ALBATROSS

AlbatrossFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about the bird family. For other uses, seeAlbatross (disambiguation).AlbatrossTemporal range:OligocenerecentPreOSDCPTJKPgNOligocenerecent

Short-tailed Albatross(Phoebastria albatrus)

Scientific classification

Kingdom:Animalia

Phylum:Chordata

Class:Aves

Subclass:Neornithes

Infraclass:Neoaves

Order:Procellariiformes

Family:DiomedeidaeG.R. Gray1840[1]

Genera

DiomedeaThalassarchePhoebastriaPhoebetria

Global range density (in red)

Albatrosses, of the biologicalfamilyDiomedeidae, are largeseabirdsallied to theprocellariids,storm petrelsanddiving petrelsin the orderProcellariiformes(the tubenoses). They range widely in theSouthern Oceanand the NorthPacific. They are absent from the NorthAtlantic, althoughfossilremains show they once occurred there too and occasionalvagrantsare found. Albatrosses are among the largest offlyingbirds, and thegreat albatrosses(genusDiomedea) have the largest wingspans of anyextantbirds, reaching up to 12 feet (3.7m). The albatrosses are usually regarded as falling into fourgenera, but there is disagreement over the number ofspecies.Albatrosses are highly efficient in the air, usingdynamic soaringandslope soaringto cover great distances with little exertion. They feed onsquid,fishandkrillby either scavenging, surface seizing or diving. Albatrosses arecolonial, nesting for the most part on remote oceanic islands, often with several species nesting together.Pair bondsbetween males and females form over several years, with the use of 'ritualised dances', and will last for the life of the pair. Abreeding seasoncan take over a year from laying tofledging, with a singleegglaid in each breeding attempt. A Laysan albatross, named "Wisdom" on Midway Island is recognized as the oldest wild bird in the world; she was first banded in 1956 byChandler Robbins.[2]Of the 21 species of albatrosses recognised by theIUCN, 19 have been threatened withextinction. Numbers of albatrosses have declined in the past due to harvesting forfeathers, but today the albatrosses are threatened byintroduced species, such asratsandferal catsthat attack eggs, chicks and nesting adults; bypollution; by a serious decline in fish stocks in many regions largely due tooverfishing; and bylong-line fishing. Long-line fisheries pose the greatest threat, as feeding birds are attracted to thebait, become hooked on the lines, and drown. Identifiedstakeholderssuch as governments, conservation organisations and people in the fishing industry are all working toward reducing thisbycatch.Contents[hide] 1Biology 1.1Taxonomy and evolution 1.2Morphology and flight 1.3Distribution and range at sea 1.4Diet 1.5Breeding and dancing 2Albatrosses and humans 2.1Etymology 2.2In culture 2.3Birdwatching 2.4Threats and conservation 3Species 4See also 5References 6External linksBiology[edit]Taxonomy and evolution[edit]The albatrosses comprise between 13 and 24species(the number of species is still a matter of some debate, 21 being the most commonly accepted number) in four genera. These genera are thegreat albatrosses(Diomedea), themollymawks(Thalassarche), theNorth Pacific albatrosses(Phoebastria), and thesooty albatrossesor sooties (Phoebetria). The North Pacific albatrosses are considered to be a sister taxon to the great albatrosses, while the sooty albatrosses are considered closer to the mollymawks.[3]Thetaxonomyof the albatross group has been a source of a great deal of debate. TheSibley-Ahlquist taxonomyplaces seabirds,birds of preyand many others in a greatly enlarged order,Ciconiiformes, whereas the ornithological organisations in North America, Europe, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand retain the more traditional orderProcellariiformes. The albatrosses can be separated from the other Procellariiformes bothgeneticallyand through morphological characteristics, size, their legs, and the arrangement of their nasal tubes (see below:Morphology and flight).[3]Within the family, the assignment of genera has been debated for over 100 years. Originally placed into a single genus,Diomedea, they were rearranged byReichenbachinto four different genera in 1852, thenlumped back together and split apartagain several times, acquiring 12 different genus names in total (though never more than eight at one time) by 1965 (Diomedea,Phoebastria,Thalassarche,Phoebetria,Thalassageron,Diomedella,Nealbatrus,Rhothonia,Julietata,Galapagornis,Laysanornis, andPenthirenia).[4]By 1965, in an attempt to bring some order back to the classification of albatrosses, they were lumped into two genera,Phoebetria(the sooty albatrosses which most closely seemed to resemble the procellarids and were at the time considered "primitive" ) andDiomedea(the rest).[5]Though there was a case for the simplification of the family (particularly the nomenclature), the classification was based on the morphological analysis byElliott Couesin 1866, and paid little attention to more recent studies and even ignored some of Coues's suggestions.[4]More recent research by Gary Nunn of theAmerican Museum of Natural History(1996) and other researchers around the world studied themitochondrial DNAof all 14 accepted species, finding four, not two, monophyletic groups within the albatrosses.[6]They proposed the resurrection of two of the old genus names,Phoebastriafor the North Pacific albatrosses andThalassarchefor the mollymawks, with the great albatrosses retainingDiomedeaand the sooty albatrosses staying inPhoebetria. Both theBritish Ornithologists' Unionand the South African authorities split the albatrosses into four genera as Nunn suggested, and the change has been accepted by the majority of researchers.While some agree on the number of genera, fewer agree on the number of species. Historically, up to 80 different taxa have been described by different researchers; most of these were incorrectly identified juvenile birds.[7]

