust be preser%e# as far aspossible ost of the !or#s referre# to abo%e in !hich single consonants are #ouble# or not#ouble# in %iolation of the general rule are #eri%e# fro$ the Latin, usuall through the 5rench, an#if !e !ere fa$iliar !ith those languages !e shoul# ha%e a ke to their correct spelling But e%en!ithout such thorough kno!le#ge, !e $a learn a fe! of the $etho#s of #eri%ation in thoselanguages, especiall the Latin, as !ell as the si$pler $etho#s in use in the English

"ertain changes in the #eri%e# !or#s are al!as $a#e, as, for instance, the #ropping of thesilent e!hen a sllable beginning !ith a %o!el is a##e#

*ule Silent eat the en# of a !or# is #roppe# !hene%er a sllable beginning !ith a %o!el is a##e#

This rule is not Xuite uni%ersal, though nearl so The silent eis al!as retaine# !hen the %o!el atthe beginning of the a##e# sllable !oul# $ake a soft corghar#, as inservicea$'e,changea$'e,etc 7n changing, chancing,etc, the iof the a##e# sllable is sufficient to $akethe corgretain its soft soun# 7n such !or#s as cringean#singethe silent eis retaine# e%en

before iin or#er to a%oi# confusing the !or#s so for$e# !ith other !or#s in !hich the nghas anasal soun# thus !e ha%esingeingto a%oi# confusion !ithsinging,though !e ha%esingedin!hich the eis #roppe# before edbecause the #ropping of it causes no confusion 5or$erl thesilent e!as retaine# in movea$'e but no! !e !rite mova$'e,accor#ing to the rule

Of course !hen the a##e# sllable begins !ith a consonant, the silent eis not #roppe#, since#ropping it !oul# ha%e the effect of shortening the prece#ing %o!el b $aking it stan# before t!o

consonantsA fe! $onosllables en#ing in t!o %o!els, one of !hich is silent e,are eJceptions) d%'y, tr%'yalso who''y

Also finalyis change# to i!hen a sllable is a##e#, unless that a##e# sllable begins !ith ian#t!o iVs !oul# thus co$e together;is a %o!el ne%er #ouble# Th=u>Fs !e ha%e citi#ied,but citi#ying

We ha%e alrea# seen that final consonants $a be #ouble# un#er certain circu$stances !hen asllable is a##e#

These are nearl all the changes in spelling that are possible !hen !or#s are for$e# b a##ingsllables but changes in pronunciation an# %o!el %alues are often affecte#, as !e ha%e seen

in nationKalong an# nationa'KashortPrefiJes But !or#s $a be for$e# b prefiJing sllables, or b co$bining t!o or $ore !or#s intoone an of these for$ations !ere effecte# in the Latin before the !or#s !ere intro#uce# into


20/99

English but !e can stu# the principles go%erning the$ an# gain a ke to the spelling of $anEnglish !or#s

7n English !e unite a preposition !ith a %erb b placing it after the %erb an# treating it as an a#%erbThus !e ha%e Nbreaking in, Nrunning o%er, etc 7n Latin the preposition in such cases !as prefiJe#to the !or# an# there !ere particles use# as prefiJes !hich !ere ne%er use# as prepositions Weshoul# beco$e fa$iliar !ith the principal Latin prefiJes an# al!as take the$ into account in thespelling of English !or#s The principal Latin prefiJes are)

ab Kabs]]fro$ a#]]to ante]]before bi Kbis]]t!ice circu$ Kcircu]]aroun# con]]!ith contra Kcounter]]against #e]]#o!n, fro$ #is]]apart, not eJ]]out of, a!a fro$eJtra]]beon# in]]in, into, on a'sonot Kanother !or# inter]]bet!een non]]not ob]]in front of, in the !a of per]]through post]]after pre]]before pro]]for, forth re]]

back or again retro]]back!ar# se]]asi#e se$i]]half sub]]un#er super]]abo%e, o%ertrans]]o%er, beon# ultra]]beon# %ice]]instea# of

