T H E AGRICULTURAL IN T E R E ST OF T H E UN ITED KINGDOM, AND A W ORD

FO R TH A T OF CEYLON.“ Ships, colonies and commerce,” and especially

commerce, have contributed so largely to the wealth and the greatness of the B ritish Isles, th a t a vague bu t very general idea has obtained possession of large numbers th a t home agriculture occupies bu t a very minor comparative po-ition. Those who have studied the question know how fallacious th is idea is. I t is very true th a t neither England nor Scotland is so ex­clusively dependent on the land and its products as, unfortunately, the inhabitants of the sister isle are. On the o ther hand, more capital, more science and more of steady, well-directed labour have been devoted by the English and Scotch in doing “ justice to the land ” than has ever been the case in unhappy and, un til in recent years, misgoverned Ireland. The fact th a t, under the feudal or rather the patriarchal system which prevailed amongst the Celts of Ireland as well as those of the Highlands of Scotland, the land was never considered the absolute property of an individual —the Chief or Head of the Clan merely held i t in tru s t for the whole body—m ust never be forgotten. The possession of land, too, however acquired, involves duties and responsibilities, as well as privileges. These principles, as well as lessons drawn from the tra d i­tional land laws of the Indian branch of th e great Aryan family, no doubt guided Messrs. Gladstone, Bright and their associates in m aking concessions to Irish tenants which, in the estimation of many, have approached the verge of confiscation. Having made all the concessions which are possible, w ith due regard to justice to the landholders, those who rule the nation will be fully sustained in the position they have now assumed towards a conspiracy which had for it s object nothing short of spoliation and anarchy. B ut i t was inevitable, especially in view of th e disastrous con­sequences of a succession of abnormally w et years on the agricultural in terest of Britain, th a t th e question should be raised of applying to farming in England and Scotland th e main principles which are deemed ju st and beneficial in the case of Ireland. Accordingly movements have taken place both in Scotland and England for a reform of the land laws which will surely bear fruit. Abolition of those laws of entail and primogeniture which in too m any cases have converted th e nominal holders of land into mere genteel paupers, u tte rly destitu te of capital necessary to improve or keep up th e condition of their estates, in the case of land held directly by themselves or rented as farms, is bu t a question of time. So with the game laws, except in cases where game alone can render vast tracts of barren moorland productive. Such tracts there are in the H ighlands of Scotland, bu t even there public opinion will demand th a t the welfare of human beings, when a t stake, should be preferred to the existence of herds of deer or flocks of ptarmigan or grouse. Justice to tenants as well as justice to landlords, which are quite compatible, will be insisted o n ; every obstacle being removed and every induce­m ent offered for th e expenditure of more and more capital on the soil, th e pasture and the flocks

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and herds, so as largely to increase production which even now is enormous. A falling-off in the export trade of Briiain excites universal a ttention and concern, b u t few tak e account of the m arket for m anufactures and products of all kinds which has been lost or diminished by the evil tim es which have affected home agriculture since the culm inating point of p ro­sperity in 1874. As more and more foreign corn was introduced, i t would naturally be expected th a t B ritish farmers would more and more tu rn th e ir attention to the breeding of animals. But ju s t as the Ceylon planters have been compelled to restric t the use of fertilizers a t the very moment when such substances were most required, so the farmers of the United Kingdom have been unable not only to increase their stock of animals but to prevent a serious dim inution of th e ir own and their country’s wealth. Figures given by a farmer, w riting to the London Times, shew th a t the loss by decrease in th e seven years has been377,000 cattle (out of 10,281,000), valued at 4£ millions sterling ; 6,937,000 sheep (out of 34,837,000), valued a t £13,875,000; and 387,000 swine (out of 3,537,000), valued a t £581,000. The to ta l decrease is equal to a loss of little short of nineteen millions sterling. That th is loss will be recovered we cannot doubt, bu t this is only one direction in which agriculturists have been adversely affected. Of course the legislature cannot provide against abnormal seasons, in the B ritish Isle any more than in th is eastern isle, bu t i t is the du ty of Governm ent here as there to m itis a te the disastrous effects of providential visitations of ar. ad­verse character, not by the imposition bu t the removal of burdens, restrictions and disadvantages. Num erically the agricultural classes in the U nited Kingdom, w ith those dependent on them , are equal to millions or one-fourth of the to ta l population. Their capital, i t is affirmed, is in exactly the same proportion to the realized wealth of the nation. How enormous the aggregate is, becomes apparent when i t is necessary to represent i t by figures which stand for nine thousand millions of pounds sterling ! The share of the agricult­ural classes is sta ted a t 2,281 millions. H ere we m ust quote :—

The agricultural capital is thus apportioned :—The gross yearly ren tal assessed for income-tax—namely, £62,000,000—consists of about £16,000,000 of ren t for the land and about £16,000,000 interest of sums laid out for inclosure, buildings, drainage, roads, fences, and water supply ; and capitalizing the former am ount a t 30 years and the la tte r a t 25 years’ purchase, we have the landlords’ property of £1,380,000,000 in the soil and £400,000,000 in improvements, or £1,780,000,000 together. The lay and clerical tithe-owners take re ­venues from the soil amounting to about £o,00U,000 a y e a r ; which, capitalized a t 25 years’ purchase, re­present £125,000,000 more, or a gross aggregate value of agi icultural land and w hatis upon i t of £ 1,905,000,000. Tenants’ capital, M ajor Craigie takes a t £8 per acre

,o n 47,000,000 acres ; giving a sum of £376,000,000. The whole capital of the proprietors and occupiers of the agricultural land of the U nited Kingdom is thus estim ated a t £2,281,000,000.The capital wealth of Britain being represented by thousands of millions ; and her people,even with the Irish element counted, being enterprising and industrious to a degree, we are, perhaps, somewhat prepared to learn th a t the annual income of the 34 millions w ho

inhabit th e B ritish isles is no less than one thousand millions sterling : of which £370,000,000 are th e result of capital, while £630,000,000 are derived from earnings. To shew the inportance of the agricultural interest, we m ust quote again :—

Of the £1,000,000,000 total, about £ 108,000,000 is th e income of the agricultural classes, made up as follows:—£6*-,000,000 income of landowners, £5.000,000 income of tithe-owners, £33,000,000 income of farmers (which is 9 per cent on their capital), and £58 000,000 earnings of labourers (which averages about 24s. per cultivated acre and 14s. per week for each worker.)From such im portant facts, the farm er draws correct deductions, thus :—

Now, the community can ill spare any portion of th is great income derived from the cultivation and stocking of land. The trading, m anufacturing, mining, brewing, ship-owning, carrying, professional, and various o ther classes must be concerned not to lose from their books any of th a t great share of the £ 100,000,000 annua ly which land and tithe-owners and farmers have expen led in the purchase of home manufactures and commodities. And the urban population, including both the industrial and retired cta-ses, are also deeply interested in the question whether the £58,000,000 of agricultural labourers’ wages shall be cut down by tu rn ing large areas of plough-land in to grass and send­ing surplus hands more thickly than ever to the towns, or whether the wages fund shall be increased and rustic workmen kept a t home by augmenting the bulk of th a t farm-produce which requires manipulation and by planting more families in occupation of the land. A time has arrived when the business of agriculture no longer fields the amount of income to landlords and tenants which has hitherto totalled up so largely ; and hence, the public have, not only a serious commercial interest a t stake, b a t for mere self-preservation, they are bound to aid. if they can, in restoring the agri- c iltu ral classt s into a solvent and profit-making posl ion.

The bcaiing of all th is on Ceylon is obvious. Our island resembles Ireland, not only in area bu t in the fact tha% having neither mineral wealth nor m anu­facturing industries of consequ ence to fall back upon, the very life of the population as well as the susten- tation of all th a t constitutes Government is directly dependent on the land and the success of those who have devoted th e ir lives, their energies, their Skill and their c ipital to th e cultivation of the soil. If in the m anufacturing and commercial m other country I he agricultural interest is im portant and deserving of all the p >ssible relief and encouragement which a wise and ju st Government can afford, how much more is sim ilar action demanded from the ruling authoiities of a dependency of the empire, the very existence of which depends on the land and its products?

W ith all the adverse influences which have oper­ated to depress the agricultural in terest in the U nited Kingdom, the annual value of salable produce in the shape of crops, animals, wool, &c., is reckoned a t £300,000,000, while the to ta l value of th e year’s ex­port trade was only £223,000,000. But, a fte r all, agriculture is only relatively im portant in the U nited Kingdom. In th is Colony its importance, and especially of th a t branch of i t conducted by Britons with B ritish skill and B rit'sh capital, is supreme and overshadowing. Blot out the enterprise referred to, and Ceylon sinks back in to a mere historical name—a country interesting for its ruins. I f therefore, th e revival of agriculture in

B ritain is urged as one of th e highest duties of s ta te s­manship, is th is a tim e in Ceylon for increasing, instead of diminishing burdens on an enterprise which is al­ready suffering the extrem e of depression from causes beyond human control and apparently beyond human cure! “ Time the h e a le r” will bring re lie f; bu t meantime those on whom the hand of a m ysterious providence has fallen heavily have a right to expect th a t their rulers will do all th a t is possible to lighten their burdens, instead of assuming the a ttitu d e and carrying out the policy with which the name of “ Reho- boam ” is associated in a m anner the reverse of favour­able, or famous, or w orthy of im itation.

T H E “ TROPICAL A G RIC U LTU R IST. ”( Communicated.)

The “ Tropical A griculturist ” has now reached the age of half a year. The last three numbers show a m arked improvement in the way of selection of u se ­ful articles relating to our old products, as well as to those of la te r time, and hints respecting those th a t m ight be cultivated. A great many useful extracts occur which point out to us the state o f affairs relating to such products in o ther parts of th e world

I t m ust be adm itted by every one in terested in Agriculture, directly or indirectly, th a t th is is one of the best Agricultural Records in th e East, pointing out to us the success and failures of the different modes of treatm ent in various localities of th is island.

W ith the steady growth of this magazine, we note th a t there have been rapid strides in the yield of our cinchona trees, the last recorded in th e journal be­ing 9*6 of quinine from a 5£ year old tree in Dim- bula, This has been outdone by trees on Yarrow. However, with the increased yield of quinine and in ­creased planting, we have to note th a t Howard now quotes his quinine a t 8s per ounce, and though this may be only a tem porary depression, giving rise, pe r­haps, to a greater consumption ; yet the tim e m ust come when the price will fall far below 8s. There is now still greater need for us to m anufacture the quinine in Ceylon, and so save the charges of tran s­port, as well as the heavy agency charges a t home.

A very useful paper on “ Lime and M anure” appears in the October issue, and an interesting ^article on lime or th e ashes of the kumbuk tree.

Coffee leaf disease has its share of literature, and Mr. W ard ’s final report is promised us in the next issue. We doubt w hether much good will spring from all th is enquiry, save the fact th a t certain proposed remedies are of no avail. Hemileia vastatrix is of a deeper stamp and more m aster,ous than it looks, and all outw ard treatm ent will be futile. Such tre a t­m ent may, however, afford a passing relief.

Tea and rubber show a gradual progression. W ith respect to the latter, how ever, th e one th ing required is : will the yield be sufficient to enable the European to pronounce it a rem unerative crop ?

Two valuable papers referring to scientific agriculture and agricultural education appear in the last number.

only ho ;c th a t we may have some agricultural education here, accompanied with some practical work, to divert the ever-abounding and continually in ­creasing th irs t for the youth of Ceylon to enter the legal or medical professions, or to rest content w ith a clerkship. If only such a diversion could be effected, w hat a different race we should have in time to come ! How much they themselves would be bene­fited and the island in general !

Papers ou gardening from the A sian and Su tton’s Guide will be much appreciated by ihoae who have leisure to spend on such a useful and healthy occupation

AM ERICAN TR A D E W IT H L IB E R IA .Consul-General Smith, in transm itting the statem ent

of the direct t r de between Liberia and the U nited States, notes th a t there are, each j'ear, 6 ’ additions to the farming class of the country from among L i­berians, recent emigrants, and a few aboriginal Africans. There is an impression spreading, and happily in ­fluencing the common people, th a t the hope for bread, for comfort, for respectable manhood is in the s dl.

The increase of coffee is in like proportion to the quantity reported, perhaps a little in excess of last year. Camwood has not appreciably decreased in quantity nor quality. The Consul-General reports hav­ing been shown some very fine specimens of gum copal from the Kroo country between Grand Bassa and Cape Palmas. B ut the Liberians have done nothing tow ard securing and shipping th is valuable article. The Consul-General having givvn the necessary in ­formation concerning this new article of aura copal to some American dealers, he believes th a t it will soon be found in the New Y ork and London m arkets. — American Exporter.

A G R IC U LTU R E ON T H E CONTINENT OF EUROPE.

{Special letter.)P a r i s , 8 t h October.

W ith th e view to develop the use of steam ploughs in France, a native m anufacturer will lend th a t im ­plem ent gratis, in order th a t intending purchasers may tes t its u tility . The combination system, for th e general purchase of farm m achinery, the subscribers employing the implements by a rotation determined by lot, is also making satisfactory progress. A t the E lectricity Exhibition, the plough ordinarily worked by steam has for m otor electricity, which drags the machine in inverse directions, as do she locomobiles. In the case of the electric m otive power, it is not necessary to transport the generating machine to the grounds, the current can be sent along by wires, a t a distance | of one or two miles from the farm stead, where | the generator can be turned by the stationary steam engine. I t does seem, th a t the only difficulty con­nected with the use of electricity is to be able to pro­duce it on a large and cheap scale. In the case of ex­tensive illum ination, electricity can be profitably employed, bu t not otherwise up to th e present. There is no doubt electricity , as a source of power and heat, as well as of light, will be made commercially cheap. For example, th e power of the fluid is marvellous : in the E lectric E xhibition the one current supplies the light, and drives the several machines, while never displaying any dim inution in power, despite the several and varied demands made upon its services.

Salicylic acid, after rem aining for a long tim e a labor­atory curiosity, has developed into a modern industry. The new product was accepted by some enthusiasts as the philosopher’s stone : i t was boasted th a t it cured every disease, no m atter w hether of long or short standing, like a paten t medicine. Then came the inevitable reaction. The French Government excommunicated i t in the interest of the public health, while o ther countries, th a t dispense w ith Government ■ tutelage, had 110 complaints to ;record on sanitary grounds. In Germany the acid has been found by veterinary surgeons efficacious against several diseases : horses with sore m ouths were cured in five days by merely allowing them to bathe th e ir lips in a weak solution, renewed thrice daily. In 1874 in Hungary, when the poultry epidemicbroke out—eruption about the eyes, bead, feet, &c.—a cure was effected by touching

tbe affected parts w ith a brush dipped in a solution ; adding the acid to a tub in which ducks and geese could bathe, and mixing it w ith sand or ashes wherein fowls liked to roll. Of late, in Germany, salicylic acid has been successfully and generally employed, not as a remedial so much so as a preventiveagent. For horses, bulls, cows, &c., these receiveone-th irtieth of an ounce daily ; sm aller stock inproposition ; about three ounces of the acid dis­solved in a bucket of warm water, and the solu­tion proportionably distributed . As an antisepticth e acid is excellent. An objection has been made, th a t i t lessens the reproductive powers of stock, but M.Ludloff, who has employed the acid daily for five years, finds th a t 100 cows produced 89 calves, while th e average was 88 for the preceding five years. The generative functions are thus unaffected. The cost of the acid, per head of cattle , per week, is only one penny.