Phylogenetic relationships of the albatross genera, based on Nunnet al., 1996Based on the work on albatross genera, Robertson and Nunn went on in 1998 to propose a revised taxonomy with 24 different species,[4]compared to the 14 then accepted. This interim taxonomy elevated many establishedsubspeciesto full species, but was criticised for not using, in every case,peer reviewedinformation to justify the splits. Since then, further studies have in some instances supported or disproved the splits; a 2004 paper analysing themitochondrial DNAandmicrosatellitesagreed with the conclusion that theAntipodean Albatrossand theTristan Albatrosswere distinct from theWandering Albatross, per Robertson and Nunn, but found that the suggestedGibson's Albatross,Diomedea gibsoni, was not distinct from the Antipodean Albatross.[8]For the most part, an interim taxonomy of 21 species is accepted by theIUCNand many other researchers, though by no means allin 2004 Penhallurick and Wink called for the number of species to be reduced to 13 (including the lumping of theAmsterdam Albatrosswith theWandering Albatross),[9]although this paper was itself controversial.[7][10]On all sides is the widespread agreement on the need for further research to clarify the issue.Sibley and Ahlquist'smolecular study of theevolutionof the bird families has put theradiationof theProcellariiformesin theOligoceneperiod (3530 million years ago), though this group probably originated earlier, with afossilsometimes attributed to the order, a seabird known asTytthostonyx, being found in lateCretaceousrocks (70mya). The molecular evidence suggests that the storm-petrels were the first to diverge from the ancestral stock, and the albatrosses next, with the procellarids and diving petrels separating later. The earliest fossil albatrosses were found inEoceneto Oligocene rocks, although some of these are only tentatively assigned to the family and none appear to be particularly close to the living forms. They areMurunkus(Middle Eocene ofUzbekistan),Manu(early Oligocene ofNew Zealand), and an undescribed form from the Late Oligocene ofSouth Carolina. Similar to the last wasPlotornis, formerly often considered a petrel but now accepted as an albatross. It is from the MiddleMioceneofFrance, a time when the split between the four modern genera was already underway as evidenced byPhoebastria californicaandDiomedea milleri, both being mid-Miocene species fromSharktooth Hill,California. These show that the split between the great albatrosses and the North Pacific albatrosses occurred by 15 mya. Similar fossil finds in the southern hemisphere put the split between the sooties and mollymawks at 10 mya.[3]The fossil record of the albatrosses in the northern hemisphere is more complete than that of the southern, and many fossil forms of albatross have been found in the NorthAtlantic, which today has no albatrosses. The remains of a colony ofShort-tailed Albatrosseshave been uncovered on the island ofBermuda,[11]and the majority of fossil albatrosses from the North Atlantic have been of the genusPhoebastria(the North Pacific albatrosses); one,Phoebastria anglica, has been found in deposits in bothNorth CarolinaandEngland. Due toconvergent evolutionin particular of the leg and foot bones, remains of the prehistoricpseudotooth birds(Pelagornithidae) may be mistaken for those of extinct albatrosses;Manumay be such a case, and quite certainly the supposed giant albatrossfemurfrom theEarly Pleistocene[12]Dainichi FormationatKakegawa(Japan) actually is from one of the last pseudotooth birds. For more data on fossil species of the living albatross genera, see the genus articles.Morphology and flight[edit]

Portrait of a Southern Royal Albatross (Diomedea epomophora). Note the large, hooked beak and nasal tubes.The albatrosses are a group of large to very largebirds; they are the largest of the procellariiformes. Thebillis large, strong and sharp-edged, the upper mandible terminating in a large hook. This bill is composed of several horny plates, and along the sides are the two "tubes", long nostrils that give theorderits former name. The tubes of all albatrosses are along the sides of the bill, unlike the rest of theProcellariiformeswhere the tubes run along the top of the bill. These tubes allow the albatrosses to measure the exact airspeed in flight; the nostrils are analogous to thepitot tubesin modern aircraft. The albatross needs accurate airspeed measurement in order to perform the dynamic gliding manoeuver. The main food-locating sense is eyesight, although, like other Procellariiformes, they use theirolfactoryability while foraging to locate potential food sources.[13]The feet have no hind toe and the three anterior toes are completely webbed. The legs are strong for Procellariiformes, in fact, almost uniquely amongst the order in that they and thegiant petrelsare able to walk well on land.[14]Albatrosses, along with allProcellariiformes, have a need to excrete the salts they ingest in drinking sea water and eating marine invertebrates. All birds have an enlarged nasal gland at the base of the bill, above their eyes. This gland is inactive in species that don't require it, but the Procellariiformes do require its use. Scientists are uncertain as to its exact processes, but do know in general terms that it removes salt by secreting a 5% saline solution that drips out of their nose or is forcibly ejected in some birds.[15]