Of these prefiJes, those en#ing in a single consonant are likel to change that consonant foreuphon to the consonant beginning the !or# to !hich the prefiJ is attache# Thus ad#ropsthe din ascend,beco$es acin accord, a#in a##i'iate, anin anne), apin appropriate, atin attendconbeco$es comin commotion,also in comp%nctionan# compress, corincorrespond,co'in co''ect, coin coe*%a' disbeco$es di#in di##er e)beco$es ein e3ect, ecin eccentric,e#in e##ect inbeco$es i'in i''%minate, imin import, irin irreconci'a$'e o$beco$es opin oppress,ocin occasion, o#in o##end an#s%$beco$ess%cins%cceed, s%pins%pport, s%#ins%##i),

s%gins%ggest, s%sins%stain The final consonant is change# to a consonant that can be easilpronounce# before the consonant !ith !hich the follo!ing sllable begins 5ollo!ing the rule thatthe root $ust be change# as little as possible, it is al!as the prefiJ, not the root, !hich isco$pelle# to iel# to the #e$an#s of euphon

A little reflection upon the #eri%ation of !or#s !ill thus often gi%e us a ke to the spelling 5orinstance, suppose !e are in #oubt !hether irredeema$'ehas t!o rVs or onl one) !e no!

that redeemis a root, an# therefore the ir$ust be a prefiJ, an# the t!o rVs are accounte#for,\in#ee# are necessar in or#er to pre%ent our losing sight of the #eri%ation an# $eaning of the!or# 7n the sa$e !a, !e can ne%er be in #oubt as to the t!o mVs in commotion,commencement,etc

We ha%e alrea# note# the ten#enc ofyto beco$e iin the $i##le of a !or# The eJceptional casesare chiefl #eri%ati%es fro$ the Greek, an# a stu# of the Greek prefiJes !ill often gi%e us a hint inregar# to the spelling of !or#s containingy These prefiJes, gi%en here in full for con%enience, are)

a Kan]]!ithout, not a$phi]]both, aroun# ana]]up, back, through anti]]against, oppositeapo Kap]]fro$ cata]]#o!n

#ia]]through en Ke$]]in epi Kep]]upon hper]]o%er, eJcessi%e hpo]]un#er $etaK$et]]beon#, change sn Ks, sl, s$]]!ith, together

7n Greek !or#s also !e !ill fin#ph!ith the soun# of# We kno! thatsymmetrica', hypophosphite,metaphysics, emphasis,etc, are Greek because of the ke !e fin# in the prefiJ, an# !e are thus

prepare# for theyVs an#phVs=#oes not eJist in the Greek alphabet KeJcept as ph an# so !e shallne%er fin# it in !or#s #eri%e# fro$ the Greek

The English prefiJes are not so often useful in #eter$ining peculiar spelling, but for co$pleteness!e gi%e the$ here)

a]]at, in, on Kahea# be]]to $ake, b Kbenu$b en Ke$]]in, on, to $ake Kencircle,e$po!er for]]not, fro$ Kforbear fore]]before Kfore!arn $is]]!rong, !rongl

K$isstate out]]beon# Koutbreak o%er]]abo%e Ko%erruling to]]the, this Kto(night un]]not, opposite act Kunable, un#ecei%e un#er]]beneath Kun#er$ine !ith]]against, fro$K!ithstan#


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CHAPTER III.

WORD-BUILDINGRULES AND APPLICATIONS.

There are a fe! rules an# applications of the principles of !or#(for$ation !hich $a be foun#full treate# in the chapter on NOrthograph at the beginning of the #ictionar, but !hich !e

present here %er briefl, together !ith a su$$ar of principles alrea# #iscusse#*ule 1=, ',an#sat the en# of a $onosllable after a single %o!el are co$$onl #ouble# TheeJceptions are the cases in !hichsfor$s the plural or possessi%e case of a noun, or thir# personsingular of the %erb, an# the follo!ing !or#s) c'e#, i#, o#, pa', so', as, gas, has, was, yes, gris, his, is,th%s, %s9 +is not #ouble# at the en# of !or#s of $ore than one sllable, aspara''e', wi''#%',etc

*ule :o other consonants thus situate# are #ouble# EJceptions) e$$, add, odd, egg, inn, $%nn,err, $%rr, p%rr, $%tt, #i&&, #%&&, $%&&,an# a fe! %er unco$$on !or#s, for !hich see the chapter inthe #ictionar abo%e referre# to

*ule { A consonant stan#ing at the en# of a !or# i$$e#iatel after a #iphthong or #ouble %o!el isne%er #ouble# The !or#g%essis onl an apparent eJception, since %#oes not for$ a co$bination