Tbe cultivation of the parsnip is taking extensive proportions in France as a forage p lant : its natural home appears to be B rittany, where i t continues to grow till the close of December. M. Le Bian has made the culture of th is root a speciality, and is in a fair way 1 0 substitu te i t extensively for oats for horse feeding. I t goes capitally w ith maize, and hogs accept i t as a dainty dish

The seat and centre of the charbon disease, or 66 m ountain m alady,” is in Auvergne : th e Pasteurprocess of vaccination has been tried in several of the mountainous districts, and w ith the fullest success. M. Pasteu r announces th a t he is occupied in the arrange­m ent of a little laboratory for the commercial prepara­tion of vaccine : he will not be ready to execute orders till next spring ; 110 loss w ill be incurred in the interim, as the disease is lim ited during winter. He will prepare 44 gallons of the (t pock,” sufficient to vaccinate one million of animals ; i t will be forwarded in special glass tubes, and the cost will be one-half­penny per head of stock. Up to the present, 50,000 animals, sheep, oxen, cows, horses, &e., have been vaccinated, and w ith success, in the sense th a t they have been saved, while others a t their side have succumbed.

The two most successful means for destroying the phylloxera are, autum nal inundations followed in spring by rich manurings, and, next, the use of sulphuret of carbon, in the proportion of three-quarters of an ounce per square yard, dibbled around the roots. The sulphuret has the disadvantage of being dear, and the drawback of killing tbe pa tien t occasionally. W here the la tte r occurs, the cause will be found to reside in an excess of hum idity in th e soil, and the lowness of surrounding tem perature. On well-drained lands, having a silicious or calcareous subsoil, the sulphuret may be employed w ith safety: trea t only vines not too gravely a ttacked by tbe bug, and select winter for th e work ; when the soil is tenacious and the disease long standing, m ultip ly the holes in the square yard and reduce th e doses. In spring, apply farmyard manure, with th e addition of potash salts, in th e chloride form for example, bu t never employ oil-cake.

Petroleum cures cutaneous affections; M. Desbois finds, if i t does not k ill ants, i t drives them away, as he knows from experience in his conservatory.

I t has been decided by several of the Councils General th a t for the future highroads and the by­ways shall be planted w ith fru it trees, instead of elms, poplars, acacias, ash, &c,, th a t merely exhaust the soil.

The vintage is excellent this year in point of quality. The beet crop will not , be heavy, bu t the juice will be very rich.

N E W PRODUCTS : LOW COUNTRY REPORT.

L IB E R IA N c o f f e e ; c o c o a ; c e a r a ' r u b b e r ;

CR IC K ET S ; LEA F-D ISEA SE ; TA LIPO TS ;

PALM S IN FLO W ER .

W>s t e r n P r o v i n c e , 4tli Nov. 1881. October has maintained the character of 1881 as the

most perfect for the lowcountry planter th a t he could have made, had he himself been clerk of the weather. I t has rained almost daily, and, tow ards the end of the m onth there were several heavy th u n d er storms, j

I have planted up the piece of new clearing and I have since been supplying the vacancies caused by I the crickets in the Ju ly and August planting. The havoc has extended to a very largo percentage of the young plants, and it is a question now if I have sufficient plants to fill all th e empty spaces immedi­ately. The crickets have not entirely disappeared up to date, but they are less mischievous than they were up to the middle of the month, and I can now pu t out plants w ith some confidence. I have now' ac­cepted the cricket as a fact of the situation, to be

rovided for by larger nurseries, letting the plants e more advanced before pu tting them out, and

planting ju st a t the tim e when the en* my disappears for three months. The plants pu t down now will have three m onths to establish themselves and gain strength, before the next generation are ready to take the field. T hat Liberian coffee is to be got up in th is batali land a t all is due to the one fact, th a t the crickets do not a ttack the young plants in baskets to any serious extent.

The year old plants continue to grow in the most satisfactory way and the older trees are elaborating a heavy blossom, which will open tow ards the end of this, or early next month.

I sowed the Ceara rubber seed in a shed, and the first of i t came up on the fifth day and was six inches high in a fortnight. The shed, I find, is a mistake, as the plants all lean towards the light, a t an angle of 45 w ith the surface. I have therefore pu t down the second supply of seed in the open ground, I have already lost several plants, not by cricket, which only works a t night—these were cut a t m idday—but probably by a species of fly; but I did not see it.

Much of the cacao th a t appeared dying some months ago has taken a sta rt, and now g ro w 'S tolerably, b u t shows a tendency to throw the growth into suckers from the stem, which I am try ing hard to counteract, by stripping and pruning. I have recently supplied the vacancies on the ground, where th e older plants looked most promising, and, in planting, have used a good deal of quicklime for the benefit of the w hiteants : tim e will try its effects. The older trees continue to flower copiously, bu t have never yet formed apod .

The teak, bambu, jak , mango, beli, are all flour­ishing in a very satisfactory m an n er; only the cin­chona is a complete failure. The lime and orange do very well after they get a foot high, b u t out of many hundred plants I have not hatf-a-dozen fully established.

I lost one coffee plant, about three feet high, from a white grub, about an inch and a half long, which entered below ground, and ate its way up the centre of the stem, and some dozen young plants have lost their tops, from a small brown grub th a t enters a few joints below the top and eats out the p ith upwards.

W here the leaf-disease happens on th e older trees, i t never leaves them : some get sp“ts on every leaf, but neither drop leaves, nor crop; whileothers, on which the look is not so bad, have a bare beggarly appear­ance, w ith the fru it remaining, bu t never growing bigger Some of the year old plants get a very v ir­u lent attack, and, for some tim e past, I have stumped all th a t I found so affected : bu t I find them very

slow in throwing out fresh shoots and, a t the end of two months, some of them have no t made the attem pt,

I suppose every one who has bad to deal with Liberian coffee during three or four years past has been forced to accept the fact, th a t upwards of twelve months elapses between th e flower and the ripe fruit. I f the fru it sets on a healthy tree, i t will ripen in its season, and those who are not content w ith the nature of th e plant will do well not to meddle w ith its cultivation. I f th e crop dries on the tree, before ripening, i t indicates a bad plant, or a poor soil, or a specially bad season, bu t not an incapacity in the p lant to ripen its fru it in a climate th a t closely resembles th a t of its habitat. If well trea ted throughout and planted in good soil, the Liberian coffee p lant will flow'er a t two years from seed, and may or may not, according to th e season, continue to blossom every month for the next twelve, bu t its tru e blossoming seasons are January and July . W hen the tree has a crop it will not grow much young wood, while bringing forward its fru it, and . the next blossom will be a comparative small one. Thus there will be two crops in the year, and one of them will be larger than th e other. If th e season is a moist one, the streng th of the tree will go into th e production of wood; if i t is dry the wood will ripen sooner, and there will probably be several small blossoms in the intervals of th e larger ones. I t is claimed th a t the p lant bears crop on th e old bare wood, bu t I would not p u t much tru st in w hat crop may be so obained. I have no trees more than four years old, so th a t my experience is not very extensive, but 1 see clearly that the struggl­ing blossom on young trees will cease, and they will settle down into bi-annual flowering, in ordinary sea­sons, in th is portion of the lowcountry.

Colombo residents who have never seen the most stupendous flowering apparatus in nature should take the opportunity', which half-a-life tim e in the island may not again bring round. The talipots are un flower, all over the Siyane and Hapitigam Korales. There is one close to the Government garden a t Henaratgoda, and they are to be seen along the railway as far as Ambepussa. I can see above tw en ty from the top of th is estate, and they are still more numerous about Muguragnmpola. Perhaps some botanical authority will explain why they all flower together.

“ K E G E L IA PIN N A T A .”Iti your notice of the fruit of this p lant brought to C ey­

lon from Java by Mr. A.M. Ferguson, you forgot to men- tion th a t it was a case of bringing coals to Newcastle. There is a fine specimen of th is tree in the garden behind th e public offices in the Fort, close to the end of the Government P rin ting Office, which is a l­ways in flower and fruit, th e la tte r hanging on stalks often 8 to 10 feet in length, and in this respect, being one of the most remarkable plants in the vegetable king­dom. I saw a fine specimen of th is tree in the triangular b it of ground opposite th e main entrance to the Royal Botanic Gardens a t Peradeniya forty years ago, and even then it was conspicuous from the K andy roadside by its singular flowers and fruits, the la tte r hanging down on long rope-like peduncles, bu t so concealed otherwise by a mahogany tree, the so-called star-apple of the Peradeniy’a Gardens, bu t really the Clirysophyllum olivaeforme, w ith a small elongated fruit, and other trees, th a t Dr. Tk waites did not notice i t un til I pointed it out to him about 25 to 30 years ago. The tree has been freely distributed from th is one by Mr. Thwaites, bu t our Colombo one would have shared the fate of other rare or valu­able foreign trees in the F o rt garden which were said to impede the free circulation of air, had I not on more

th an one occasion used my influence to save th is re ­markable tree.

The calabash p lan t of the W est Indies, Crescentia Cujete, which was introduced to Ceylon more than 20 years ago, and is now quite common about Colombo, is a close ally of the Kegelia : indeed they were formerly included in a separate family, Cresccntiaceae so named from the former genus, bu t they are now included in Bignoniaceae, (S''e notice of Crescentia Cvj(te in note / a t bottom of p. 208 of “ Ferguson’s D irectory ” for 1863.)

M r. A. M. Ferguson when travelling in Ceylon or elsewhere, never lost the chance of collecting speci­mens in flower or fru it of any plants which struck him as being remarkable or ornamental, w ith notes on them, and his long residence in Ceylon has enabled him to learn a considerable number of the names of planls ; bu t w ithout a list of the plants, introduced and naturalized in Ceylon, and an idea of w hat they are, he and others are likely to bring specimens of plants we already possess.

Mr. M orris’s catalogue was the first a ttem p t made to enumerate the foreign plants growing in Ceylon, b u t a second edition or catalogue on another plan is much wanted, to enable parties deeply interested in tbe introduction of useful and ornamental p lants to avoid th e useless expense of introducing plants already in the island, m any of I hem here since the times of the Portuguese, D utch and English, viz., 1505 to 1656, 1656 to 1795, and 1795 to 1881. I t is perhaps adding a few straws to Dr. Trimen’s burthen to ask him to make such a catalogue in the m idst of his m u lti­farious duties, bu t I feel sure such a catalogue would be very valuable, and much appreciated by a large num ber of people resident in Ceylon and elsewhere interested in th e island and its productions introduced and indigenous. I believe nearly every other colony except Ceylon has issued such a catalogue.—W. F.

MR. D A R W IN ON EARTH-W ORM S.*At first sight, the subject of Mr. Darwin’s new book

seems to promise less of in terest to th e general reader than almost any among th e series of m inute and pa tien t monographs which have followed up the epoch-making publication of the “ Origin of Species.” B u t the fact is, Mr. Darwin’s skill Ties most of all in just such surprises as th a t which he gives us in th is delightful little volume. He takes up some unpromising and seemingly dull study—the growth of coral reefs, th e slow movements of climbing plants, the effects of cross-fertilization—and in his wonder­working hands the mass of dry detail becomes quick­ened as if by magic into a living romance, full of vivid reality and instinct w ith evolutionary’ plot- io terest of the most fascinating sort. Something of th e same kind he has now done w ith the common earthworm. In the eyes of most men—nay, even of most naturalists—the earthw orm is a mere blind, dumb, senseless, and unpleasantly slimy annelid. Mr. Darwin undertakes to rehabilitate his character, and th e earthworm steps forth a t once as an intelligent and beneficent personage, a worker of vast geologi­cal changes, a planer down of mountain sides, a creator of fertile alluvial cornlands, a friend of man in his agricultural operations, and an archaeological, though unconscious, ally of the Society for th e P re­servation of Ancient Monuments.

The surface of th e earth in all moderately humid countries is covered to a depth of some inches by a rich layer of blackish vegetable mould, composed of

* “ The Form ation of Vegetable M ould through the Action of W orm s; with observations on th e ir hab its .” By Charles Darwin, L .L .D ., F .R .S . (London: John Murray. 1881.)

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uniformly fine and small particles. The p a rt which earthworm s have borne in producing and renewing this all-im portant coat of fru itfu l soil forms the main sub­ject of Mr. Darwin’s investigation. As long ago as 1837 his a tten tion had been called to the m atter in hand by M r. Wedgwood, who suggested to him th a t the tendency of m arl, cinders, or pebbles strew n over meadows to “ work themselves downw ards,” as the farmers phrase it, was really due to the large quantity of fine earth brought to th e surface by worms in th e form of cast­ings. Mr. Darwin has followed up his inquiries with his usual m inute experimental care, the result being th e little work now before us. B ut as the world a t large ba-> not kept and watched tam e worms w ith th e same assiduity as our great natu ra lis t himself, he is k ind enough to preface his rem arks w ith a full account of the habits and manners of the animals which makes up by no means th e least in teresting part of his book. Earthworm s belong to a few genera, externally closely resembling one another, and distributed apparently over the whole world. They abound on bare chalk downs and in London parks ; they inhabit the most isolated islands, and they have by some m ysterious means found th e ir way even-to Kerguelen Land in the A ntarctic Ocean. In their habits they are nocturnal,remaining in their burrows during the day, anil onlycoming out to feed a t nightfall. They lie, however, close to the m outh of the burrows, apparently for the sake of warm th, and are thus devoured in large num ­bers by birds. The m ost interesting point in theirin ternal structure is their possession of gizzrrds, inwhich they tritu ra te th e ir food w ith the aid of small stones, a function which has im portant bearings 011 the production of mould. On th e ir senses and intelligence M r. Darwin made several curious and careful experi­ments. He found that, though they had no eyes the front p a rt of the body, containing th e cerebral ganglia, was slightly sensitive to light (a point of m uch latera l im portance as bearing upon the evolution of special organs of sight), and th a t when the rays from a candle were concentrated with a lens upon what we may by courtesy call their heads, they “ dashed like rabbits into th e ir burrows.” If, however, the heads were shaded and ligh t cast on other parts of the body, they took no notice of it. This ability to distinguish between day and night doubtless serves to protect them from diurnal animals which prey upon them. On the o ther hand, worms are absolutely deaf, and when Mr. Darwin played the piano to them , they obstinately refused to listen to the m u sic ; nor were th ey moved even by the strains of a m etal whistle. By way of compensation they are actuely sensitive to jars, and retreated a t once when their pot was actually placed on th e piano and a note struck. 8mell seems to be present, though feeble ; for while they took no notice of perfumes or of acetic acid, they quickly discovered bits of cabbage and onion buried in the ground. Taste they clearly possessed, as they shewed a marked preference for green over red cabbage, and for celery over e ith e r; and they distinguished in like m anner between the leaves of different trees. B ut they are as omnivorous as man himself, greedily devouring m eat ; and when Mr. Darwin fixed several pieces by long pins in their pots, they m ight be seen night after night half out of their burrows tugging a t th e bits of th is rare delicacy. Indeed, so closely do they approach th e level of hum anity th a t they are actually cannibals as well.

The evidence of intelligence in worms is s l ig h t ; bu t Mr. Darwin thinks sufficient. They drag leaves into their burrows (which are regularly constructed nests, w ith a chamber a t the bottom) pa rty as food, and partly to plug up the m o u th ; and Mr. Darwin noticed th a t the way in which they pulled down even unfam iliar or foreign leaves and triangles of paper so as to avoid mechanical difficulties was indicative

of some intelligence. They always plug the entrance, sometimes with leaves and sometimes with small stones. This may he -is a protection from their . ; ■ ,1 -l.eniy, t i n scnlopender, but it is more likely for the sake of warmth ; as Mr. Darwin noticed th a t when kep t in a room with a fire the performed the work “ in a slovenly manner.” They also often coat the upper part of their burrows with leaves, to prevent their bodies from coming into contact w ith the cold ground. Besides eating vegetable and animal food, worms seem to some extent to swallow earth for the sake of the organic m atter it con ta ins; and their castings are composed of such earth , as well as of th a t which has hem voided for the excavation of th e ir homes. Even in England these castings often a tta in a con­siderable size, bu t in Ind ia and Ceylon they some­times reach a height of six inches and weigh as much as a quarter of a pound.