Taking off is one of the main times albatrosses use flapping to fly, and is the most energetically demanding part of a journey.The adultplumageof most of the albatrosses is usually some variation of dark upper-wing and back, white undersides, often compared to that of agull.[14]Of these, the species range from theSouthern Royal Albatrosswhich is almost completely white except for the ends and trailing edges of the wings in fully mature males, to theAmsterdam Albatrosswhich has an almost juvenile-like breeding plumage with a great deal of brown, particularly a strong brown band around the chest. Several species ofmollymawksandNorth Pacific albatrosseshave face markings like eye patches or have grey or yellow on the head and nape. Three albatross species, theBlack-footed Albatrossand the twosooty albatrosses, vary completely from the usual patterns and are almost entirely dark brown (or dark grey in places in the case of theLight-mantled Albatross). Albatrosses take several years to get their full adult breeding plumage.[3]Thewingspansof the largest great albatrosses (genusDiomedea) are the largest of any bird, exceeding 340cm (11.2ft), although the other species' wingspans are considerably smaller (1.75m (5.7ft)).[16]The wings are stiff and cambered, with thickened streamlined leading edges. Albatrosses travel huge distances with two techniques used by many long-winged seabirds,dynamic soaringandslope soaring. Dynamic soaring involves repeatedly rising into wind and descending downwind thus gainingenergyfrom the verticalwind gradient. The bird descends with the wind accelerating, then turns head to the slower wind over the water, climbing up to just before stall speed, the turn downwind again descending to accelerate with the higher altitude stronger wind and gravity. And so on. This maneuver allows the bird to cover almost 1000km a day, without flapping its wings once. The only effortless movement is left and right turn in every such loop. Slope soaring uses the rising air on the windward side of large waves. Albatross have highglide ratios, around 22:1 to 23:1, meaning that for every metre they drop, they can travel forward 22 metres.[3]They are aided in soaring by a shoulder-lock, a sheet oftendonthat locks the wing when fully extended, allowing the wing to be kept outstretched without any muscle expenditure, a morphological adaptation they share with the giant petrels.[17]

Albatrosses range over huge areas of ocean and regularly circle the globe.Albatrosses combine these soaring techniques with the use of predictableweathersystems; albatrosses in thesouthern hemisphereflying north from their colonies will take aclockwiseroute, and those flying south will flycounterclockwise.[14]Albatrosses are so well adapted to this lifestyle that theirheart rateswhile flying are close to their basal heart rate when resting. This efficiency is such that the most energetically demanding aspect of a foraging trip is not the distance covered, but the landings, take-offs and hunting they undertake having found a food source.[18]A common assumption is that albatrosses must be able to sleep in flight, although no direct evidence has ever been obtained.[19]This efficient long-distance travelling underlies the albatross's success as a long-distance forager, covering great distances and expending little energy looking for patchily distributed food sources. Their adaptation to gliding flight makes them dependent on wind and waves, however, as their long wings are ill-suited to powered flight and most species lack the muscles and energy to undertake sustained flapping flight. Albatrosses in calm seas are forced to rest on the ocean's surface until the wind picks up again. The North Pacific albatrosses can use a flight style known as flap-gliding, where the bird progresses by bursts of flapping followed by gliding.[20]When taking off, albatrosses need to take a run up to allow enough air to move under the wing to providelift.[14]The dynamic soaring of albatrosses is inspiring airplane designers;Germanaerospace engineerJohannes Traugottand colleagues have charted the albatross's nuanced flight pattern and are looking for ways to apply this to aircraft, especially in the area ofdronesandunmanned aircraft.[21]Distribution and range at sea[edit]See also:List of albatross breeding locationsandList of Procellariiformes by population

Three birds onMidway Atoll, 1958Most albatrosses range in the southern hemisphere fromAntarcticatoAustralia,South AfricaandSouth America. The exceptions to this are the four North Pacific albatrosses, of which three occur exclusively in the North Pacific, from Hawaii to Japan, California and Alaska; and one, theWaved Albatross, breeds in theGalapagos Islandsand feeds off the coast of South America. The need for wind to enable gliding is the reason albatrosses are for the most part confined to higher latitudes; being unsuited to sustained flapping flight makes crossing thedoldrumsextremely difficult. The exception, the Waved Albatross, is able to live in theequatorialwaters around the Galapagos Islands because of the cool waters of theHumboldt Currentand the resulting winds.[3]It is not known for certain why the albatrosses becameextinctin theNorth Atlantic, although risingsea levelsdue to aninterglacialwarming period are thought to have submerged the site of a Short-tailed Albatross colony that has been excavated in Bermuda.[11]Some southern species have occasionally turned up asvagrantsin the North Atlantic and can become exiled, remaining there for decades. One of these exiles, aBlack-browed Albatross, returned togannetcolonies inScotlandfor many years in an attempt to breed.[22]The use ofsatellite trackingis teaching scientists a great deal about the way albatrosses forage across the ocean to find food. They undertake no annualmigration, but disperse widely after breeding, in the case of southern hemisphere species, often undertakingcircumpolartrips.[23]There is also evidence that there is separation of the ranges of different species at sea. A comparison of the foragingnichesof two related species that breed onCampbell Island, theCampbell Albatrossand theGrey-headed Albatross, showed the Campbell Albatross primarily fed over theCampbell Plateauwhereas the Grey-Headed Albatross fed in morepelagic, oceanic waters.Wandering Albatrossesalso react strongly tobathymetry, feeding only in waters deeper than 1000m (3281ft); so rigidly did the satellite plots match this contour that one scientist remarked, "It almost appears as if the birds notice and obey a 'No Entry' sign where the water shallows to less than 1000m".[3]There is also evidence of different ranges for the two sexes of the same species; a study ofTristan Albatrossesbreeding onGough Islandshowed that males foraged to the west of Gough and females to the east.[3]Diet[edit]