!ith ebut $erel $akes theghar#

*ule | onosllables en#ing in the soun# of icrepresente# b cusuall take kafter the c, asin $ack, knock,etc EJceptions) ta'c, &inc, roc, arc,an# a fe! %er unco$$on !or#s Wor#s of$ore than one sllable en#ing in icor iac#o not take kafter the cKeJcept derrick, as foreJa$ple e'egiac, c%$ic, m%sic,etc 7f the cis prece#e# b an other %o!el than ioria, kis a##e# tothe c, as in $arrack, hammock, wed'ock EJceptions) a'manac, havoc,an# a %er fe! unco$$on!or#s

*ule ^ To preser%e the har# soun# of c!hen a sllable is a##e# !hich begins !ith e, i,ory, kisplace# after final c, as intra##icking, &incky, co'icky

*ule 6an# hare ne%er #ouble#, van#3sel#o$ 4!ith the soft soun# cannot be #ouble#,because then the firstg!oul# be $a#e har# EJa$ple) mag7ic9 >al!as appears !ith %follo!ingit, an# here %has the %alue of the consonant wan# in no !a co$bines or is counte# !ith the %o!el!hich $a follo! it 5or instances*%attingis !ritten as ifs*%atcontaine# but one %o!el

*ule . 7n si$ple #eri%ati%es a single final consonant follo!ing a single %o!el in a sllable thatrecei%es an accent is #ouble# !hen another sllable beginning !ith a %o!el is a##e#

*ule When accent co$es on a sllable stan#ing neJt to the last, it has a ten#enc to lengthen the%o!el but on sllables farther fro$ the en#, the ten#enc is to shorten the %o!el !ithout #oublingthe consonant 5or eJa$ple, na7tionKalong, butna7tiona'Kashortgram7mar,butgrammat7ica'

*ule 2 Silent eat the en# of a !or# is usuall #roppe# !hen a sllable beginning !ith a %o!el is

a##e# The chief eJceptions are !or#s in !hich the silent eis retaine# to preser%e the soft soun#of corg

*ule 1- Plurals are regularl for$e# b a##ings but if the !or# en# in a sibilant soun# Ksh, &h, &,s, 3, ch, ), the plural is for$e# b a##ing es,!hich is pronounce# as a separate sllable 7f the !or#en#=s> in a sibilant soun# follo!e# b silent e,that eunites !ith thesto for$ a separate sllableEJa$ples)seas, cans $o)es, ch%rches, $r%shes changes, services

*ule 11 5inalyis regularl change# to i!hen a sllable is a##e# 7n plurals it is change#to ies,eJcept !hen prece#e# b a %o!el, !hen a si$plesis a##e# !ithout change of theyEJa$ples) c'%msy, c'%msi'y city, cities chimney, chimneys Weha%e co''o*%iesbecause %after *has the %alue of the consonant w There are a fe! eJceptions tothe abo%e rule When t!oiVs !oul# co$e together, theyis not change#, as in carrying

*ule 1 Wor#s en#ing, in a #ouble consonant co$$onl retain the #ouble consonant in #eri%ati%es


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The chief eJception isa'',!hich #rops one ',as in a'mighty, a'ready, a'tho%gh,etc Accor#ing toEnglish usage other !or#s en#ing in #ouble '#rop one 'in #eri%ati%es, an# !eha%eski'#%'Kforski''#%', wi'#%'Kfor wi''#%', etc, but Webster #oes not appro%e this custo$=%'isan affiJ, not the !or##%''in a co$poun#

EXCEPTIONS AND IRREGULARITIES.

1 Though in the case of si$ple !or#s en#ing in a #ouble consonant the #eri%ati%es usuall retainthe #ouble consonant,ponti#ican#ponti#ica'Kfro$ponti## are eJceptions, an# !hen three letters ofthe sa$e kin# !oul# co$e together, one is usuall #roppe#, asin agreedKagreeplus ed, i''yKi''plus 'y, $e''ess,etc We $a !rite $e'''ess,etc, ho!e%er, in thecase of !or#s in !hich three 'Vs co$e together, separating the sllables b a hphen

To pre%ent t!o iVs co$ing together, !e change itoyin dying, tying, vying,etc, fro$ die,tie,an# vie