Passing on to his more special subject, Mr. Darwin shows th a t the amount of mould th u s brought up 1 1 the surface by worms may be m easured in two ways, both of which he followed. The first method is by ascerlaining the ra te a t which objects left upon the ground are buried : the second and more accurate method is by weighing the quantity brought up w ithin a given tim e on a given space. A t Maer Hall, in Staffordshire, quicklime was spread upon a meadow, which was not disturbed for ten years. A t the end of th a t time square holes were dug in the field, and a lime was found in a layer a t a depth of three inches from the surface, covered by dark-coloured, fine mould, and underlaid by a coarse gravelly or sandy soil. In many o 'her instances similar results were obtained w ith cinders or marl on chalky or peaty ground. A field a t Down was so thickly covered with flints th a t i t used to be called “ the stony field ; ” and Mr. Darwin r e ­members doubting whether he would live to see them buried in vegetable mould and tu rf ; bu t th ir ty years after the worms had worked so vigorously that a horse could gallop from one end to the other over compact sward, w ithout ever striking a stone. A path on the lawn a t the same place was paved w ith small flags, set edgewise, through which the worms th rew up cast­ings ; for a while i t was swept and weeded, but a t last i t was left alone ; and after several years the flags were found bu.ied beneath an inch thickness of fine mould. In the same way worms slowly bury even big stones ; for when such a stone is left on the surface i t rests a t first, of course on its more protuberant parts ; bu t worms soon fill up w ith their castings lie hollows on the lower side, for they like the shelter of stones. When the hollows are tilled, they eject their castings beside th e stone ; and as th e empty burrows collapse the stone slowly sinks. Thus b udders are almost always slightly embedded in th e soil. The fallen monoliths a t Stonehenge have in th is m ann-r been partially buried, as Mr. Darwin elaborately proves. B ut the second method gives even more certain results. M r. Darwin shows (after Henscn, th a t there m ust be no le=s than 53,707 worms living in a single acre of 'and ; air in one case the b u r­rows numbered nine in two square feet. Some barrels of bad vinegar (poisonous to worms) being spilt on a small piece of land, th e heaps of - dead worms found piled on the spot were so amazing as to be almost incredible. Mr. Darwin collected and weighed td e castings throw n up a t various times in various tim es in various places, and comes to the conclusion th a t they would am ount on th e average, in m any cases, to a unifo m layer of mould one-fifth of an inch thick every year. The chief work of worms in th e economy of nature is th u s to sift the finer from the coarser particles of the soil, to mingle the whole with vegetable debris, to saturate i t with their intestinal secretions, and so finally to form th a t upper layer of rich mould which alone man employs in his agricultural operations.

Finally, Mr. Darwin considers th e p a rt played by worms in the disintegration of rocks and denudation of th e land. I t is known th a t the disintegration of rocks is largely due to th e acids in th e hum us ; and Mr. Darwin shows th a t such acids are apparently generated w ithin th e bodies of worms. Moreover, th e constant interchange of particles between top and bottom layers effected by worms brings these acids to work more often upon the subjacent rock. Again, the small stones swallowed to aid tritu ra tio n in the gizzard are themselves slowly ground down, as was proved by their rounded edges under a lens, and th is m ust produce no inconsiderable amount of fine earth , when we remember the vast num bers of worms always a t work. N ot only arc the castings composed of very fine m atter, b u t the small fragm ents of brick or pebble found among them are well rounded. The castings thus tu rned ou t on sloping hillsides are washed away •in p a rt by th e rain tow ards the valleys, and finally carried by stream s and rivers to th e sea. So th a t in the end the insignificant little earthworm tu rn s ou t to be a geological agent of vast im portance, to whose actions the denudation and sculpture of th e earth ’s surface are largely due. And if we doubt th e pos­sibility of so small and hum ble an anim al perform ­ing such wonders in the history of our planet, Mr. Darwin opportunely reminds us th a t the coril-polyps of tropical seas have played alm ost as large a p a rt in th e ocean as he believes worms are a t present playing on the dry land. I t is of interest in this connection to note the fact, unm entinned by M r. Darwin, th a t the burrows of annelids are among th e very earliest fossil indications of the presence of life upon the earth .— P a ll M all Budget.

BRAZILIAN PRODUCTIONS.I t is creditable to Brazil th a t, in th e great struggle

for suprem acy in th e consuming m arkets of th e world, no effort is being spared to m aintain i t by improv­ing the quality of coffee and sugar, her chief articles of export, th e coffee exhibition about to be held in Rio de Janeiro being w ith a view to th is laudable object. I t would appear th a t Brazilian coffee has been made a k ind of stalking horse for inferior qualities of coffee to ride upon, and the resu lt of the exhibition m ust show how far this sta tem ent is correct. The question is of importance to Brazil and th e resu lt will be watched w ith much interest. The large and increas­ing production has brought down the price of coffee to a very low ebb, from which i t does not appear likely to rise for some tim e to come, th e speculative movement, which so long kep t prices a t a fictitious value in the States, and in some European m arkets, having entirely collapsed.

The next great staple of sugar is improving in quality by the assistance of great central factories in the p ro ­vinces, to which the canes can be sent for grinding, w ith all the appliances of m odern machinery, and i t would appear th a t th is facilily is being largely availed of by small farmers, who are without adequate means of dealing w ith th e ir canes. W e lately published a statem ent from the “ T im es’ as to th e large produc­tion of cryatalised sngar in Demerara, calling the a t ­tention of Brazilian sugar growers to th is improved system, by which we hoped they m ight profit. Both the articles of coffee and sugar are capable of being rendered more useful to consumers by a careful m ani­pulation of them in the process of manufacture, and i t is satisfactory to notice th a t th e Government is fully alive to th is necessity. W e hear of a Brazilian capit­alist who has subscribed 100,000 francs towards th e establishm ent of a grand cafe in Paris, where Brazil­ian coffee will have fair play, and we heartily wish i t success. By recent advices from Rio, th e crop is

oing to be a very large one, the facilities of railways ringing it eurly to m arket, and th is is likely to

become more a feature in the future. In New Y ork w e see th a t prices remain steady, the quotation of Santos being about j a cent below th a t of R io.—South American Journal.

ARTESIAN W ELLS-The th ird p a rt of the Records of the Geological

Survey of India has recently been received, and con­tains a very able paper on Artesian W ells, which, of late years, has received prom inent notice in India, a t first, with bu t little to encourage, bu t of late w ith great success. W e quote from Mr. M edlicott’s paper on th e nature of Artesian W ells:—

“ The Artesian Wells.—The simple phenomenon to which artesian wells are due is of very common oc­curence in ordinary wells sunk below th e sub-soil w taer : whenever, as frequently happens, the w ater rises a t once to a higher level than th a t a t which it was struck. W hen the ascensional power is sufficient to bring the w ater up to or about surface, the well is called artesian, from the province of Artois, in France, where such wells have been used from remote times. W here such a source can be found, i t is manifestly sufficient to tap i t by a boring, the dimensions being regulated ac­cording to the discharge required,

“ The popular explanation : two classes o f conditions,— The familiar explanation of th is action, and indeed th e only one mentioned in m any books,* is somewhat misleading, as being bu t a special case of the required conditions. If an elastic tube be filled w ith w ater and allowed to hang iu a loop or curve ; if then th e tube be punctured on its upper side, the w ater will spout up from the hole with force proportional to the position of the puncture below the level a t which th e water stands in the tube. This illustrates th e example usually given of artesian conditions ; where the water-bearing stra tum lies in a basin, w hether from th e original conformation of th e area of deposition, or as induced by disturbance of th e deposits. Such features are, however, of the rarest, in any vernacular sense of the word basin. M ost of the so called basins have one or more sides wanting, and are, in fact, compound in ­clined planes. This popular view of artesian borings would not even prim d facie apply to the m ajority of cases, nor to any trials th a t have been made in India. The fiction and its misnomer may, however, be retained to denote the im portant class of cases where the artesian conditions have been largely produced by disturbance, causing partial upheaval and visible bending of the s tra ta , in contradistinction to the other great class in which the simple inclined (flatly curved) plane of original deposition is the prevailing condition, although the only examples of complete ‘basins’ would be found in th is latter class, in the case of filled-up and dried-up basin.

“ 'lhe primary conditions: as produced in nature.— The essential conditions of th e phenomenon . re fu l­filled whenever a body of water confim .. in an a. dined channel, of whatever dimensions, is arrested or re­tarded by a total or partial obstruction in its progress to its point of discharge, so as to be pressed back above th a t leve l; a state of permanence being attained when the increase of pressure so produced causes a dis­charge equal to the supply of water a t the upper end, or when overflow takes place -there. These conditions are produced continually in nature by th e ordinary process of formation of sedimentary rocks, independently of any turning up of the strata either from the original form of the floor of deposition or by subsequent dis­turbance. Even in an open water basin the formation

* As in the latest edition of th e Encyclopaedia Britannica.

of strictly horizontal deposits is a very exceptional oc­curence. for there is always greater deposition on the side .'oni which the sediment is derived. I t is sim ilar in tlio case of depoiits formed above w ater level by the action of rain and rivers, of which we have such extensive instances in Ind ia ; accumulation takes place most rapid ly in th e border zene where the denuding action of these agencies changes into one deposition ; and thus do alluvial plains present a constantly in creasing slope from the sea-margin to the foot of the uplands whence th e ir m aterials are derived. In this way the first condition of artesian springs is estab­lished originally in all sedimentary rocks, in the pre- vailing slope of deposition ; subsequent disturbance w ould generally increase th is condition of slope or ‘ fall.’ The o ther conditions are also often aboriginally provided for in stratified rock : in th e d istribu tion of coarse and fine deposits by alteration, or by th e la tte r covering th e former, th e confined w ater channel is produced ; aud th e usually greater accumulation of the coarser m aterials a t and near th e h igher marginal zone of the so-called basin ensures th e retarded discharge and the consequent accumulation of water a t a higher level, which is the active factor in artesian springs.”

In 1861, anxious enquiries were made by the Go- vernment of Madras as to th e prospect of artesian borings in districts liable to drought, but, in th e places pointed out, th e proposals were not adopted fiom w ant of funds.

In two out of the th ree places, the hill district) as well as the ground beneath, consisted of crystalline metamorphosed rock sim ilar m et w ith in Ceylon, and in the th ird place of slate and quartzite-

Mons. Poulian, t* e enterprising manager of the Savana factory, undertook experiments a t Pondicherry w ith entire confidence, and was rewarded w ith success. There are now th ree artesian wells in continuous opera­tion, within a circle of 600 yards’ radius and close to the sea:—

“ Special condition o f their success.-—I t is inportan t to call a ttention to a secondary condition of success in these Pondicherry borings, namely the continuous prolongation of the deposits to a considerable distance under th e sea, whereby th e w ater of these springs a t th e shore line has still to force its way for m any miles before finding an escape. I t is, I th ink , evident from the experim ents described in paragraph 5, that, all else, remaining as now, the springs a t Pondicherry would cease to deliver w ater a t the surface if the sea were to excavate a m oderately deep channel near the shore,

“ Altered condition o f the shores.—The frequent m ention of vegetable m atter, and ‘decayed w ood’ a t all depths in these borings is certainly suggestive of shallow waters or even of terrestria l conditions, and therefore os continuous subsidence of the g round; yet i t would no t be safe to insist on this, for i t is scarcely known to w hat extent water-logged vegetable dbbris may form an ingredient of free deposition in the imm ediate vicin­ity of land densely covered with forest, as no doubt was the condition of the Coromandel un til comparatively recent times. Nothing of the kind could occur now ; bu t changes of the surface confirmation, effected by th e destruction of forest, are no doubt as m arked here as in the upland alluvial areas already described : th e line between land w ater was probabty then far less m ark­ed than now« instead of the sand dunes th a t fringe the present shore a t m any places, there would have been everywhere an imperceptible passage through swamp vxgetation into th e actual sea.”

\Ve have our dry and th irs ty parts in Ceylon dis­tric ts , a t any rate, where artesian wells would be a great boon, viz., th e northern and eastern parts of the island.

W e have no na tura l basins of any extent bu t nu ­merous inclined planes- These two sources of artesian

wells are called basins o f disturbance, geologically, such as the noted ones of Paris and London ; and the other, bavins oj original deposition. Of the latter, we have several in Ceylon. In such cases, we see only the topmost beds and have no idea of w hat lies below except by trial.

Such an inclined plane of deposition has recently been proved to exist, by the sinking of the cylinders, in the construction of the railway bridge not far from the Colombo and Kandy line, and still la te r by the cylinders put down for the new Kelani bridge. That there is an actual dip, and th a t i t is continuous be­tween the two there is no t th e slightest doubt, and from analogy and other borings and wells, there is reason to believe th a t such a basin of original depo­sition extends to a considerable distance on our western shore.

I t is very remarkable th a t nearly all our good wells in Colombo are close to the sea, e.g., the large one in Kollupitiya in front of S teuart Place One would naturally expect these waters to be d istinctly brackish, but it is not so. W e have no doubt one of the con­ditions of an artesian supply is th e prevailing store of deposition, and if such be th e case, m ight we not have been bette r served and a t much less cost than by bringing our water-supply for Colombo so many miles?

Other papers follow on Oligoclase granite and on Palaeontology. Mr. Bose gives a very able reply to Mr. L ydekker’s criticism on “ undescribed fossil carn i­vora by P. N. Bose, B. Sc. London,” which appeared a former Record. Mi. Bose is the first native gentle­man in Ind ia who has passed on to the Survey Staff. H e gained high honors a t the University, and promises o do good and useful work.

“ ARBORICULTURE. ” *A R E V IE W .

Mr. John Grigor, a well-known Scottish Forester and writer, has ju s t published a work on A rboriculture dealing in a most exhaustive m anner w ith the raising and managing of forest trees in G reat Britain. Much th a t he has w ritten cannot fail to be of considerable interest to planters in the tropics, cultivating, as they chiefly do, trees and shrubs of ligneous growth. In his chapter on acclimation, the author gives m any rem ark­able instances of the effect of climate on th e foliage and habit of trees, which render what has been found to occur in th is respect in the case of the cinchonas all the more interesting and notew orthy. To quote b riefly :—

There is no tribe of plants with which I am acquainted th a t is so susceptible of climatic influence as the Coniferas. In the celebrated native pine forests in the Highlands of M orayshire any variety among the trees can hardly be distinguished. B ut I have taken seeds from these, and after raising them , have planted them 011 the warm sands only a little above the level of th e sea, where a variety foliage and habit became perceptible ; when these had yielded cones, and another

* “ Arboriculture, or a Practical Treatise tin Raising and Managing Forest Trees and on the Profitable E xten­sion of the W oods and Forests of Great B rita in . By John Grigor, the Nurseries, Forres, N. B., 'a u th o r of the H ighland and Agricultural Society’s prize essays ‘on raising forest p lan ts,’ ‘ on forest planting, and on trees adapted to various soils and situations,’ ‘ on raising and managing hedges,’ ‘ on forest pruning,, ‘on the native pine forests of cot land,’ ‘ 011 planting w ithin the influence. of the sea,’ ‘ on the deodar,’ ‘ on the varieties of the larch cultivated in great B ritain,’ ‘ on the larch plantations of Scotland,’ and on various o ther subjects connected w ith arboricult­ure .— Second Edition."

generation of plants had been reared near th e sea level, I have found many of them so far removed from th e ordinary type, th a t some individual plants could scarcely be recognized as belonging to the species. This tree is found to accommodate itself to circum ­stances, producing long or short yearly growths in proportion to the ripening influence of the clim ate which it inhabits. A few generations of the tree existing in a high tem perature would no doubt render its progeny nearly as tender as our greenhouse plants.