Light-mantled Albatrosses regularly dive to feed, and can dive to below 12m. (39 ft)The albatross diet is predominantlycephalopods,fish,crustaceans, and offal,[14]although they will also scavengecarrionand feed on otherzooplankton.[14]It should be noted that for most species, a comprehensive understanding of diet is only known for the breeding season, when the albatrosses regularly return to land and study is possible. The importance of each of these food sources varies from species to species, and even from population to population; some concentrate onsquidalone, others take morekrillorfish. Of the two albatross species found inHawaii, one, theBlack-footed Albatross, takes mostly fish while theLaysanfeeds on squid.[14]The use of dataloggers at sea that record ingestion of water against time (providing a likely time of feeding) suggest that albatross predominantly feed during the day. Analysis of the squid beaks regurgitated by albatrosses has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive, and include mid-water species likely to be beyond the reach of albatross, suggesting that, for some species (like theWandering Albatross),scavengedsquid may be an important part of the diet. The source of these dead squid is a matter of debate; some certainly comes from squidfisheries, but in nature it primarily comes from the die-off that occurs after squid spawning and the vomit of squid-eatingwhales(sperm whales,pilot whalesandSouthern Bottlenose Whales).[24]The diet of other species, like theBlack-browed Albatrossor theGrey-headed Albatross, is rich with smaller species of squid that tend to sink after death, and scavenging is not assumed to play a large role in their diet.[3]Also theWaved Albatrosshas been observed practicingkleptoparasitism, harassingboobiesto steal their food, making it the only member of its order to do so regularly.[25]Until recently it was thought that albatross were predominantly surface feeders, swimming at the surface and snapping up squid and fish pushed to the surface by currents, predators, or death. The deployment of capillary depth recorders, which record the maximum dive depth undertaken by a bird (between attaching it to a bird and recovering it when it returns to land), has shown that while some species, like theWandering Albatross, do not dive deeper than a metre, some species, like theLight-mantled Albatross, have a mean diving depth of almost 5m and can dive as deep as 12.5m.[26]In addition to surface feeding and diving, they have now also been observed plunge diving from the air to snatch prey.[27]Breeding and dancing[edit]See also:Albatross Mating Dances

Sky-pointing is one of the stereotyped actions of Laysan Albatross breeding dances.Albatrosses arecolonial, usually nesting on isolated islands; where colonies are on larger landmasses, they are found on exposed headlands with good approaches from the sea in several directions, like the colony on theOtago PeninsulainDunedin, New Zealand. ManyBuller's AlbatrossesandBlack-footed Albatrossesnest under trees in open forest.[28]Colonies vary from the very dense aggregations favoured by the mollymawks (Black-browed Albatrosscolonies on theFalkland Islandshave densities of 70 nests per 100m) to the much looser groups and widely spaced individual nests favoured by the sooty and great albatrosses. All albatross colonies are on islands that historically were free of landmammals. Albatrosses are highlyphilopatric, meaning they will usually return to their natal colony to breed. This tendency to return to their point of origin to breed is so strong that a study ofLaysan Albatrossshowed that the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was 22m (72ft).[29]Albatrosses live much longer than other birds, they delay breeding for longer, and invest more effort into fewer young. Albatrosses are very long lived; most species survive upwards of 50 years, the oldest recorded being aNorthern Royal Albatrossthat wasringedas an adult and survived for another 51 years, giving it an estimated age of 61.[30]Given that most albatross ringing projects are considerably younger than that, it is thought likely that other species will prove to live that long and even longer.Albatrosses reachsexual maturityslowly, after about five years, but even once they have reached maturity, they will not begin to breed for another couple of years (even up to 10 years for some species). Young non-breeders will attend a colony prior to beginning to breed, spending many years practising the elaborate breeding rituals and "dances" that the family is famous for.[31]Birds arriving back at the colony for the first time already have the stereotyped behaviours that compose albatrosslanguage, but can neither "read" that behaviour as exhibited by other birds nor respond appropriately.[14]After a period of trial and errorlearning, the young birds learn thesyntaxand perfect the dances. This language is mastered more rapidly if the younger birds are around older birds.The repertoire of behaviour involves synchronised performances of various actions such aspreening, pointing, calling, bill clacking, staring, and combinations of such behaviours (like the sky-call).[32]When a bird first returns to the colony it will dance with many partners, but after a number of years the number of birds an individual will interact with drops, until one partner is chosen and a pair is formed. They then continue to perfect an individual language that will eventually be unique to that one pair. Having established apair bondthat will last for life, however, most of that dance will never be used ever again.