{ +eri%ati%es fro$ ad3ectivesen#ing iny#o not changeyto i, an# !e ha%eshy'y, shyness,s'y'y,etc, though drieran#driestfro$ dryare use# Theyis not change# beforeship,as

insecretaryship, 'adyship,etc, nor in $a$yhoodan# 'adykin| We ha%e alrea# seen thatyis not change# in #eri%ati%es !hen it is prece#e# b another %o!el,as in the case of3oy#%',etc but !e fin# eJceptions to this principle in dai'y, 'aid, paid, said, saith,

s'ain,an#staid an# $an !ritegai'yan#gaiety,though Webster prefersgay'yan#gayety

^ :ouns of one sllable en#ing in ousuall take a silent ealso, as toe, doe, shoe,etc, but otherparts of speech #o not take the e,as do, to, so, no,an# the like, an# nouns of $ore than one sllable,aspotato, tomato,etc, o$it the e onosllables en#ing in oeusuall retain the silent ein#eri%ati%es, an# !e ha%eshoeing, toeing,etc The co$$oner English nouns en#ing in oalso ha%ethe peculiarit of for$ing the plural b a##ing esinstea# ofs,an# !e ha%epotatoes, tomatoes,heroes, echoes, cargoes, em$argoes, mottoes but nouns a trifle $ore foreign for$ their plurals

regularl, asso'os, &eros, pianos,etc When a %o!el prece#es the o,the plural is al!as for$e#regularl The thir# person singular of the %erb woois wooes,of do does,ofgo goes,etc, in analog!ith the plurals of the nouns en#ing in o

The follo!ing are eJceptions to the rule that silent eis retaine# in #eri%ati%es !hen the a##e#sllable begins !ith a consonant)3%dgment, acknow'edgment, 'odgment, who''y, a$ridgment,wisdom,etc

. So$e nouns en#ing in#or#echange those ter$inations to vein the plural, as $ee#22$eeves,'ea#22'eaves, kni#e22knives, 'oa#22'oaves, 'i#e22'ives, wi#e22wives, thie#22thieves, wo'#

22wo'ves, se'#22se'ves, she'#22she'ves, ca'#22ca'ves, ha'#22ha'ves, e'#22e'ves, shea#22

sheaves We ha%e chie#22chie#san# handkerchie#22handkerchie#s,ho!e%er, an# the sa$e is

true of all nouns en#ing in#or#eeJcept those gi%en abo%e A fe! nouns for$ their plurals b changing a single %o!el, as man22men, woman22women,

goose22geese, #oot22#eet, tooth22teeth,etc "o$poun#s follo! the rule of the si$ple for$,but the pluralof ta'ismanis ta'ismans,of4ermanis 4ermans,of m%sse'manis m%sse'mans,because these are notco$poun#s of men

2 A fe! plurals are for$e# b a##ing en,as $rother22$rethren, chi'd22chi'dren, o)22o)en

1-Brother, pea, die,an#pennyha%e each t!o plurals, !hich #iffer in $eaningBrothersrefers to$ale chil#ren of the sa$e parents, $rethrento $e$bers of a religious bo# or the likepeasis use#!hen a #efinite nu$ber is $entione#,pease!hen bulk is referre# to diesare instru$ents use# forsta$ping, etc, dicecubical blocks use# in ga$es of chancepenniesrefer to a gi%en nu$ber ofcoins,penceto an a$ount reckone# b the coins:c*%aintanceis so$eti$es use# in the pluralforac*%aintances!ith no #ifference of $eaning


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11 A fe! !or#s are the sa$e in the plural as in the singular, assheep, deer, tro%t,etc

1 So$e !or#s #eri%e# fro$ foreign languages retain the plurals of those languages 5or eJa$ple)#atu$]]#ata criterion]]criteria genus]]genera lar%a]]lar% crisis]]crises $atriJ]]$atrices focus]]foci $onsieur]]$essieurs

1{ A fe! allo! either a regular plural or the plural retaine# fro$ the foreign language) for$ula

]]for$ul or for$ulas beau]]beauJ or beaus in#eJ]]in#ices or in#eJes stratu$]]strataor stratu$s ban#it]]ban#itti or ban#its cherub]]cherubi$ or cherubs seraph]]seraphi$ orseraphs

1| 7n %er loose co$poun#s in !hich a noun is follo!e# b an a#jecti%e or the like, the nounco$$onl takes the plural en#ing, as in co%rtsmartia', sonsin'aw, co%sinsgerman When thea#jecti%e is $ore closel joine#, the plural en#ing $ust be place# at the en# of the entire !or#Thus !e ha%e c%p#%'s, hand#%'s,etc