The necessity for procuring seeds from acclimatized trees is forcibly shewn, and th e worthlessness of the p lan ts of P in ts sylvestris or Scotch fir, grown from Continental seed, when planted in the north of Scotland, is instanced. Mr. Grigor’s remarks on th e necessity for seclecting nursery plants, a m atter in which it is to be feared we are no t sufficiently careful in Ceylon, are well w orth quoting

I t is bu t reasonable to suppose th a t w ith the view of laying down a crop destined to stand for genera­tions—it may be for upwards of a cen tu ry—every precaution would be taken to secure its vigour and success, by selecting plants of th e most approved varieties of the species ; in many instances, however, th is is not done. Indifference, in th is respect, w ith the trade, or w ith p lant m erchants, who pass the commodity from band to band in course of a few weeks, is not so surprising ; but w ith those who are to own th e plants in their final destination, the selec­tion is surely worthy of the exercise of thoughtfulness and care. Seldom, however, is th is care taken, seldom is the same vigilance exercised here, which the agri­culturist displays in laying down a crop destined to last only a few months. In arboriculture the result stands far away in the future, whereas with the farm er i t is close a t hand—the character and quality of his crops are readily ascertained, and the difference between good and bad is realized in a few m onths in a tangible form. In th e formation of plantations, great or small, the work is generally proceeded with as if every tree or p lan t of its name were equally good, w ithout regard to variety , pedigree, or clim atic influence.

On moorland, “ notch p lan tin g ” th a t is, the mere insertion of the p lant in to a notch made with a spade, appears th e most successful method, 3,000 and more p lants per acre being pu t out a t a to ta l cost of 10s iu enme cases. P it p lanting and trenching appear to be the most usual m ethods, bu t th e low cost of form ­ing a plantation by whatever m ethod is certainly striking. Mr. Grigor’s rem arks on the necessity for thinning plantations are notew orthy :—

Considerable loss is frequently sustained by produc­ing through confinement tall trunks w ithou t a propor­tionate diameter ; and unless the soil is very congenial, and th e trees of great vigour, they are often slow to become stout or shapely w'hen ample space has a t last been afforded to them. In plantations formed w ith plants a t a distance of four feet, tbe thinning should commence when the plants a tta in to the height of from twelve to fifteen feet, by removing the more worthless kinds, which press too closely on th e others, and fully half the num ber of plants inserted per acre should be removed by the tim e th a t the most valuable portion is tw en ty feet high. W hen they attain the height of th ir ty feet, they should stand on an average fully seven feet asunder, or about 800 per acre. A t the height of forty feet, which is generally th a t num ­ber of years’ grow th,* the trunks are formed to a con­

* W hile in Southern Ind ia and Ceylon Eucalyptus globulus shoots up a t an average rate of ten feet per annum, attaining a height of 1(X) feet in 10 years, and 150 feet in the 15th year.—Ed.

siderable h e ig h t; and a t th is stage of their progress i t becomes necessary to furnish considerable space for th e development of the leaves of the trees which are to occupy the ground, in order th a t their trunks may possess a g irth corresponding to their h e ig h t; there­fore, generally speaking, they should stand from eleven to twelve feet asunder, or at the ra te of from 300 to 350 trees per acre

Iti coppicing, the necessity for a clean coppice is shewn, as trees left standing diminish the quantity and quality of the shoots. Superfluous shoots are men­tioned as being removed only in the sec' nd year. In harvesting bark for tanning purposes the only process mentioned is th r t of felling the tree : coppicing in fact. Considering the slow growth of the oak, the bark of which is most esteemed by the tanner, it seems strange th a t no reference is made to the possi­bility or otherwise of some less destructive mode of procedure. From this chapter we will quote a t length :—

The season begins as early as the sap of the tree circulates so freely as to adm it the bark to rise from th e tim ber which varies considerably in different trees, and is aho regulated by the nature of the soil and situa- sion, and by the earliness or lateness of the season. T h at first removed is found to be the strongest in th e tannin principle, and consequently the most valu­able. W hen the tree expands into full leaf and pro­duces young shoots, the bark has deteriorated one half ; nor is th is the only disadvantage of late barking, for the future growths from stools, which form the following crop, rise bu t feebly compared to those where th e tim ber has been removed in April or iu May.

In detailing the process of barking it is necessary to rem ark that, on old trees, and particularly on the birch, a rough exterior bark or epidermis commonly exists, which is of no v a lu e ; th is is removed by an axe, or more readily by an implement term ed a scraper, which is shaped like a common draw-hoe, b u t i~ more powerful, and much sharper. I t is found th a t this rough outside bark does not easily part w ith the inner bark t-o early in the season as the inner bark rises from the wood ; but later, when the sap flows more copiously, i t is readily removed.

Before the trees are felled, a person advances with a barking-iron or bill, and forms a circular incision, cutting through the bark of the tree close to the su r­face of the ground, and » aking a similar incision a t th e height of two f e e t ; between these the bark is removed. A woodsman follows and notches the tree about two inches deep all round the surface, which prepares i t for being cut through by the common cross-cut saw. Im mediately on th e tree being felled, the smaller branches are cu t with an axe or bill, into pieces about two feet long, from which, when tapped over a stone with a wooden mallet, th e bark loosens, and is readily removed. The barking-iron is applied in cutiing through the bark around the tru n k and main branches, a t places about two feet apart, and w ith the aid of the m allet and barking-chisel the main timbers are peeled. The tools used in the various operation? no doubt vary in form in different districts ; a heavy axe and cross-cut saw for felling the tim ber; a ligh t axe and a hedger’s short bill for cutting through th e bark—the former al<o for use as a m a lle t; and barking-irons of various sizes, which are b lunt duck­bill-shaped chisels, flat on one side and rounded on the other, are the tools commonly used in England. Women, in some districts, and boys, are employed, six or eight being superintended by a man, who lops the branches, and assists in tu rn ing the trees as the work pro­ceeds. As the bark is raised from the tree i t is classed in to two sizes—the smaller into heaps, nnd the larger covering them, placed with the outside uppermost.

W e now come to the most im portant part, tl e pro­

cess of drying, which in a great measure regulates the value of the produce, and in w et weather becomes very precarious. A bark drying shed should occupy th e most airy situation in the forest or in its vicinity. I t should consist of a roof, which may be formed of deal, and supported 011 pillars ten feet high. Across the house, a t the distance of every eight feet, splits of wood should be erected, four tiers in depth, forming shelves to dry the bark. The bark, on its removal from the tim ber, is imm ediately collected and spread three or four inches deep ; the sm allest should occupy the lower ranges, and the large bark the upper, w ith the outsides of the large bark uppermost. Around this drying-shed an open space should be reserved, capable of containing several ranges of shelves, which, when supports and rails are formed, may be set up in a few minutes, and should be taken advantage of in favourable weather. W here no drying shed is used, the hark is harvested in the open ground, and com­monly a t or near to the spot where i t was produced. This is indeed th e more common practice. A set of stra igh t limbs are supported on forked sticks along the surface of the land, and about three feet from i t ; against these, first the small pieces, then the larger are piled, and over all, forming a roof, th e trunk bark is placed, sheltering the whole from th e effects of the weather. If the bark be of small size, and showery weather occur while i t is exposed, damage m ust e:-sue ; but if a considerable proportion has been yielded by stout tim ber, i t may, if pu t up thus with care, be preserved with safety even during unfavourable weather. Of course the most open and airy convenient situation should be preferred.

Another method may be described th u s :—A few of the forked branches are inserted into the ground, with th e prongs uppermost, to support rails or splits of wood from twelve to eighteen inches asunder, similar to the shelves described for the drying-house ; w ith th is difference, th a t in the open ground the rail on th e one side should be placed a few inches lower than th e other, so th a t the surface of the bark, when exposed on the rail, may form a declivity sufficient to discharge water. I t is found th a t rain on bark during the operation of peeling, or immediately thereafter, while i t possesses its own sap, does i t little or no injury, though afterwards, when bu t partially dry, i t infuses or extracts its virtues. Having erected the tim ber the email bark is laid first 011 the rails to the depth of about three or four inches, above which a cover of large pieces is then placed w ith their outsides uppermost, which forms a shade and protection for the small. During the preparation of bark, the forester should bear in mind th a t the influence of sunshine on its inner side causes a large decrease of its weight, by the evaporation of its most valued juices, which do not escape while the outside is kept uppermost in drying. A fter the bark has stood on the rails in the shed, or in the open ground for a day, i t is ap t to get compact and m o u ld y ; it should therefore be shifted and disturbed in a similar m anner every tw enty-four hours, for three or four days. T hat in the drying-shed, when crowded, should be removed to th e outside rails every’ favourable morning, and placed under the roof every night, aud during rain. In unfavourable weather, two or three weeks are sometimes necessary to d ry i t in the open ground, bu t under more favourable circumstances i t becomes quite dry in eight d iys. I t is then removed into a h >use and chopped to the size of about two inches, an operation which is commonly performed by con­trac t, a t six shillings per ton ; th is fits the bark for the tanner. The cost of preserving bark m ust be always regulated by the price of labour in the district, aud the size of the tim ber which yields it. One person will strip from stout tim ber about five or six cwt. per day ; from small tim ber only about one cwt.

On pruning forest trees, Mr. Grigor has much to say which m ust interest cinchona planters :

The u tility of pruning hardwood trees is generally adm itted by experienced and practical men. I t is sometimes denied by those who have witnessed the bad effects of an improper system, such as carpenters, and mechanics, who readily discover th e evil resulting from the “ lopping and boughing” of a bad system, while they are unacquainted with the advantages of early and judicious pruning, which leaves no m ark on the future bole, bu t directs i t early into the figure most valuable as tim ber, and in some cases its effect on the individual tree may be compared to th a t of the judicious thinning of a plantation, as i t directs th e energies of the soil to the growth of one trunk instead of a number of smaller ones. Theorists also sometimes deny th e use of pruning, overlooking the frequent necessity of directing the growth of the tru n k in the way m ost suitable for mechanical pur-

oses, and they contend, on physiological principles, for ulk, through the agency of leaves. A lthough pruning

does not in ordinary cases ultim ately increase the bulk or weight of wood, y e t trees which are early and judiciously pruned will be improved in quality, increased in their useful dimensions, and ultim ate value, and will grow in greater numbers on a given space.* * *

W ith respect to hardwood trees generally, in some situations the necessity of pruning may be in a great measure obviated by close planting and tim ely th in ­ning. These means are generally most effectual in producing stra igh t and well-grown tim ber of every species. W here young trees stand m oderately close, their leading shoot, which is to form th e future bole of the tree, is guided upwards by its own natural efforts, and as the lateral branches of the one press gently on those of the others all round, they are pre­vented from acquiring an undue strength, and ultim ately disappear, leaving straight and clean trunks, which are always of most value, except in the case of oak tim ber for shipbuilding, which should form an exception fioin the ordinary mode of treatm ent, as will be noticed in the sequel.

All experienced foresters agree th a t the most bene, ficial pruning is th a t which begins early, doing little a t a time, bu t repeating the operation frequently, and directing the ascendancy of the leading shoot till the stem of the tree has acquired a proper form. W hen trees in a young plantation have produced three, or, very thriving, two years’ growth, pruning should be commenced. The pruning-knife is the m ost suitable implement, and where the work is early and frequently attended to no o ther implement is required during the whole progress of forest pruning.

The top is the principal p a rt of th e p lant th a t re­quires attention, in order th a t only one shoot may be allowed to remain as a leader, the others next in size, | if not very inferior, should be headed down to about one-half th e ir length, and all the stoutest lateral branches shortened in the same manner. None of these branches need be cut close to the stem, and if the plantation is moderately close th is will be all th a t they require, as they will get enfeebled and fall aw ay ; b u t in more open and airy situations those lateral branches which were shortened may be in four or five years removed close to the stem, before they are beyond the size of being cu t off by the pruning-knife. Young plantations should be gone over every second year, un til the stems of the trees have acquired a proper form, having an eye to a sufficient g irth in proportion to the height, which g irth is promoted chiefly by side branches, a t the same tim e bearing in mind th a t next in importance to keeping the tree in a proper figure should be the preservation of the greatest quantity of its foliage. I t is the general rule

to sho rten th e b ran ch like ly to gain an ascendancy over th e lead ing s h o o t ; b u t if th e lead ing shoot is w eak, s tu n te d , o r u n h e a lth y , it is som etim es of a d v a n t­age to rem ove i t , and p re fe r th e m ore v igorous one, which th rough th e flow of sap w ill read ily becom e s tra ig h t an d in p roper form , A few years a f te r h a rd ­wood p lan ts are p lan ted , i t son etim cs happens th a tsom e of th em are found s tu n ted an d m ak in g no p ro ­g re s s ; a n d in th e case of oak , elm , o r ash , young shoots f req u e n tly ap pear a t th e surface of th e ground . T h is is som etim es occasioned by th e roo ts being too

I bare, o r d es titu te of a sufficient supp ly of young fibres, j o r from th e ir exposure to th e w e a th e r in p lan tin g ,; or subsequent drought, etc. In such cases the p lant• should he lopped over at th e surface, or ju s t above the | most vigorous shoot, which should be retained for th e I fu ture tree, and the o ther suckers should be p iuned | off. The lopping of such plants should be performed

w ith a sharp knife by a practised hand, so th a t the operation may be ma'le w ithout disturbing or stra in ­ing the root of the plant. I t is a common error in the m anagement of plantations to clear the stems of all side-branches to a certain height a t the first pruning, and afterw ards to operate only on the under branches of the tree. This tends to produce a small trunk, an irregular top , and side branches more vigor­ous th an the leader. W hen th is is practised in exposed places, not one in a hundred ever becomes a large or valuable tree. W ere pruning altogether abandoned, trees of fifty years’ standing "would generally be of more value, rough, knotty , and forked as a great p a rt of the tim ber would be, th an those sub­jected to such an injurious method.

I t is in hedgerows and other open situations, where trees are apt to ramify into an unprofitable figure, th a t pruning is of the greatest v a lue ; but even in such situations i t is not necessary to shorten all the branches previously to their being removed from the trunk , though i t is to he recommended in dealing w ith all luxurian t branches, particularly near the top shoot, and in checlflng such throughout th e tre e ; the progress of such being impeded in a greater or less degree in proportion to the distance from their extrem ities at which th ey are cut. W hen trees have advanced from ten to fourteen feet, the oldest and stoutest branches (previously shortened) may then be removed from the stem. Sometimes the small pruning saw is employed as th e most efficient implement, ob­serving th a t a t the junction of each branch to the stem there is a swell or bulge, and th e branch should be removed close to th e outside of it, a t which point the diam eter is not so great as a t the very bottom, consequently a m uch smaller wound is occasioned, and sooner healed. When plantations are closely a ttended to, however, the pruning-saw is seldom required. The knife is the safest im plem ent; its wounds heal most readily, and where the branches are sufficiently checked by being shortened they do not acquire a diam eter beyond its power. W hen trees are from fourteen to twenty-five feet in height, or from twelve to tw en ty years of age, they generally advance very rapidly, and if not standing close in a plantation, adm it of more pruning than a t any other p e rio d ; b u t under any circumstances trees are much injured by being severely pruned ; for, as already stated, pruning is only of much advantage when perform ed early in those side branches which are ap t to bear too great a proportion t.<> the leading branch, thereby modifying th e tree and directing its energies gradually to th e top, preserving a t the same tim e a sufficient quantity of foliage. All young hardwood trees should have tops long in pro­portion to their height. A good proportion in a tree of th ir ty feet- in height is tw enty feet of top to ten feet of bare trunk ; bu t no given rule in th is respect can be exacted for all sorts, as a longer top is requisite in a rough exposure and in poor soil than

where the ground is well sheltered and fertile. The skilful forester observes a t a glance whether the tree is possessed of a tru n k stou t in proportion to its height, and, os in thinning, regulates the pruning accordingly. W here height is required he subdues the side b ranches; where g irth of trunk is necessary; he p re ­serves them as the speedy means of obtaining girth.