An albatross chick atNorthwest Hawaiian Islands National Monument,Midway Atoll.Albatrosses are held to undertake these elaborate and painstaking rituals to ensure that the appropriate partner has been chosen and to perfect partner recognition, as egg laying and chick rearing is a huge investment. Even species that can complete an egg-laying cycle in under a year seldom lay eggs in consecutive years.[3]The great albatrosses (like theWandering Albatross) take over a year to raise a chick from laying tofledging. Albatrosses lay a singlesubelliptical[16]egg, white with reddish brown spots,[28]in a breeding season; if the egg is lost to predators or accidentally broken, then no further breeding attempts are made that year. The larger eggs weigh from 200510g (7.118.0oz).[28]The "divorce" of a pair is a rare occurrence, due to the diminished life-time reproductive success it causes, and usually only happens after several years of breeding failure.[3]All the southern albatrosses create largenestsfor their egg, utilizing grass, shrubs, soil, peat, and evenpenguinfeathers,[28]whereas the three species in the north Pacific make more rudimentary nests. TheWaved Albatross, on the other hand, makes no nest and will even move its egg around the pair's territory, as much as 50m (160ft), sometimes causing it to lose the egg.[33]In all albatross species, both parentsincubatethe egg in stints that last between one day and three weeks. Incubation lasts around 70 to 80 days (longer for the larger albatrosses), the longest incubation period of any bird. It can be an energetically demanding process, with the adult losing as much as 83g (2.9oz) of body weight a day.[34]

Albatrosses brood young chicks until they are large enough to thermoregulate.After hatching, the chick, which issemi-altricial,[16]is brooded and guarded for three weeks until it is large enough to defend andthermoregulateitself. During this period the parents feed the chick small meals when they relieve each other from duty. After the brooding period is over, the chick is fed in regular intervals by both parents. The parents adopt alternative patterns of short and long foraging trips, providing meals that weigh around 12% of their body weight (around 600g (21oz)). The meals are composed of both freshsquid,fishandkrill, as well asstomach oil, anenergy-rich food that is lighter to carry than undigested prey items. This oil is created in a stomach organ known as aproventriculusfrom digested prey items by most tubenoses, and gives them their distinctive musty smell.[35]Albatross chicks take a long time to fledge. In the case of the great albatrosses, it can take up to 280 days; even for the smaller albatrosses, it takes anywhere between 140 and 170 days.[36]Like many seabirds, albatross chicks will gain enough weight to be heavier than their parents, and prior to fledging they use these reserves to build up body condition (particularly growing all their flight feathers), usually fledging at the same weight as their parents. Between 15% and 65% of those fledged survive to breed.[28]Albatross chicks fledge on their own and receive no further help from their parents, who return to the nest after fledging, unaware their chick has left. Studies of juveniles dispersing at sea have suggested an innate migration behaviour, a genetically coded navigation route, which helps young birds when they are first out at sea.[37]Albatrosses and humans[edit]Etymology[edit]The namealbatrossis derived from theArabical-cdousoral-as(apelican; literally, "the diver"), which travelled to English via thePortugueseformalcatraz("gannet"), which is also the origin of the name of the former prison,Alcatraz. TheOEDnotes that the wordalcatrazwas originally applied to thefrigatebird; the modification toalbatrosswas perhaps influenced byLatinalbus, meaning "white", in contrast to frigatebirds which are black.[14]In modern Portuguese, the word used for the bird,albatroz,is in turn derived fromEnglishalbatross.They were once commonly known asGoonie birdsorGooney birds, particularly those of the NorthPacific. In the southern hemisphere, the namemollymawkis still well established in some areas, which is a corrupted form ofmalle-mugge, an oldDutchname for theNorthern Fulmar. The nameDiomedea, assigned to the albatrosses byLinnaeus, references the mythical metamorphosis of the companions of the Greek warriorDiomedesinto birds. Finally, the name for the order,Procellariiformes, comes from theLatinwordprocellameaning "a violent wind" or "a storm".[38]In culture[edit]

1837 Woodcut from the journal "O Panorama"Albatrosses have been described as "the most legendary of all birds".[36]An albatross is a central emblem inThe Rime of the Ancient MarinerbySamuel Taylor Coleridge; a captive albatross is also ametaphorfor thepote mauditin a poem ofCharles Baudelaire. It is from the Coleridge poem that the usage ofalbatross as a metaphoris derived; someone with a burden or obstacle is said to have 'an albatross around their neck', the punishment given in the poem to the mariner who killed the albatross. In part due to the poem, there is a widespreadmyththat (all) sailors believe it disastrous to shoot or harm an albatross; in truth, sailors regularly killed and ate them,[22]e.g., as reported byJames Cookin 1772. On the other hand, it has been reported that sailors caught the birds, but supposedly let them free again;[39]the possible reason is that albatrosses were often regarded as the souls of lost sailors,[40]so that killing them was supposedly viewed as bringing bad luck.[39]The head of an albatross being caught with a hook is used as the emblem of theCape Horners, i.e. sailors who have roundedCape Hornon freighters under sail; captains of such ships even received themselves the title "albatrosses" in the Cape Horners' organization.[39]Ingolf, shooting three under par on a single hole has recently been termed scoring "an albatross", as a continuation on the birdie/eagle theme.[41]TheMaoriused the wing bones of the albatross to carveflutes.[42]Birdwatching[edit]Albatrosses are popular birds forbirdwatchersand their colonies popular destinations forecotourists. Regular birdwatching trips are taken out of many coastal towns and cities, likeMonterey,Kaikoura,Wollongong,Sydney,Port Fairy,HobartandCape Town, to seepelagicseabirds, and albatrosses are easily attracted to these sightseeing boats by the deployment of fish oil andburleyinto the sea. Visits to colonies can be very popular; theNorthern Royal Albatrosscolony atTaiaroa Headin New Zealand attracts 40,000 visitors a year,[3]and more isolated colonies are regular attractions on cruises tosub-Antarctic islands.Threats and conservation[edit]