+ifferent Spellings for the sa$e Soun#

Perhaps the greatest #ifficult in spelling English !or#s arises fro$ the fact that !or#s an#sllables pronounce# alike are often spelle# #ifferentl, an# there is no rule to gui#e us in

#istinguishing 7n or#er to fiJ their spelling, in $in# !e shoul# kno! !hat classes of !or#s are#oubtful, an# !hen !e co$e to the$ constantl refer to the #ictionar To tr to $aster these eJceptin the connections in !hich !e !ish to use the$ the !riter belie%es to be !orse than foll Bstu#ing such !or#s in pairs, confusion is %er likel to be fiJe# fore%er in the $in# ost spelling(

books co$$it this error, an# so are responsible for a consi#erable a$ount of ba# spelling, !hichtheir $etho# has actuall intro#uce# an# instille# into the chil#Vs $in#

Persons !ho rea# $uch are not likel to $ake these errors, since the re$e$ber !or#s b the for$as it appeals to the ee, not b the soun# in !hich there is no #istinction The stu# of such !or#sshoul# therefore be con#ucte# chiefl !hile !riting or rea#ing, not orall

While !e $ust $e$ori[e, one at a ti$e as !e co$e to the$ in rea#ing or !riting, the !or#s orsllables in !hich the sa$e soun# is represente# b #ifferent spellings, still !e shoul# kno! clearl!hat classes of !or#s to be on the lookout for We !ill no! consi#er so$e of the classes of !or#sin !hich a single sllable $a be spelle# in %arious !as

o!el Substitutions in Si$ple Wor#s

ea for short or e obscure before r

alrea# brea# breakfast breast brea#th #eath earth #ea# #eaf #rea# earl earn earnest earth featherhea# health hea%en hea% hear# lea# learn leather $ea#o! $easure pearl pleasant rea# searchsergeant sprea# stea# threa# threaten trea# !ealth !eather

ee for d long

agree beef bree# cheek cheese creek creep cheer #eer #ee# #eep fee# feel feet fleece green heelhee# in#ee# keep keel keen kneel $eek nee# nee#le peel peep Xueer screen see# seen sheet sheepsleep slee%e snee[e sXuee[e street speech steeple steet s!eep sleet teeth !eep !ee# !eek

ea for d long

appear bea# beach bean beast beat beneath breathe cease cheap cheat clean clear congeal crea$crease creature #ear #eal #rea$ #efeat each ear eager eas east ea%es feast fear feat grease heaphear heat increase knea# lea# leaf leak lean least lea%e $eat $eal $ean neat near peas Kpease peal

peace peach please preach reach rea# reap rear reason repeat screa$ sea$ seat season seal speakstea$ streak strea$ tea tea$ tear tease teach %eal !ea%e !eak !heat !reath K!reathe ear east

ai for long

afrai# ai# brai# brain co$plain #ail #air #ais #rain #aint eJplain fail fain gain gait gaiter grain


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hail jail lai# $ai# $ail $ai$ nail pai# pail paint plain prairie praise Xuail rail rain raise raisinre$ain sail saint snail sprain stain straight strain tail train %ain !aist !ait !ai%e

ai for i or e obscure

bargain captain certain curtain $ountain

oa for long

boar# boat cloak coaJ coal coast coarse float foa$ goat gloa$ groan hoarse loa# loan loaf oak oaroats roast roa# roa$ shoal soap soar throat toa# toast

ie for d long

belie%e chief fierce grief niece priest piece thief

ei for d long

neither receipt recei%e

7nsieve, iehas the soun# of ishort

7n eight, skein, neigh$or, rein, reign, s'eigh, vein, vei', weigh,an# weight, eihas the soun# of along

7n height, s'eight,an# a fe! other !or#s eihas the soun# of ilong

7ngreat, $reak,an#steak eahas the soun# of along in heartan# hearthit has the soun#of a7talian, an# in tearan# $earit has the soun# of aas in care

Silent "onsonants etc

although ans!er bouXuet bri#ge calf cal$ catch castle caught chalk cli$b #itch #u$b e#ge folksco$b #aughter #ebt #epot forehea# gna! hatchet he#ge hiccough hitch honest honor hustle islan#itch ju#ge ju#g$ent knack knea# kneel kne! knife knit knuckle knock knot kno! kno!le#ge la$blatch laugh li$b listen $atch $ight $uscle naught night notch nu$b often pal$ pitcher pitch

ple#ge ri#ge right rough scene scratch shoul# sigh sketch snatch soften stitch s!itch s!or# talkthough through thought thu$b tough t!itch thigh !alk !atch !hole !itch !oul# !rite !ritten!rapper !ring !rong !rung !rote !restle acht