On grafting the author says :—The sim plest and most successful m ethod of g raft­

ing such is to saw off the top where i t is only an inch or two in diameter, make a slit about an inch and a half long in the bark of the stock, raise the , bark with an ivory handle, to make a space for the I g raft or shoot to be inserted, which may only be six I or seven inches long ; prepare i t by a smooth slanting | cu t on one side, slip in the prepared scion w ith the cut side next to the woo'd to the length of the cut of one inch and a h a lf ; tie round w ith mat, and cover closely with grafting clay all over the wound on the stock. After the clay is dry, and all fissures filled up, the ball may be covered over w ith moss or meadow hay, and tied over to insure safety and exclude severe drought. When the stock a t the point of grafting is older and of several inches in "diam eter; another, and th e easiest mode, is, after sawing off the top, to tie the stock m und tightly for a few inches beneath the point of amputation, and force down a peg of hard wood, or any hard substance, between the wood and the bark, in the shape of the prepared scion, then w ithdraw the peg and insert the scion, pressing it tigh tly into the incision ; by this method two or three grafts or scions may be inserted around the edge of the same stock, then clay as recommended. The m onth of March is the ordinary season for the operation, or ju st as the buds are beginning to swell. W hen th e graft has grown a few inches the clay should be removed, and the bandage retied, adding a stalk to support the scion from being broken off by wind.

The remainder of the book trea ts of the various British forest trees in detail, and m ust be of great value and interest to those engaged in forestry. In every case there appears to bo some insect enemy which attacks the tree, and in some cases a disease of more obscure origin.

NETHERLANDS IN D IA N NEW S.(Straits Times, Nov. 6.)

The prospects of the coffee crop are favourable, generally speaking, a t Pasuruan th is being especially the case. A t th a t port th ,jre had been delivered up to the 7th instant, 330,000 piculs, of which 175,000 piculs had been shipped. The tobacco culture, how­ever, continually gives a rise to complaint and dis­satisfaction all over Java. From Kt-dirie, a correspond­en t wrote to a Sarnarang paper recently th a t all the tobacco planters there were on th e road to ruin. Even should th is prove to be exaggeration, it is certain th a t the condition of this branch of cultivation, for­m erly so flourishing and so profitable to both planters and peDple, is far from being satisfactory, and th a t the subject demands the serious attention of the Go­vernm ent.— Java Bode.

B r i t i s h C o l u m b ia . —The Villard party have visited Victoria, and returned to Puget Sound. Mr. V illard has obtained much valuable information concerning the coal and mineral lands of Vancouver Island. H eavy continuous rains have quite destroyed the hopes of the farmers in the interior, their crops being u tte rly ruined. The crops of the island and lower m ainland, however, were safely housed before the rain commenced, and all the live stock were looking w ell.— Colonies and India.

W H A T IS T H E AN ALYTICAL STANDARD FOR LEDGE RIAN A CINCHONAS ?

A Lindula correspondent en q u ires:—“ Don’t you th ink it a.m istake to call any Calisaya

* a Ledger,’ which has got less than 8 per cent of sulphate of quinine in i t ? Vide Annfield analysis in your issue of the 11th in stan t.”The w riter of the above th inks “ the line should be drawn somewhere,” bu t i t would be impossible to decide the inden tity of Ledgerianas, w ith reference simply to analytical results, unless all the circumstances were carefully taken into account. For instance the age of the trees. Our correspondent would have the standard fixed a t 6 per cent of quinine ( = to 8 per cent sulphate) ; bu t in Mr. Moens’ last quarterly report published by us,w ill be found included a series of analyses of the bark of Ledgeriaua trees which range from 11*20 down to 2*94 per cent of quinine. Of course the trees yielding the lower am ounts will be noted as of inferior types and treated accordingly. Mr. Moens, some tim e ago, was inclined to th in k th a t true Ledgeri­anas rarely flowered before the eighth year (and he selec ed no seed from trees flowering a t an earlier age), bu t i t would never do to eujudemu the Ledgers which have flowered in Ceylon in their 5th and 6th years, the bark having giving a most gratifying resu lt on analysis. Perhaps the most satisfactory and convenient plan will be to confine the term “ good type ” Ledgerianas to trees yielding 5 to 6 per cent and over of pure quinine when not more than 6 years old. Every year’s growth after th a t period ought to make a very appreciable addition to the alkaloids secreted, chiefly if not entirely quinine.

IN D IA N AND CEYLON TEA.M elbourne, 24th October 1881.

H ear S ir,—W e iatend to offer a t Messrs. Greig and M urray’s A uction Rooms, about th e 13th November, on account of the Calcutta Tea Syndicate, in conjunction w ith th e G overnm ent of Ind ia , th e ir en tire shipm ents of Indian Tea, now on the w ater, and am ounting to about 4,000 half-chests of D arjeeling’s, Assam’s, Cachar’s, &c., &c., w hen we hope, w ith your support, to sell the en tire parcel.

The following significant facts from Messrs. W . J . & H . Thom p­son’s well-known London Tea' C ircular, Dated 1st Septem ber, 1881, are w orth your a tten tion :—

LONDON D ELIV ER IES FOR 7 MONTHS :1st Jan u ary to 30th Ju ly .

1881. ‘ 1880. 1879.I nd ia n Tea 28,657,000 22,504,000 20,722,000.Ch in a Te a , &c. 85,565,000 89,041,000 96,564,000.

The INCREASED deliveries of nearly 8 M ILLION pounds, w eight of Indian Tea for th e first 7 m onths of 1881 as against the sam e period of 1879, and com pared w ith th e DECREASED deliveries of 11 M ILLION pounds' w eight of China Tea for the sam e period, is the eloquence of figures in favour of Ind ian Teas

W e rem ain , your obedient servants,JAS. HENTY & Co.

CINCHONA IN CEYLON.Colonel Beddome has subm itted to the Government

a short report of the visit he paid to Ceylon to inspect and report on the progress which Cinchona cultivation is making there with a view to help forward the plantations m aintained by the Government on the Nilgiris. Some of the plantations visited by Colonel Bed­dome shewed th a t the planters recognized the different species and the uniform and rapid growth have induced m any to give a ttention to it. The analysis conducted

1 was most interesting, showing w hat a large percentage ! of quinine was to be found and the value of the yield.

Colonel Biddome say > th a t he had not the good for­tune of s.eing any good officinalis plantations which are s iu a te d a t H aputale and Uva ; bu t a t o her places some large plantations inspected looked exceedingly well. On o re estate a t U pper Ramboda, called Frotoft, 45 acres of officinales had been uprooted a t 4£ years of age and the trees yielded 25 tons of d ry bark which was sold for £11,200. Many of th e estates are considerably below 5,000 f-et and consequently a t an elevation much below th a t on which the local Govern­ment} grow officinal.s on the Nilgiris. On another estate the own r with a view to protect the cinchona, pu t down Kueaivptus which acted as a sort of break- w ind for the plants and the growth was very fair. Colonel Beddoine th inks that th is plan may be adopted w ith success on the plantations a t Dodabettah Neddi- wit turn and Pykara. The more valuable species of cinchona. the 1- dgeriaua succes fully grown in Java by Mr. Mvens who visitt d Ceylon, induced many of the planters to grow the species. Mr. Moens obtained 13 per cent of pure quinine from a tree of this species —in Ceylon no analysis of the bark could be com­pared with toe results obtained in Java. Colonel Beddome suggests the appointm ent of a competent analyser to the N ik ir i plantations and he th inks th a t a subject of sueh importance should not be allowed to be postponed on the score of expense. A t the suggestion of the Conservator of Forests, one hundred c 'pies of Mr. T. C. Owen’s cinchona planters’ manual will be procured from Ceylon and distributed among th e officers in charge of the Government plantations on the Nilgiris. Colonel Beddome considers i t a care­fully compiled publication full of useful and interest­ing information about cinchona. I t is probable th a t th e Government will address the Secretary of S tate on th e appointm ent of a qualified Chemical Analyser for th e N ilgiris.—Madras Standard.

T H E TEA HARVEST IN D A R JE E L IN G .The Darjeeling Tea Harvest extends throughout the

greater part of i he year. Leaf is plucked from March to November, but the midsummer months are the m ost produc’ive. The tea-plants are trim m ed down to a broad, almost flat top. W hen there is a “ flush,” th e new bright-green shoots rise above the level of the bush, and are quickly noticed. Flush is the p lanter’s name for the new tender shoot of three or four leaves ■which the tea tree sends out at intervals through th e year. W hen there is no flush, the planter can m ake no tea—the old leaves are worthless—and when there is a flush, i t m ust be plucked a t th e right tim e, or i t will be lost. I know of no crop, unless i t be the peach or straw berry, which so im peratively requires to be plucked a t the right time. Good grow­ing weather is, of course, most productive of flush. Drought or extreme rain or cold keeps back the trees. I t thus happens th a t for weeks the factory will be idle, and then a season of fine w eather will bring a large pa rt of the garden into flush at the same time, and the tea-makcrs m ust work n ight and day to take care of the maur.ds of green leaf th a t daily pour in upon them W hen the flush is about four inches long,* and has two or three leaves besides the term inal un- op< ned one, i t is ready for plucking. The pickers rarely take a single leaf, bu t nip off the shoot just above the axil of the lowest leaf, so th a t the unin­ju red bud will sooner produce another shoot.

The bright yellow-green term inal leaf of the flush is the most delicate and fragrant part. I t retains its brighter colour during the process of manufacture, and becomes th a t small whitish leaf in tea w’hich is called * t ip .’

* Leaves four inches long are certainly not picked for tea making.—E d.

Tip is th e p lan ter’s idol. I ts b right face in his tea-bins promises golden returns. Tip is the broker’s delight ; for i t is in demand by m erchants. T ip is th e d rinker’s joy ; its delicate aroma is the distilled sweetness of fragran t flowers.”

There are five operations in tea-m aking as carried on in Darjeeling—wilting, rolling, fermenting, firing, and sorting. The green leaf, as i t cotnes in from the garden, is spread ou t in the drying-loft to be wilted. This loft is usually over the firing-room, and th e heat from below, coming up through the open wooded and m atted floor, soon w ilts the leaves. The w ilting process requires careful watching by experienced tea- makers, who stir i t about on th e m ats un til it is ready to be rolled.

In small factories the rolling is done by hand. The w ilted leaf is piled on a large table, usually covered with bamboo m attiug. The roller takes a double handful of w ilted leaf, rolls and kneads i t into a ball, pressing and bruising it all he can un til his ball becomes a wet, cohesive mass. W hen his ball of bruised leaves will retain its shape, i t is sup­posed to be sufficiently rolled, and is then set aside for fermentation.

The ferm enting process is one of the most de­licate and im portant parls of tea-making. L et th e balls of bruised leaf be either too m uch or too little fermented, and the quality of the tea suffers. An hour’s delay in getting th e ferm enting tea to the fire, we .<a-, lessens th e value of the tea 50 per gent. Experience, intelligence, and carefulness are absolutely r. qui-ite ; and i t is surprising to see th e instinct with which these tea-makers in Darjeeling manage th is part of their work. B ut they are sometimes caught napping ; and I remember a pile of over-fermented tea on the floor of a certain factory which led me to p ity the owner, and express the hope th a t none of th a t tea would find its way to my grocer.

W hen sufficiently ferm ented, the balls of tea are broken up, the leaf is spread out on large sieves of wire or cane, and set over a charcoal fire for roast­ing or firing. The charcoal lies a t th e bottom of a square, funnel-shaped furnace, a yai d square, and two and a half feet deep. The sieve w ith th e tea is placed over the fire a few minutes, then taken off, stirred about with the hands, and replaced. This pro­cess is repeated several times, changing the sieve to furnaces of greater or less heat, as the need may be, un til a t last i t is thoroughly dried, and thrown into the bin for sorting. Tbe firing process is the most difficult pa rt of th e tea-making. I t is so easy to get the fire a little too hot and burn the teat or leave it a moment too long, when that one moment may change what was fragrant tea into tasteless, priceless, chips.

The proper m anufacture of tea ends w ith the firing. The tea is made. I t is ju s t as th e consumer gets it. The sorting and sifting sim ply separate the c >arse from the fine varieties. A new machine-—a sort of tea crusher—has lately been introduced, which grinds up the coarse leaves into beautiful fine Pekoe. B ut i t cannot make “ t ip ,” aud my opinion is th a t the crusher is a mistake. Makers will not take ex­tra pains to produce flue tea wdien th e crusher makes all so much alike. The sifter is like a common grain winnowing-mill. The different varieties of tea, which ordinary m ortals suppose are grown a t different sea­sons and separately plucked, are but one promiscuous mass in the hopper of the machine. The sieve does the sorting, and though all did grow on one bush, and was plucked a t one tim e,and made in one batch, y<-t i t is tru e th a t a finer flavour is in the fine le a f ; aud the tea factory fanning mills hu t confirms the old proverb, th a t valuable goods are pu t up in small parcels. The sorting process completes the m anufact­ure of the tea. I t is then packed in boxes, contain­ing from 80 to 100 lb. of tea, and stout Bhootia

porters carry i t to the various stations 011 the “ E ast­w ard," whence it ie shipped, to agents in C alcutta, who generally dispose of i t a t public auction, although some of the larger companies send their tea direct to London. Pure Darjeeling or Assam tea seldom reaches

table o f the consumer in E u r o p e . The great London China tea merchants have disc vered that the adulterated teas fro m China cannot fa ir ly compete with the stronger a>id purer Indian teas. The waning reputation o f the China article is, therefore, bolstered up by fine admixture with Indian tea.

The Darjeeling planters confidently aw ait the day when the superiority of their tea shall no longer be a trade secret, and their brands shall command the price their purity and strength deserve.

MANITOBA : A F E R T IL E FA RM FOR FOUR SH ILLIN G S AN ACRE.

The following description of a farm in Manitoba, located in th a t part of the province lying from 100 to 150 miles west of Winnipeg, where the laud alternates curiously between snnd and loam, bog and wood, and which a few years ago was described as hopelessly barren, is given by the correspondent of the London T im es -.—

“ Mr. B rackett pointed out a trac t of land on either side of the road, extending over about 1,000 acres, and covered w ith splendid crops. I t is owned by four brothers, who find i t so good th a t they have actually deserted th a t 1 flour-garden of M anitoba,’ Portage la Prairie, leasing th e land they own there. They prefer th is soil, as less heavy than th a t a t Portage la Prairie, and bringing quicker returns for their labour. In May they pu t in the crop, and by the m iddle of August have the wheat stacked. W e drove through a very fine field quite ready for th e sickle. I t is said to average 30 bushels to the acre ; and one man, a keen farmer, w ith an exceptionally good piece of land, has for ten years averaged 35 bushels. Of th is land, be i t remembered, 160 acres were ‘ homesteaded’—th at is, got gratis, except a fee of §10. Another 160 would be * pre-empted’ by the same man for a fee of §10, which secures him his previous right of purchase against any other would-be purchaser, and then bought for §1 the acre, the payment being extended over ten years, w ith interest a t 6 per cent. Thus the four brothers would get between them 1,280 acres of splendid land for a little over §1,280, or, say, from 26 I. to 2701. They probably would not take $10 an acre for i t now. I may mention th a t the soil is also well suited for oats, barley, and such vegetables as potatoes and tu rn ips.”