This Black-browed Albatross has been hooked on a long-line.In spite of often being accorded legendary status, albatrosses have not escaped either indirect or direct pressure from humans. Early encounters with albatrosses byPolynesiansandAleutIndians resulted in hunting and in some cases extirpation from some islands (such asEaster Island). AsEuropeansbegan sailing the world, they too began to hunt albatross, "fishing" for them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for sport.[43]This sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound forAustralia, and only died down when ships became too fast to fish from, and regulations stopped the discharge of weapons for safety reasons. In the 19th century, albatross colonies, particularly those in the North Pacific, were harvested for the feather trade, leading to the near extinction of theShort-tailed Albatross.[14]Of the 21 albatross species recognised by IUCN on theirRed List, 19 are threatened, and the other two are "near threatened".[44]Three species (as recognised by the IUCN) are considered criticallyendangered: theAmsterdam Albatross,Tristan Albatrossand theWaved Albatross. One of the main threats is commerciallong-line fishing, as the albatrosses and otherseabirdswhich will readily feed onoffalare attracted to the set bait, become hooked on the lines and drown. An estimated 100,000 albatross per year are killed in this fashion. Unregulatedpiratefisheries exacerbate the problem.[3][45]OnMidway Atoll, collisions betweenLaysan Albatrossand aircraft have resulted in human and bird deaths as well as severe disruptions in military flight operations. Studies were made in the late 1950s and early 1960s that examined the results of control methods such as the killing of birds, the leveling and clearing of land to eliminate updrafts and the destruction of annual nesting sites.[46]Tall structures such as traffic control and radio towers killed 3000 birds in flight collisions during 19641965 before the towers were taken down. Closure of Naval Air Facility Midway Island in 1993 eliminated the problem of collisions with military aircraft. Recent reductions in human activity on the island have helped reduce bird deaths, though lead paint pollution near military buildings continues to poison birds by ingestion.[47]Albatross plumes were popular in the early 20th century. In 1909 alone over 300,000 albatrosses were killed onMidway IslandandLaysan Islandfor their plumes.[16]Another threat to albatrosses isintroduced species, such as rats orferal cats, which directly attack the albatross or its chicks and eggs. Albatrosses have evolved to breed on islands where land mammals are absent but have not developed defences against them. Even species as small as mice can be detrimental; onGough Islandthe chicks ofTristan Albatrossesare attacked and eaten alive by introducedhouse mice.[48]Introduced species can have other indirect effects:cattleovergrazed essential cover onAmsterdam Islandthreatening the Amsterdam Albatross; on other islands introduced plants reduce potential nesting habitat.[3]