9nusual Spellings

The follo!ing !or#s ha%e irregularities peculiar to the$sel%es

ache an air apron a$ong again aunt against biscuit buil# bus business bureau because carriagecoffee collar color countr couple cousin co%er #oes #ose #one #ouble #ia$on# e%er especiall5ebruar flourish flo!n fourteen fort fruit gauge glue glue gui#e goes han#kerchief hone heiferi$patient iron juice liar lion liXuor $arriage $aor $an $elon $inute $one necessar ninetninth nothing nuisance obe ocean once onion onl other o!e o!ner patient people pigeon praer

pra prepare rogue sche$e scholar scre! shoe shoul#er sol#ier sto$ach sugar succee# prece#eprocee# proce#ure suspicion the tongue touch trouble !agon !ere !here !holl

" !ith the soun# of s

7n the follo!ing !or#s the soun# ofsis represente# b cfollo!e# b a %o!el that $akes this lettersoft)

cit face ice juice lace necessar nuisance once pencil police polic pace race rice space trace t!icetrice thrice nice price slice lice spice circus citron circu$stance centre cent cellar certain circleconcert concern cell #unce #eci#e +ece$ber #ance #isgrace eJercise eJcellent eJcept force fleecefierce furnace fence grocer grace icicle instance innocent in#ecent #ecent intro#uce juice justicelettuce $e#icine $erc niece ounce officer patience peace piece place principal principle parcel

pro#uce preju#ice trace %oice receipt recite cite sauce saucer sentence scarcel since silence ser%icecre%ice no%ice


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Wor#s en#ing in cal an# cle

Wor#s in ca'are nearl all #eri%e# fro$ other !or#s en#ing in ic,as c'assica', c%$ica', c'erica',etcWor#s en#ing in c'eare Kas far as English is concerne# original !or#s, as c%tic'e, mirac'e,manac'e,etc When in #oubt, ask the Xuestion if, on #ropping the a'or 'e,a co$plete !or# en#ingin ic!oul# be left 7f such a !or# is left, the en#ing is a',if not, it is probabl'e

Er an# reWebster spells theater, center, meter,etc, !ith the ter$ination er,but $ost English !riters prefer re9


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ineJhaustible re%ersible plausible per$issible accessible #igestible responsible a#$issible falliblefleJible incorrigible irresistible ostensible tangible conte$ptible #i%isible #iscernible corruptiblee#ible legible in#elible in#igestible

Of course !hen a softgprece#es the #oubtful letter, as in 'egi$'e,!e are al!as certain that !eshoul# !rite i,not a All !or#s for$e# fro$ plain English !or#s a## a$'e Those fa$iliar !ithLatin !ill ha%e little #ifficult in recogni[ing the ias an essential part of the root

Wor#s en#ing in ent an# ant, an# ence an# ance

Another class of !or#s concerning !hich !e $ust also feel #oubt is that ter$inatingin encean# ance,or antan# ent All these !or#s are fro$ the Latin, an# the #ifference inter$ination is usuall #ue to !hether the co$e fro$ %erbs of the first conjugation or of otherconjugations As there is no $eans of #istinguishing, !e $ust continuall refer to the #ictionar till!e ha%e learne# each one We present a brief list)

ent confi#ent belligerent in#epen#ent transcen#ent co$petent insistent consistent con%alescentcorrespon#ent corpulent #epen#ent #espon#ent eJpe#ient i$pertinent incle$ent insol%entinter$ittent pre%alent superinten#ent recipient proficient efficient e$inent eJcellent frau#ulent

latent opulent con%enient corpulent #escen#ent #ifferent ant abun#ant accountant arrogant assailantassistant atten#ant clair%oant co$batant recreant consonant con%ersant #efen#ant #escen#ent#iscor#ant elegant eJorbitant i$portant incessant irrele%ant luJuriant $alignant petulant pleasant

poignant reluctant stagnant triu$phant %agrant !arrant atten#ant repentant

A fe! of these !or#s $a ha%e eith

Documents

The Art of Writing & Speaking the English Language, By Sherwin Cody