Such land is even now to be had in the virgin districts of the North-W est, but, as was to be expected, the approach of the Canada Pacific Railway is driving up the price of land in the near neighbourhood of the route to be taken by it. N ear Portage la Prairie, for instance, land is now valued a t $30 per acre. W hether or not it is w orth th a t price may be judged from the foregoing description and from the following figures, which apply to the land in the neighbourhood of Portage la Prairie. There wheat averages 30 bushels per acre ; barley, 35 bushels ; and oals, 60 bushels per acre. As to vegetables, i t is difficult to find any soil th a t can produce better and heavier crops.

As to the fu ture of this town and district, the past affords a p re tty good indication. Four years ago the whole town consisted of a little log-house, calling itself in prophetic sp irit an hotel, a sm ithy, and a few shanties ; now the population numbers 1,500, w ith a floating population of some 400 or 500 more. Some notion of the rap id ity of increase may be got from the fact th a t i t has actually doubled since last January . B ut then Portage la Prairie is ju s t now, like Winnipeg, enjoying an exceptional “ boom,” due to the Pacific

147

line, though, as the w orth of the soil all about i t is genuine beyond all question, there is no reason why the influences of the “ boom” should no t last. Good settlers are welcomed, especially if they are “ good” in the commercial sense of the term , Sound morals form a welcome addition, bu t the essential point is I nut a man should bring out 2001. if possible, b u t certainly not less than from 801. to 1091. As for labourers, th ey need bring out only their thew s and sinews, w ith the will to use them, and in summer they would get readilv §2 a d a j. Labour is sorely needed about Portage .. Prairie, the farmers for w ant of i t having to use more expensive machinery than they can well afford, to say nothing of the capital sent out of the country into the States, whence most of th e machines have to be brought.—Colonies and India.

BRAZIL : IM M IGRANT LABORERS.The “ Club da Lavoura” of TaubatA province of

ss .0 Paulo, has been studying the question of em­ploying imm igrants in the place o f . slave laborers, and has arrived a t th e sage conclusion th a t the eff, r t has thus far resulted in failure, th a t i t is a grievous burden upon the public treasury, and th a t i t docs not m eet the exigencies of the present phase of the labor question. A comm ittee appointed by the club to study the question concludes th a t “ The substitution of slave labor by foreign im m igrants is throw n com­pletely into confusion, and th a t 20 years of painful ex­perience has made us recognize th a t foreign emigration to Brazil has been an abyss for public moneys, because the heaviest and perhaps the most unfruitful item in our budgets has been “ immigration and colonization.” A nd for this there have been imposed the heaviest imposts upon agriculture and commerce, whose only results have been the scandalous waste of the public moneys and the mo<t bare faced patronage for dis­playing abroad a vitali y which we do not possess, although nature has b .stow ed upon us riches of un ­qualified value.”

W ith so ju s t a cause for complaint it is a m atter for deep regret th a t the planters of TaubatS have gone so far astray both in their determ ination of th e cause, and in th e ir conclusions. They are perfectly righ t in condemning the excessive appropriations of public money in behalf of “ immigration and coloniza­tion ,” and they are equally right in denouncing the many questionable uses to which th a t money has been put. B u t does th a t w arrant the conclu­sion th a t there is something inherently wrong in im ­migration, and th a t the substitution of th e slave by the free im m igrant is a mistaken quest ? Can any logical conclusion against foreign immigration be draw n from any one colonization enterprise which has th u s far been a ttem pted in Brazi', outside of the th ree southern provinces ? On the contrary, may we not conclude from th e misuse of appropriations, and th e vicious policy pursued both in th e acquirem ent of colonists and in their after treatm ent, th a t all the evils and burdens ore owing ra ther to the system em­ployed than to the legitim ate enterprise itself ?

Our Taubat6 friends should no t deceive themselves in th is m atter ; for i t is only through a ju.-t appre­ciation of th is question th a t the evils which afflict i t can be eradicated. They should understand th a t new legislat on w ithout a radical reform in the old will not afford a remedy ; ar d they should then under­stand th a t all these measures m ust be supplemented by still another change in the unw ritten laws of Society itself. There m ust be no degradation attached to manual labor, and 110 restrictions upon the laborer. There must be perfect equality before the law, and a ju s t estim ate of every man’s worth independent of his avocation. —Eio News.

COFFEE PROPAGANDA.In our last review we pointed out the fitness of a

competent representation of our province a t the Rio coffee exposition where the representatives should ven t­ilate not only the restricted coffee question bu t also all those referring to the prosperity of th is culture, such as the question of railway tariffs, of export duties of the substitution of agricultural labor and the meas­ures necessary fo • the practical amplification of the rural credit system.

Let us now, in a few rough sketches and as far as is in our power, examine some points of these questions.

The question of railway tariffs has been much dis­cussed lately iu the press, and though a t times parti­ality lias been transparent yet th e proofs furnished dem onstrate the necessity of reform. A railway tariff which is to satisfy all legitim ate exigencies, m ust be not only clear and convenient for the public bu t also mode­

rate' and, principally, well proportioned or equitable.To accomplish a work of this kind i t is, therefore,

necessary th a t all the interested elements asist in its organiz ition. If, as has been done un til now, i t is left to some fiscal employees, conjointly with the ad­m inistration of the railways, to m anufacture the tariffs, it will infallibly happen th a t the former, d isin ter­ested and badly versed in the m atter, will leave its organization to the latter who will always make i t ac­cording to their liking and convenience; th e result will be certain excentricities like those pointed out some days ago by one of the principal papers of our province, when for the transport on 272 kilom eters of railway, from Santos to Piraeicaba, 7298920 was paid on 1627 kilos of nitric acid, whose prime cost and transport by land and w ater from Germany to th is port amounted to only 484$040. The same dispro­portion exists w ith reference to a great num ber of other articles, chiefly salt, an article of prime necessity.

I t m ust also be considered th a t a tariff should not remain permanent ; the rates on the various articles should be periodically revised so th a t i t may not happen, as i t has done un til now, th a t coffee and cotton pay always the same freight although the intrinsic value varies from GjJOOO to l4$0U0 per arroba for the former and from 5SOOO to 30$000 for the latter. To establish a rational tariff it seems to us necessary th a t all the interested parties, which are the fiscal, th e adm inistration of the railways, and th e public, should co-operate, represented by delegates from com­merce, industry and agriculture.

The fiscal, conjointly w ith the respective adm inistra. tions, m ust state approximately the amount necessary for the dividend to the shareholders and for the expenses. The delegate, conjointly w ith the adm inistrators, basing their calculation on th e statistics of the previous traffic, must organize the tariff in which each category of m erchandise is taxed according to its in trinsic value and the conveniences or necessities of consump­tion. In the adjustm ent of the sums necessary for the dividends the Government m ust take into con­sideration that when the railways had not yet a safe future the shareholder had a right to a high dividend ; to-day when the capital of the same is perfectly guaranteed, the interest m ust be more moderate ; and we are certain th a t in the face of these considera­tions in favor of our agriculture, I he S. Paulo share­holders will not shrink from the necessary sacrifices. From the capital required for expenses there m ust be eliminated w hat is not called for by necessity. In the adjustm ent of the tariff, for the transport of merchandise as well as passengers, the adm inistra­tions of the railways should avail of their observa­tions w ith reference to the expenses of locomotion and transfer this combined w ith the indications, from the delegates of the public, respecting the transport of passengers as well as the position of passengers as well as the position of each class of

m erchandise of im port and export in the goods tariff’ will unite in itself all the elements for the produc-

: tion of a work which will be practical and satisfact- | ory to all. In the list of the competition which will I be established during th e next ten years between th e I various coffee-producing countries, our position will | be definitely strengthened under the condition of all - the elements w ith th e fate of which Jthe prosperity

of coffee-cnlture is interwoven, if every one in his sphere would help to diminish the cost of production.

The tariffs, the origin of which dates from the epoch when the general prosperity adm itted of certain liberty , are susceptible of reform, in essence as well as in ap­plication, reductions having to be tnadewhich a re tu re .— absolutely necessary for the upholding of agricul Bio News.

M ANILA N E W S.(1SlraiU Times.)

“ Agricultural Batik.—We have been informed that in one of the shortly expected steamers of the Marquis de Oampo’s line, there is to arrive a t Manila, the agents of an Agricultural Bank about to be established in these island for which an influential company has been formed at Madrid, provided the necessary capital for such an important undertaking.”— Comercio 21st Oct.

TOBACCO IN D ELI.(Straits Times, Nov. 12th.)

The Java Courant of the 14th October reports that the prospects of this year’s tobacco crop in Deli are good as to quantity, and unusually favourable as to quality. Matters are otherwise in the tobacco growing districts in Java, the situation there being thus described in the Sourabaya Cauraat of the 14th October :—

“ Most saddening is the impression made when travell­ing from Kedirie to Blitar, on viewing the present con­dition of the tobacco establishments, formerly so flourish­ing, most of which are now no longer the seats of busy industrial activity, but on the contrary are uninhabited and forsaken. From Nujang to Bendo no signs of former prosperity are perceptible other than overseers’ dwellings falling to ruins, and drying sheds partially fallen in. Tobacco cultivation, which heretofore put hundreds of thousands of guilders into circulation among the popula­tion, is now expiring. Over competing may have con­tributed greatly to ruin it, but no less is its decadence attributable to the means by which Javanese tobacco growers turned to account, as much as possible, the foolish rivalry among European buyers. They began by failing to plant the tobacco a t the requisite distances from each other to enable the plants to develope properly, their object being to obtain greater produce. Quantity was aimed at, not quality. Often the whole crop was cut without leaving a single plant for bearing seed. Hence a frightful deterioration in Blitar tobacco formerly so much in demand in the European market. In short the thoughtless native tobacco growers have killed the “ goose that laid the golden eggs.”

A great many tobacco estates in Biitar are now for sale, only a few energetic European planters still per­severing in tobacco cultivation, but, however, most of them have betaken themselves to coffee growing instead.

A C u r e f o r P h y l t .o x e r a . —Messrs. W. & A. Gilbey, writing to the London Times on the subject of the French vintage, say w ith regard to P h y llo x era : — “ We may add here, in conclusion, th a t the latest rem ­edy suggested is sulpho-carbonate, which is applied to th e roots of the vines, with a considerable quantity of water, and which it is sta ted has not only the effect of killing the insect, bu t as a manure serves to fertilize and strengthen the vine. Suffice i t to say tb a t, during a visit th is morning to a very beautiful and well-managed estate a t St. Estephe, we were shown vines which, only 12 months ago, had all the appear­ance of being shortly dead now fresh and verdant, and apparently in a fair way to recover all th e ir vig­our and fertility .”

$ot;ttjespondeno3.To the Editor of the Ceylon Observer.

CALISAYA LED GERIANA ON A N N FIE L D ESTATE, DIKOYA.

[Mr. Anderson sends us the following report and analyses from M r Howard for publication : w ith trees giving 3 68 and 4'55 of quinine, Mr. Anderson should be well satisfied. —E d.]

Lord’s Meade, Tottenham , 14th Oct. 1881.T. C. Anderson, Esq., Annfield, Dikoya.D ear Sir ,—I n reply to yours of the 5th August, I

now send you th e analysis of the bark s-n t, which I hope will afford you useful information. No. 1 and No. 3 seem useful barks to cultivate, and No. 6 will no doubt improve by age : bu t the Caliaaya Anglioa agree with my published information aud can scarcely be made profitable. No. 2 may also tu rn ou t good, unless the cinchonidine in th is (as in No. 6) should become developed a t the expense of the quinine.

1 have pleasure in sending you the enclosed, as it is very im portant th a t the best kinds only should be cultivated. This is desirable for the m anufacturer as well as the cultivator.

You have probably seen the analyses of 30 speci mens sent by Mr. Cross which, I hear, is published (as I requestedjby the Government.—I beg to remain &c.,

(Sgd.) JO H N ELIO T HOWARD.Analysis of bark sent by Mr. T. C. Anderson, Annfield

E state, September 1881 :—g . _a

Qui

nin

Sulp

h 9‘3& C

inch

dine

.

Cin

chi

nine *3

*3a>

No. 1 ... 607 455 0'28 104 0-50No. 2 ... 3*11 2-33 1-97 013 trace.No. 3 Ledg. or Cat. Vera. 4*91 3-68 0*27 015 005No. 4 Ca . Angl. (burned.) 0 61 0*46 o-oo 0-56 0-26No. 5 Gal. Anglica ... 1*37 1*03 trace 2 72 0-84No. 6 Ledgeriana ... 2*93 2-21 o-oo 001 0-28

[No. 4 was accidentally burned in the drying, which accounts for the analysis being so poor a one.]

CEYLON TEA IN T H E LONDON M A R K ET.4 Guildhall Chambers, London.

D e a r S i r ,—In fu rther conversation w ith th e same gentleman whose views upon Ceylon tea we sent you a mail or two back, he told us th a t it is desirable, in sending tea for public sale to th is country, th a t i t should be sen t in large “ breaks. ” The trade will not tak e th e trouble to draw samples from small lots, and anything under 15 chests does not m eet w ith proper attention. He urged the advisability of shipping in as large quantities of th e same sort as possible. F u rth e r he pointed out th a t chests and h a lf chests are much preferred to boxes, except in finest sorts.

W e had, on Tuesday last, a consignment of Ceylon tea up in public sale, and it would have infused fresh life and determ ination to persevere into the planters, to have heard the shower of bids when the first lo t was put up. The bidding was continued briskly until the end, contrasting most encouragingly w ith the earlier reception of Ceylon teas in th e Lon­don m arket, when a few bids were given w ith growls of “ more of th a t Ceylon rubbish.’ If good tea is sent, i t may not a t first fetch its full value, bu t it will win its way in time, and after all w hat will best pay the planters in the long run is th a t their tea should have its place esteemed in the London public sales. At the same time, i t is desirable th a t the private sale should be pushed, and no efforts should

be spared by those interested (all ought to be) to induce people a t home to use i t and inquire for i t a t the local grocers’ shops, th u s creating a demand, starting the sale, and getting the tea known. One g rocers shop in the W est-end is selling a certain quantity , bu t passing it the o ther day, we saw only a small w ritten placard w ith “ Ceylon T e a ” upon i t in th e window. A good show-card with, for in ­stance, a well-executed picture of a Tamil girl bear- ing a basket upon her head, m arked “ Ceylon T ea,” is w hat is required. Grocers never object to placing a taking show-card in their windows, and in these days of showy, brilliant, advertisem ents, i t is necess­ary to rival o ther articles to catch the public eyre. These show-cards cost money, however, and your northern correspondent has already shown your readers th a t pioneers are those who do not reap great ad­vantages. L et th e Chamber of Commerce, or the P lan ters’ Association, look to this, and vote a small sum out of th e ir funds to advertise in this manner.

In conclusion, we are glad to report th a t the later consignments of tea have shown a m arked improve­m ent in tip , liquor, and infusion. W ith increased care given to the m anufacture, satisfactory prices can be obtam ed here w ithout doubt.—Yours faithfully,

HUTCHISON & CO.[The interest taken by our correspondents in the

promotion of a trade in Ceylon tea will be appreci­a ted by the planters : we have received through a gentleman, who lately returned to the island, a series of samples of Indian and Java Teas made up by Messrs. H utchison & Co. from breaks sold in the m arket, which are of in terest and good service in comparing with Ceylon teas. They consist of Indian Pekoe sold a t 2s 8d per lb ; d itto broken Pekoe a t 2s lOd to 2s l i d ; d itto broken orange Pekoe (Nowrea N uddy Tea Company) a t 2s lOd to 3s per lb ; d itto Pekoe (N. T. M .) a t 3s ; d itto orange pekoe a t 3s to 3s I d ; and Punch anor broken Pekoe, well-made leaf 3a 4d per lb ; and a sample of Java tea sold a t 2s 8d per lb. W e shall be glad to shew these samples to merchants and planters interested.—E d .]