The remains of this Laysan Albatross chick show the plastic ingested before death, including a bottle cap and lighter.Ingestion ofplasticflotsamis another problem, one faced by many seabirds. The amount of plastic in the seas has increased dramatically since the first record in the 1960s, coming from waste discarded by ships, offshore dumping, litter on beaches and waste washed to sea by rivers. It is impossible to digest and takes up space in the stomach orgizzardthat should be used for food, or can cause an obstruction that starves the bird directly. Studies of birds in the North Pacific have shown that ingestion of plastics results in decliningbody weightand body condition.[49]This plastic is sometimes regurgitated and fed to chicks; a study ofLaysan Albatrosschicks onMidway Atollshowed large amounts of ingested plastic in naturally dead chicks compared to healthy chicks killed in accidents. While not the direct cause of death, this plastic causes physiological stress and causes the chick to feel full during feedings, reducing its food intake and the chances of survival.[50]Scientists and conservationists (most importantlyBirdLife Internationaland their partners, who run the Save the Albatross campaign) are working with governments andfishermento find solutions to the threats albatrosses face. Techniques such as setting long-line bait at night, dying the bait blue, setting the bait underwater, increasing the amount of weight on lines and using bird scarers can all reduce the seabird by-catch.[51]For example, a collaborative study between scientists and fishermen inNew Zealandsuccessfully tested an underwater setting device for long-liners which set the lines below the reach of vulnerable albatross species.[52]The use of some of these techniques in thePatagonian Toothfishfishery in theFalkland Islandsis thought to have reduced the number ofBlack-browed Albatrosstaken by the fleet in the last 10 years.[53]Conservationists have also worked on the field ofisland restoration, removing introduced species that threaten native wildlife, which protects albatrosses from introduced predators.One important step towards protecting albatrosses and otherseabirdsis the 2001treatytheAgreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, which came into force in 2004 and has been ratified by thirteen countries,Australia,Argentina,BrazilandChile,Ecuador,New Zealand,Spain,South Africa,France,Peru,Uruguayand theUnited Kingdom.[54]The treaty requires these countries to take specific actions to reduce by-catch, pollution and to remove introduced species from nesting islands.[55]Species[edit]Current thinking divides the albatrosses into four genera. The number of species is a matter of some debate. TheIUCNandBirdLife Internationalamong others recognise the interim taxonomy of 22 extant species, other authorities retain the more traditional 14 species, and one recent paper proposed a reduction to 13:[citation needed] Great albatrosses(Diomedea) Wandering AlbatrossD. exulans Antipodean AlbatrossD. (exulans) antipodensis Amsterdam AlbatrossD. (exulans) amsterdamensis Tristan AlbatrossD. (exulans) dabbenena Northern Royal AlbatrossD. (epomorpha) sanfordi Southern Royal AlbatrossD. epomophora North Pacific albatrosses(Phoebastria) Waved AlbatrossP. irrorata Short-tailed AlbatrossP. albatrus Black-footed AlbatrossP. nigripes Laysan AlbatrossP. immutabilis Mollymawks(Thalassarche) Black-browed AlbatrossT. melanophris Campbell AlbatrossT. (melanophris) impavida Shy AlbatrossT. cauta White-capped AlbatrossT. steadi Chatham AlbatrossT. (cauta) eremita Salvin's AlbatrossT. (cauta) salvini Grey-headed AlbatrossT. chrysostoma Atlantic Yellow-nosed AlbatrossT. chlororhynchos Indian Yellow-nosed AlbatrossT. (chlororhynchos) carteri Buller's AlbatrossT. bulleri Sooty albatrosses(Phoebetria) Sooty AlbatrossP. fusca Light-mantled AlbatrossP. palpebrata.See also[edit] List of albatross breeding locationsReferences[edit]1. Jump up^Brands, Sheila (14 August 2008)."Systema Naturae 2000 / Classification Family Diomedeidae".Project: The Taxonomicon. Archived fromthe originalon 16 June 2009. Retrieved 17 February 2009.2. Jump up^Pattison, Darcy."Wisdom, the Midway Albatross".Wisdom, the Midway Albatross: Surviving the Japanese Tsunami and other Disasters for Over 60 Years. Mims House.3. ^Jump up to:abcdefghijklmnBrooke, M. (2004).Albatrosses And Petrels Across The WorldOxford University Press, Oxford, UKISBN 0-19-850125-04. ^Jump up to:abcRobertson, C. J. R. and Nunn, G. B. (1998) "Towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses" in:Proceedings First International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Albatrosses, G.Robertson & R.Gales (Eds), Chipping Norton:Surrey Beatty & Sons, 1319,5. Jump up^Alexander, W. B.; Fleming, C. A.; Falla, R. A.; Kuroda, N. H.; Jouanin, C.; Rowan, M. K.; Murphy, R. C.; Serventy, D. L.; Salomonsen, F.et al.(1965). "Correspondence: The families and genera of the petrels and their names".Ibis107(3): 4015.doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1965.tb07326.x.6. Jump up^Nunn, G. B.; Cooper, J.; Jouventin, P.; Robertson, C. J. R.; Robertson, G. G. (1996)."Evolutionary relationships among extant albatrosses (Procellariiformes: Diomedeidae) established from complete cytochrome-b gene sequences"(PDF).Auk113(4): 784801.doi:10.2307/4088857.7. ^Jump up to:abDouble, M.C. & Chambers, G.K., (2004). "The need for the parties to the Agreement on Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP) to establish a robust, defendable and transparent decision-making process for the construction and maintenance of their species lists ".Proceedings of the Scientific Meeting of Agreement on Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP), Hobart, Australia, 89 November 20048. Jump up^Burg, T.M.; Croxall, J.P. (2004). "Global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex".Molecular Ecology13(8): 23452355.doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02232.x.PMID15245406.9. Jump up^Penhallurick, J.; Wink, M. (2004). "Analysis of the taxonomy and nomenclature of the Procellariiformes based on complete nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene".Emu104(2): 125147.doi:10.1071/MU01060.10. Jump up^Rheindt, F. E.; Austin, J. (2005)."Major analytical and conceptual shortcomings in a recent taxonomic revision of the Procellariiformes A reply to Penhallurick and Wink (2004)"(PDF).Emu105(2): 181186.doi:10.1071/MU04039.11. ^Jump up to:abOlson, S.L.; Hearty, P.J. (2003). "Probable extirpation of a breeding colony of Short-tailed Albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) on Bermuda by Pleistocene sea-level rise".