COFFEE LEA F-DISEA SE.K ent, 19th October 1881.

D e a r S i r ,—I enclose a cutting from the London Times of the 17th instan t which, no doubt, you have seen and, perhaps, have rem arked upon in connection w ith Ilem ileia vastatrix aud the manuring question.

W h at I wish to call a tten tion to, for the considera­tion of Ceylon planters, is the opinion expressed by General Showers th a t the methods pursued for the cure of phylloxera are u tte rly useless, and th a t w hat the vine requires is a rest. The w riter founds his opinion upon th e experience gained by him, while conducting experimental cultivation in India. I t does no t seem quite clear how' the rest is to be given, but, I presume, by stripping the fourth pa rt of the trees of the fruit, as i t forms, and not allowing it to come to m aturity . I t may, perhaps, occur to th e planter’s mind that, if rest be required in Ceylon, to recruit the strength of the coffee tree, the remedy has been taken in hand by the tree itself, in only y ield­ing about one-third of w hat it wras formerly capable of doing. General Showers says nothing about m anur­ing, and evidently th in k th a t forcing the trees in any way is injurious. Is th is an argum ent in favor of those who do not or cannot m anure ? My own experience points to th e contrary, and I intend to manure as long as I find i t pays to do so.

The late gale was very severe in this part of Kent. Oaks and elms have been hurled to the ground and several corn-ricks blown down. J . P. G.

The le tte r in the London Times is as follows :—“ Sir,—In reference to the Phylloxera Congress a t

Bordeaux, will you allow me to subm it, through your columns, for the consideration of all interested, my view of the origin of the pest and of the means for its extinction ? In a m atter where such vast interests are a t stake, and which has accordingly exercised the m inds of the m ost experienced wine-growers of the day to discover its origin and remedy, I should naturally have felt insuperable diffidence in ven tu r­ing to obtrude my views upon th e a tten tion of the public bu t for the opportunities I have enjoyed in India, while conducting experimental cultivation for the improvement of the indigenous products of the country, of observing th e attacks of sim ilar veget­able parasites, and w hat proved th e best means for their extinction, the success which has a ttended my operations, as attested by the reports of professional experts on the produce of my farm, obtained through th e Agricultural D epartm ent of the Government of India, encouraging me.

“ In the table appended a t the foot of The Times’ notice of the assembling of the Congress six D epart­m ents are named as having been subjected to remedial treatm ent, and the vineyard acreage respectively ex­perim ented upon in these Departm ents is detailed. The methods pursued were submersion and the ap ­plication of sulphurate of carbon and sulpho-carbonates —all designed to operate directly as insecticides. O ther chemical preparations of the same class and character have been tried by M. Fichet, of Versailles and others. F urther, the methods described by the Duchesse de F itz James, in last Ju n e’s number of the Revue des Deux Mondes, comprising the grafting of American vines on French vine stems, French vines on American stems, the planting out on sandy soil, &c.—all these several remedies would seem to be open to the reproach to which all empiric treatm ent of disease is obnoxious—viz , the attacking of a symp­tom instead of the essential root of the disease, and thus betraying a w ant of right apprehension of its true origin. This, in my humbie view, is to be a ttrib u ted to exhaustion of the v ita lity of the plant, induced by unduly and unnaturally overtasking its productive powers. In th is respect, th e phylloxera of the French vineyards bears a close analogy to the red spider of th e Indian tea garden, to the leaf worm of the Indian American, and other cotton fields, and in short, to parasitic growth wherever proving fatally destructive throughout the vegetable kingdom. The mode in which th is law of nature, as i t may be term ed operates may be understood by reference to the phy­siological paradox, ‘Life dies ; d>ath lives. ’ W her­ever the vitality of a p lant is abnormally diminished by over-plucking, overpruning, and unceasing inexor­able demands to produce more, more, when nature demands rest and repose to recruit exhaustion, the sap, the plant’s life blood, becomes poor, sluggish, and enfeebled. Parasitic life is then evolved and preys upon the little remaining life th a t injudicious culture has left the plant.

“ If the above view in regard to the oiigin of phyll­oxera lie accepted as an approximation to the tru th , the remedy would seem to be self-indicated—repose. Give the vineyards rest. I passed through th e wine- producing districts of France last year on my re tu rn homewards from India via Marseilles. Most pictur­esque was the landscape, w ith the neat villages and detached farmhouses nestling among the slopes of the hills bounding the Cdtc d 'O r on the west and through­out the undulating plains in o ther parts. B ut the v iney ard s! A vast wilderness of stunted sticks, showing barely a leaf left, through the injudicious over-pruning, to imbibe the fertilizing elements from the favouring atmosphere and carry the much-needed nourishm ent down to revive the dried up, sapless stem aud roots. If I m ight venture to formulate the remedy above referred to as self-indicated, it

I would be in the term s of my article in the December 1878, num ber of the Jou rna l of the Agricultural and H orticultural Society 0f India on ‘ Indian Fam ines : an inquiry info the causes, w ith suggestions,’ pp. 188-9. A dapting the principle therein propounded to the circumstances of the French vineyards, I would suggest to each proprietor to divide his estate in to four equal parts, not by fences, b u t certain well-re­cognized land marks. Then proceed by allowing to each portion in rotation its year of rest, or Sabbath year. In any portion where th e vines m ight appear to be exhausted past retrieval there would be nothing for i t but to plough up and renovate th e soil by p lanting deep-rooted green crops, such as lucerne, turnips, carrots, &c., and plough in a t or a little be­fore m aturity , and in the succeeding year p lant w ith vines afresh. For the future let the Sabbath year of rest for one quarter of th e estate in ro tation be rigidly observed. The apparent sacrifice by the p ro­prietor of one quarter’s fallaciously computed revenue may be contemplated w ithout misgiving in view of the wholesale ru in which has overtaken the im port­an t wine industry of France from ‘ killing the goose th a t laid th e golden eggs, ’ and would be amply compensated by his estate being m aintained perm an­ently in undiminished fertility all round.—I am, sir, yours obediently,

C. L. S h o w e r s , M ajor-G eneral.” [General Showers’ explanation cannot be the correct

one, for our coffee leaf fungus a ttacks young coffee, and coffee trees grown from introduced seed, ju s t as readily as the oldest trees in the country. For instance, Capt. Bayley's Liberian coffee trees a t Galle, 100 miles d istan t from the coffee districts, shewed th e fungus as soon as they had leaves.—E d ]

CEYLON T EA IN AU STRALIA.November 4th, 1881.

S i r , —W e tea planters have to thank you for pub- lishing the sales of Indian and Ceylon teas in A ustralia. The last sales shew, on the surface, fair prices.But i t should be borne in m ind th a t the little words“ in b o n d ’’ take a good deal of “ g ilt off the ginger, b read .” I t means taking th e first lo t as a guide th a t, though ■purchaser pays Is 5d per lb., s e l l e r

has to pay 3d per lb. d u ty before d e liv e ry ; th a t broker’s commit sion is charged on th e Is 5d perlb. and not on Is 2d ; d itto also for agent. So th a t the seller of th is tea sells his tea for Is 2d, b u t he pays broker’s and agent’s commission on Is 5d per lb. and discount to buyer on Is 5d. O ther charges are also high, and, I th ink , it is a question if as good or better prices could not be got in England for really good teas.

I t seems unnecessary confusion for seller to pay th e d u ty and i t all leads to the loss of the producer and consumer. For in the la tte r case, consumers read the price tea is sold for in the papers and th in k the du ty has still to be added. I th in k tea planters should take th is m atter in hand and specially Melbourne charges. I t seems ridiculous th a t commissions to selling broker and agent, and also a discount to the buyer should be allowed on the Government duty , as well as on price paid for the tea .—Yours tru ly ,

PEK O E TIP.P. S.—As a t the tim e of the “ anniversary of a

centenary” or a centennial anniversary, Yankees are given to blowing a good deal, i t should be rem em ­bered th a t Cornwallis surrendered to a combined force of Americans and disciplined French, the la tte r about one-third of the entire force and th a t a French fleet block­aded Yorktown.

COFFEE CULTIVATION IN T H E PA N W ILA DISTRICT.

4 th N ov. 1881.

D e a r S i r , —In reply to your Kelebokka correspond­e n t’s letter, in your issue of 28th October, I am glad to say th a t the owner of M aria estate has no Colombo or visiting agent to consult as regards the management of his estate, and is both able and willing to keep it iu good order. I must, however, correct a report going about th a t i t is the large amount of m anure applied to th is estate which gives such good results. I can prove that, as a rule, the coffee is only manured once in two years. When coffee is a t ­tacked w ith leaf-disease, i t gets a dressing of wood- ash and country-lime. I f very bad, a small dose of manure also. Coffee suffering on account of heavy crop or other causes is a t once attended to by digging in some manure.

As regards crop, I am glad to say I am able to raise my estimate this year to 7 cwt. per acre, and the trees, as they get relieved of crop, are making plenty of new wood. There will be sufficient wood to give a good crop nex t year on parts of the estate, and a fair one on th e rest.

There was one estate, “ Longford,” last year in the m arket. The late proprietor was so anxious to sell out and go home th a t he sold his estate a t half its value, and I m ust congratulate the present propri­etor on his purchase. Who wxmld not accept a large profit now on his bargain ? W here was Kelebokka then ?

To prove th a t I was not a t sea as regards HemVeia leaving coffee and settling on jak trees or iu the jungle, let your correspondent read and digest Mr. W ard’s report :—“ There can be little room for doubt th a t the former [Hemileia vaxtairtx) passed to the coffee from the jungle, as I have long suspected to he the t ru th .” Now, if leaf-disease came from the jungle, where i t was staying and feeding, for goodness knows how long, what is more natural than th a t it should find its way oack again from coffee trees which had been dis­infected to its old habitat ? Mix sulphur and lime,or wood- ash and lime, or carbohVd powd- r, with I he fallen leaves, and leave i t exposed fur 14 days. Then fork or bury in m anure holes. This will check the spread of spores and be good manure to the coffee.

I am glad to inform your ICotmale correspondent, whose letters I value, that I consider our climate next to Uva, and we have a good sub-soil. I would under­take to guarantee to give crops similar to Maria from all (6) estates in our group. Zulul-md, which has similar treatment to Maria, and is carefully worked, will show splendid results next year. I cannot speak of Dimbula and Dikoya, having had no experience there. I invite inspection : one and all are welcome. —Yours, J . HOLLOW AY.

A CARDAMOM NU RSERY.D e a r S i r , —In reply to your correspondent who

wishes to know how to make a cardamom nursery, 1 am glad to be able to inform him. having success­fully raised plants from seed itself, tliafc he should not buy pods for seed, unless he knows they were cured under shade by the air passing through and daily turued ; the seed is very Sensitive and too much sun kills the germ. Make your nursery bed with fair mould; a t the top pu t two parts of soil to one of sand well mixed, about one inch th ick ; press the soil down, slightly ; pu t your seed which should he steeped iu water for half an hour over the surface, and cover a little with the mixed so il; shade and w ater same as cinchona.— Yours truly, J . HOLLOW AY.

148

L IB E R IA N COFFEE.Lindula, November 9th, 1881.

D e a r S i r , —Many people think it th e th ing now-a- daye to run down Liberian coffee. I think w hat I now have to say on the subject may make proprietors of the same feel easier. I send you only an ex tract from a le t te r :— “ I should say th a t Liberian coffee isa decided success. M r. sent us 2 lb., and every bodywho has tasted i t declares i t to be th e best they have ever met with ! I do not like coffee, but I tasted th is and thought i t first ra te for coffee and the aroma wonderful.”—Yours faithfully,

DE BARDONNEL,

H E M IL E IA VASTATRIX.D e a r S i r , —I doubt if Mr. Marshall W ard is a lto ­

gether correct in s ta tin g th a t the mycelium is perfectly 8afe> when once it has penetrated the leaf throughthe stom ata. I found a drop or two of the juiceof a lime squeezed on to the affected leaf entirelydestroy the disease w ithout in an any way injuringth e healthy parts of the leaf. E. F. P.

P, S .—The application of lime juice as a cure would not of course be practicable. The above is w ritten with a view to show th a t the germ may be reached after i t has entered the tissue of the leaf.

C a r d a m o m s a n d “ G r a i n s o f P a r a d i s e . ” — A cor­respondent writes :— “ Nawalapitiya, 25th October.— In your issue of the 21st, I notice you say th a t ‘ cardamoms are far famed as grains of Paradise,’ and, as I have not seen it corrected, I write to let you know that, although they are of the same order (ginger) the true cardamoms (M alabar) are seeds from E f i- taria cardamom and grains of Paradise from the Amomum grana P aradm , or M alagnetta pepper, some­tim es called Guinea grains (Guinea), the seeds of which are ex'.remely aromatic, hot, and acrid. Elettaria major is the Ceylon or wild cardamom. The value of grains of Paradise in England is only about Is a pound ” Our correspondent is correct as to the distinction between the true cardamom and “ grains of Paradise ” so-called.

U p p e r L in d u l a , 7th November.—A journey up from Colombo, after an absence of two or three weeks, has many very encouraging features in it. CojJeet which a short tim e ago looked almost snuffed out with leaf- disease, is now, in spite of crop, green w ith young wood. A ll th e way through Kotmale and Dimbula i t was most cheering to see the signs of vigorous life manifested by what, I th ink , 1 am justified in still calling our staple product. Up a t this end of the d istrict, a little leaf-disease is battling with crop-laden trees, bu t there is not the slightest doubt th a t th e fungus will have the worst of i t in the end. Cinchonas in some places, from contact w ith a cold subsoil I expect, are tu rn ing yellow, bu t the m ajority are growing well, having made from 4 feet to 7 feet in a year a ta ti elevation of 5,000 above sea level. Tea> pruned a m onth ago is loaded with flush, and perfectly free so far from disease of any kind. There >vas a trem en­dous down-pour of rain here on the 26th ult. bu t un­fortunately no record was kept of the amount. I see the amount on Shawlands for the same day was 7*29. The register for yesterday, the 6th, shows, *30 inch, max : t^mp : 72, min : tem p : 58. Today is showery w ith long intervals of sun. Having travelled tour times up and down by the Dimbula coach, I feel it only ju st to mention th a t i t is most punctual in its times of departure and arrival, very comfortable, and above all very cheap, being a t the rate of 37 c^nis per mile, while private traps are R1 per mile plus R3 for tolls. In tending travellers will also be glad to hear th a t the NawalapitijTa r- sthouse is actually clean, com­fortable, and quiet at night. W onders will never cease !

J a f f n a I r r ig a t io n : S e t t in g a g o o d E x a m p l e . — W hile 1 0 m any of the Jaffna farmers are bewailing their need i f improved methods of irrigation, and call­ing on “ a paternal government " to furnish the means and do all the work, one, more enterprising, has u n ­dertaken to solve the difficulty for himself. Notary C athiravalupillai of V alvetty, has ordered from Eng­land a large double pump, which has already reached Colombo, aud is expected to arrive in Jaffna in a few days. The pumps are capable of raising 3,000 to 4,000 gallons per hour. They are accompanied by a wind­mill, of the European style, w ith four arms, each 10 feet in length, bearing sails. W hen the wind fails, the pumps will b ■ operated by two or four coolies. The two flywheels weigh 3 cwt. each, which will give great steadiness of motion. The whole will cost over RSOO. The well is expected to furnish all th e water w in ted for 150 lachams of land. This is a bold ex­perim ent, and we heartily wish it success, both for th - sake of the one who has pu t his money into it, and more for the sake of Jaffna as a whole. For to is experiment can determine whether expensive i r ­rigation works will pay, and also whether windmills will work satisfactorily here. W e believe the American style of windmill is more economical. T hat has, in­stead of four arms, a solid wheel, i. e. small slats fastened all over the surface of a wheel. Some how­ever prefer the o ther style. We hope to see many introduced before many years pass. All the work which the wind can be made to do is clear gain, bu t we are not very sanguine th a t m anual power alone can in ordinary cases raise w ater more cheaply with a pump than with a tula.— Morning Star.