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences100(22): 1282512829.doi:10.1073/pnas.1934576100.12. Jump up^Gelasian, formerlyLate Pliocene13. Jump up^Lequette, B.; Verheyden, C.; Jowentin, P. (1989)."Olfaction in Subantarctic seabirds: Its phylogenetic and ecological significance"(PDF).The Condor91(3): 732135.doi:10.2307/1368131.JSTOR1368131.14. ^Jump up to:abcdefghijTickell, W.L.N. (2000).Albatrosses. Sussex:Pica Press,ISBN 1-873403-94-115. Jump up^Ehrlich, Paul R.; Dobkin, David, S.; Wheye, Darryl (1988).The Birders Handbook(First ed.). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. pp.2931.ISBN0-671-65989-8.16. ^Jump up to:abcdHumann, Alec; Brinkley, Edward S. (2001). "Albatrosses". In Elphick, Chris; Dunning Jr., John B.;Sibley, David Allen.The Sibley Guide to Bird Life and Behavior. illustrated by David Allen Sibley (1st. ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp.132135.ISBN0-679-45123-4.17. Jump up^Pennycuick, C. J. (1982). "The flight of petrels and albatrosses (Procellariiformes), observed in South Georgia and its vicinity".Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B300(1098): 75106.doi:10.1098/rstb.1982.0158.18. Jump up^Weimerskirch, H; Guionnet, T; Martin, J; Shaffer, SA; Costa, DP. (2000)."Fast and fuel efficient? Optimal use of wind by flying albatrosses".Proc Biol Sci267(1455): 186974.doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1223.PMC1690761.PMID11052538.19. Jump up^"Animal Facts Albatross: Do albatrosses sleep while flying?".OnlineMathLearning.com. Retrieved 6 April 2012.20. Jump up^Warham, J. (1996).The Behaviour, Population, Biology and Physiology of the Petrels. London:Academic Press,ISBN 0-12-735415-821. Jump up^Daniel Stone (7 September 2012)."Albatross's Effortless Flight DecodedMay Influence Future Planes". National Geographic.22. ^Jump up to:abCocker, M., & Mabey, R., (2005)Birds BritannicaLondon:Chatto & Windus,ISBN 0-7011-6907-923. Jump up^Croxall, J. P.; Silk, J.R.D.; Phillips, R.A.; Afanasyev, V.; Briggs, D.R. (2005). "Global Circumnavigations: Tracking year-round ranges of nonbreeding Albatrosses".Science307(5707): 249250.doi:10.1126/science.1106042.PMID15653503.24. Jump up^Croxall, J.P.; Prince, P.A. (1994)."Dead or alive, night or day: how do albatrosses catch squid?".Antarctic Science6(2): 155162.doi:10.1017/S0954102094000246.25. Jump up^Spear, Larry; David G. Ainley (1993). "Kleptoparasitism by Kermadec Petrels, Jaegers, and Skuas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific: Evidence of Mimicry by Two Species ofPterodroma".The Auk110(2): 222233.JSTOR4088550.26. Jump up^Prince, P.A.; Huin, N.; Weimerskirch, H. (1994). "Diving depths of albatrosses".Antarctic Science6(3): 353354.doi:10.1017/S0954102094000532.27. Jump up^Cobley, N.D. (1996)."An observation of live prey capture by a Black-browed AlbatrossDiomedea melanophrys"(PDF).Marine Ornithology24: 4546.28. ^Jump up to:abcdeRobertson, C. J. R. (2003). "Albatrosses (Diomedeidae)". In Hutchins, Michael.Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. 8 Birds: 1. (2 ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp.113116.ISBN0-7876-5784-0.29. Jump up^Fisher, H.I. (1976). "Some dynamics of a breeding colony of Laysan Albatrosses".Wilson Bulletin88(1): 121142.JSTOR4160718.30. Jump up^Robertson, C.J.R. (1993). "Survival and longevity of the Northern Royal AlbatrossDiomedea epomophora sanfordiat Taiaroa Head" 193793".Emu93(4): 269276.doi:10.1071/MU9930269.31. Jump up^Jouventin, P.; Monicault, G. de; Blosseville, J.M. (1981). "La danse de l'albatros,Phoebetria fusca".Behaviour78: 4380.doi:10.1163/156853981X00257.32. 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"Albatross Long-Distance Navigation: Comparing Adults And Juveniles".Journal of Navigation58(3): 365373.doi:10.1017/S0373463305003401.38. Jump up^Gotch, A. F. (1995) [1979]. "Albatrosses, Fulmars, Shearwaters, and Petrels".Latin Names Explained. A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals. New York, NY: Facts on File. p.190.ISBN0-8160-3377-3.39. ^Jump up to:abcFrom the website of theCape Horners' organizationcaphorniers.cl:A.I.C.H. Emblem.(retrieved 24 February 2011). Synthesis of an article written by the International Secretary General of the A.I.C.H., Captain Roger GHYS, as published in LE COURRIER DU CAP N3 of December, 1999. By Rear Admiral Roberto BENAVENTE, President, Chilean Section AICH40. Jump up^Eyers, Jonathan (2011).Don't Shoot the Albatross!: Nautical Myths and Superstitions. A&C Black, London, UK.ISBN 978-1-4081-3131-2.41. Jump up^http://www.scottishgolfhistory.net/bogey_par.htm#Albatross42. Jump up^Mclean, Mervyn (1982). 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"Incidence of plastic in seabirds from the tropical Pacific, 198491: relation with distribution of species, sex, age, season, year and body weight".Marine Environmental Research40(2): 123146.doi:10.1016/0141-1136(94)00140-K.50. Jump up^Auman, H.J., Ludwig, J.P., Giesy, J.P., Colborn, T., (1997)"Plastic ingestion by Laysan Albatross chicks on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, in 1994 and 1995."inAlbatross Biology and Conservation, (ed by G. Robinson and R. Gales). Surrey Beatty & Sons:Chipping Norton. pp. 2394451. Jump up^Food and Agriculture Organisation (1999)"The incidental catch of seabirds by longline fisheries: worldwide review and technical guidelines for mitigation". FAO Fisheries Circular No. 937. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.52. 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