L i b e r i a n C o f f e e C u l t i v a t io n . —We have to ac­knowledge the receipt of a copy of a copy of Mr. J . P. W illiam ’s pam phlet in Sinhalese on Liberian coffee cultivation. In thepre face the author says I t is to be deeply regretted th a t the natives of Ceylon do no t posses any Sinhalese books, which trea t of the subject of cultivation. The circulation of books bear­ing on this subject, amongst the natives of tho island will, doubtless enable many, who are ignorant of the importance of cultivation, to acquire such a practical knowledge thereof as may prove of m aterial advantage to them. I t has occured to me, th a t the tim e is not far d istan t when our Government should, w ith a view to encourage cultivation amongst the natives, under­tak e the publication of books in the Vernacular, r e la t iv to the a r t of cultivation, and circulate them in various parts of the island—a course, which if adopted, will tend greatly to enlightened the natives, and incr ase the public revenue. The cultivation of Liberian coffee ranks high in the list of many use­ful and profitable cultivations recently commence ind the island ; but no work in Sinhalese relative to its cultivation, and its development, has yet made its appearance. For the acccomplishnn-nt of this desider­atum , 1 have prepared and published, for the first time, th is book intended as an incentive to new p lan t­ing enterprise amongst natives. I tru s t th is little work, though not free from imperfections, will prove useful to the m ajority of the natives. I have thankfully to sta te th a t the publications of Me srs. A. M. & J. F or; .son, the Proprietors and Editors of the Ceylon Observer haa'e been of service to me in compiling th is little book.” Mr. W illiam deserves great credit for his energy and public spirit. The following le tter has been sent to him from Queen’s House :— “ Queen’s House, Colombo, 28th October 1881. J . P. W illiam, Esq. S ir,—The Governor desires me to thank you for your kindness in sending him your valuable pamphlet 011 Lib riau coffee cultivation. I have also to thank you for the copy you were kind enough to send me.—I am, sir faithfully yours, (Signed) A. N e v i l l H a y n e , Capt. , A .D .C .” We are glad to learn th a t Mr. W illiam’s free d istribution has been largely patronized from all parts of th e island, and one application even came fromTravancore!

C in c h o n a .—The Darjeeling News says:—The Java process of shaving th e bark of cinchona trees,which was introduced into Darjeeling by Dr. King, has proved a decided success. The bark renews itself perfectly, w ithin about a year, and th e trees do not appear to have suffered the least check.—Pioneer,

I m p o r t a n t D is c o v e r y o f E u b b e r a n d C in - c h o n a F o r e s t s i n B o l i v i a . —Dr. H eath’s discovery of vast rubber Forests in the unexplored trac ts bordering the river Beni, in the interior of Bolivia, bids fair to be productive of im portant practical results no t only for th a t State, but for the world at large. This year the export of rubber is estim ated a t 750,000, and next year i t is expected to exceed six million pounds. Cinchona forests have also been discovered in the region traversed. Dr. H eath proposes nex t year to extend his explorations to the larger and equally u n ­known river Madre de Dios, commencing from th e

| ancient Inoa capital of Cuzco.—C alcutta Englishman. j B e e s a n d C o f f e e B l o s s o m . —A correspondent writes :I — “ Regarding bees, &c., old Palliser writes :— ‘ In the j old days, anything under 10 cw t was looked upon as

bad. Is i t not a very curious fact th a t the coffee crops have fallen off from what they used to be, even in good soil, and when free of leaf disease ? I can only a ttrib u te it to deterioration of seed from con­stan tly using the same for such num bers of years, the almost to ta l absence of bees from the destruction of the forests (in the olden times, during blossoms, they were in millions), and over-draining and over-pruning.’ Such are the words of one of the pioneers of coffee planting, and you can make w hat use you like of them.I myself pu t little or 110 faith in the theory of deterio ra­tion of seed. I don’t believe th a t 10 per cent of the coffee in Ceylon is grown from seed more than four generations in Ceylon. No man in his senses ever used seed from young trees, and if he did they m ust have been 3 or 4 years old at. least from seed, so th a t th e whole term of Ceylon p lanting is covered by some possible 10 generations. I doubt if a tree on my places is in the 4th generation. A bout the bees I fully agree with Palliser. A coffee blossom is perfect in itself for fertil zation. Darwin has p re tty well proved th a t cross-fertilization by insects or otherwise is p re­ferable, and if you get rid of insects you probably won’t set your crop as well as if they were about. On over-draining and pruning, I don’t agree w ith h im .”

T h e F o r t h c o m in g B r a z i l i a n C o f f e e C r o p . —Ac­counts of the crops continue good from all quarters bu t trade is very dull, especially in the coffee pro­vinces, wherein the low rates and doubtful prospects of coffee have created a general depression, though large amounts of produce remain to forward. The promonotion of the projected coffee exhibition in Rio November 10th, is actively attended to by the Co- mercio e Lavoura Company, which has undertaken the labour, bu t the proposed municipal exhibition of native m anufactures here seems likely to be still-born, the municipality having no power to d ivert funds to th a t object. A second m eeting of coffee planters aud con­signees took place on Ju ly 15th, a t the Secretariat of A griculture, w ith attendance of the M inister of A gri­culture, to trea t of th e coffee exhibition, towards which the Barao da Apparecida has promised to give £6,600. Senhor Ramalho Ortigao presented the com­m ittee's report, and various opinions wrere em itted as to the best means of prom oting th e consumption of Brazilian coffee The M inister of A griculture said th a t three Rio capitalists had forwarded by the last packet a credit of 100,000 francs to open a cafe in Paris. He also said th a t he coincided with the views of the Committee’s report., and he promised the building, transport, &c., and would ask necessary vote for the purpose, and for practical schools of agriculture, from the nex t parliam ent. He hoped th e first exhibition could open in November.—Anglo-Brazilian Times.

T h e T homas’ T ra nspla n ter (says a H ap u ta le

flanter) is by far the best 1 have tried, and I regret aid not provide myself with more tins when order­

ing the transplanter. No estate should be w ithout one.T in T ea Boxes.—T he Indian Daily News te lls us

th a t “ o rders have been received from hom e b y th e m anagers of a large te a concern in th e D arjeeling d istr ic t, p ro h ib itin g th e p ack ing of te a in tin-boxes for th e fu tu re .”

Ceyt.on L ib e r ia n Co ffee in N ew Y o r k . —W e are glad to learn th a t Messrs. G. & W. Leech- man have received a telegram saying th a t their first shipm ent of Liberian coffee to New York has sold a t 18 cents a pound. This, a t current rates of ex­change, is equal to about 84s per cwt. in London.

M in e r a l P ho sph a te of L im e is wanted, and present prices are remunerative to proprietors and likely to contiune so for some time. Some few years since we directed th e attention of the bold and adventurous section of the American readers of this Circular to the development of the deposits in Canada. Shipments thence are now weekly received. The quality is very superior. We have inspected one sample, w hich tested 95 per cent.—Samuel Downs <£• C o ’s Quarterly Circular.

Cardamom Seed (G er m in a ted).—The instructions for planters of germinated seed are as follows :—“ We find the seed does best when not planted deep, but ju st covered with a thin film of earth, say a sixteenth of an inch thick. The nursery should be covered with a roof, and he kept well watered and protected from the sun. P lan t close a t first, say 2 inches a p a r t ; when 6 inches or so high, remove them to another bed, or th in them out to 4 or 5 inches apart : then they can remain until fit to p lant in the field.”

C alisaya L edgeriana S eed .—The auction sale of pure Calisaya Ledgeriana seed by Mr. C, E. H. Symons today resulted as follows :—15 boxes, each containing 2 grammes a t R39 K58530 do do 2 do 40 1,20032 do do 2 do 41 1,312

5 do do 2 do 42 2101 box do 2 do 44 44

83 box s K3,351

A verage per box of 2 gram m es R 40‘37.“ CinchonaP lanters’ M a nual. ”— T he following lis t of

Errata . m ade u p by M r. Owen, shou ld be c u t o u t and pas ted inside th is book by a ll w ho have a lready ob ta ined copies : i t w ill be ad d ed to all “ M anuals ” issued from our office a f te r th is : —

Errata.Page 1.—Lines 29 and 30, for “ which all consist o f’

read “ which consist of all or some of the elements.” Page 11—Line 34, for “ then cinchonidine ; quinidine

and cinchonine ” read “ then quinidine j cinchonidine and cinchonine.”

Page 15.—Line 35, for “ C H 34, NaOa, ” read “ Ca0 ^ 2» 0 2

Page 17.—Line 37, omit “ officinalis.”Page 22.—Line 11, for “ officinalis” read “officinales.” Page 25. - Line 2, for “ Cuco ” read “ Cusco.”Page J7. Line 37, for “ tomentose, pubescent” read

“ tomento-e or pubescent.”do.—Line 38, dele “----- ” after “ fru it”Page 28 —Line 7, after “here ” insert “ or to the next

species.”Page 36 —Line 34, for “ 15,000 lb.” read “ 1,500 lb.”Page 54— Line 16, for “ 500” read “ 5,000,”P aje 99.—Line 20 for “ 1 lb. of guano” read “ f lb.

ammonic sulphate ”Page do—Line 22, for “ fib . ammonic sulphate ” read

“ 1 lb. of guano.”Page 1U,—Line 7, for “ sulphate” read “ alkaloid.” Page 113.—Line 11, for “ quinine ” read “ sulphate of

quinine.”

B R A Z fL C o f f e e . — W e are informed th a t the te le ­graphed average daily receipts a t Rio and Santos are less by 1,000 bags than a t th is tim e last year, w hilst stocks a t those ports now only shew7 an excess of20,000 bags as compared w ith the same period last year.

An Enemy o f t h e C inchona.— “ E nquirer” writes :— “ I send by this tap pal a borer found in the heart of the stem of a succirubr.v 18 m ouths old. I t had entered a t th e surface of the ground and bored up over a foot and hard a t w ork when I came across i t yester­day. Can you give me any information about its pedigree.” I t is the red borer, described in N ietner’s “ Coffee Tree and I ts Enem ies,” No. 13, page 14, second edition.

J ava .—From a le tte r dated Bandong, 29th October, we quote as follows :—“ W e had some show­ers, bu t after those dry w eather again. Cholera though does not make m any victims, a t least not amongst the Europeans. A t Buitenzorg it rains every day, and th a t will prevent it coming hither, In fact there are no cases but in the low country. At Mr. K erkhoven’s you saw one of our best cultivated tea- gardens, though tea-m aking will have been stopped by the prolonged drought. The fire only killed 23 of our grafts a t T irtasari, far less than I feared the num ber wrould be.”

W ynaad P lanting and M in in g A ssociation. — A t a committee meeting, held on the 5th October, the first business taken up was the Coffee Stealing Prevention Act. A le tter to the Collector of M alabar from the lion . Secretary wras read, noting the fact of th e extension of A ct V II I 1878 to the lowland tracts traversed by the coffee in tran s it to the coast, and the Government opinion th a t i t will be sufficient to apply th e Act to the main roads from W ynaad to the Coast, b u t calling for a report from th e Collector to say, if th is is not enough, w hat roads should be specified in the notification. The letter points out th a t i t is absolutely necessary for the pro­per w’orking of the A ct th a t its provisions should be extended to the whole d istrict, and deprecates most earnestly the proposal to confine its operation to the main line of roads. The le tter also suggested the advisabil­ity of having one recognized form of Coffee Pass issued by the Government. Those passes should bear a one anna Revenue stamp, and th e ir use made obligatory, and should be procurable a t all kachcheries and post offices. This le tte r was approved of. The remaining business related to telegraph extension, taxing of gold Companies for road upkeep, and lastly a le tte r on Go­vernm ent sales of cinchona, from the Ceylon Planters* Association, asking the co-operation of the Association in endeavouring to prevent a continuance of Govern­m ent competition w ith private enterprise. I t was resol­ved th a t the Governm ent be addressed on the subject. The annual report was then considered and the m eeting separated. A t th e annual meeting held th e same day the annual report w’as read, which sta ted th a t there were 52 members on the lish, as against 55 a t the commencement of th e year. The report dealt w ith th e follow ing subjects :—Labor Law and R e­gistration of M aistries ; M adras Forest Act ; Beypore- Mysore railway roads; The Mysore Government ; Coffee S 'ealing Prevention Act ; Telegraphic Communication ; Local officials ; and Mining Industry. The report having been adopted and the accounts passed, the following committee was appointed for th e coming year: —Messrs. B atty, Boosey, Dawson, Fetherstonhaugh, Griffin, Hockin, Jow itt, C. A. Mackenzie, Malcolm, Moon, M il­ler, P unnett, Romilly, A. Trollop, J . Vanlleesema, W alker, W iuterbotham and G. L. Yonge. A discussion then took place regarding roads and railway. Mr. Young was re-elected Honorary Secretary, and the meeting concluded.

Co ffe e L eaf D is e a s e : T h r e e “ R ichmonds ” in t h e F ie l d !—The following paragraph is from the Batavia Handelsblad :—“ A Sourabaya paper asserts th a t Mr. Jacob F. Storck, coffee p lan ter in the F iji islands, intends to visit Ceylon via Java for the purpose of diffusing an invention of his. The said gentlemen has discovered a remedy for the Hemileia vastatrix, consisting iu charging the atmosphere w ith an element which is fatal to the Hemileia, and may be produced by women and children. All th is is very mysterious, but we m ust w ait for Mr. Storck’s arrival before we can say more about i t . ” Mr. Stork has already sent one or two letters to th e Observer expressive of the utm ost confidence in his remedy for coffee leaf disease. B is journey hither all the way from F iji will afford very practical evidence of his good faith, and so it behoves th e P lanters’ Association to consider betimes w hat is to be done w ith their visitor. W ould i t not be advisable to select 150 to 200 acres of typical coffee, and, dividing it into three equal portions representing th e same conditions as far as possible, to hand one over to Mr. Stock to experiment on for 6 m onths ; another to be treated w ith carbolized vapour under Mr. Schrottky’s care ; and a th ird w ith sulphur and lime according to Mr. M arshall W ard’s suggestions? Half-a-dozen V isiting Agents—say, Messrs. W . D. Gibbon, Bosan- quet, W. Mackenzie, Young, Grigson, Ballardie and Irvine—representing varied interests and experience, should then be constituted a Board of Inspection, with th e P lanting Member of Council, and the Chairman and Secretary of the Association, to report definitely on th e result.

M ercara , 31st Oc t .—The S. W. monsoon closed about the first week in October, and will be reckoned as one of th e very lightest th a t has happened in the annals of the country. The weather was similar to w hat was in by-gone years, bu t the rains were neither so persistent nor fierce, there were no terrific down­pours of twelve or th irteen inches in a day and there happened occasional breaks during the day-time, when the gloom was relieved by glimpses of tbe sun, and patches of th e blue sky in Ju ly and August. The rain-fzill registered by me from the beginning of the monsoon to its close on October 3rd was 149 5 inches against 246 inches for similar dates in 1880, and 242*5 in 1879. Cardamom picking, which commenced a fo rt­night ago, is well forward : the out-turn will be a little below the average, but they are of an excellent quality, the pods being of a more uniform size, and of a good chrome-yellow color, w hilst th e seed are well pronounced in flavor and scent. There is an active demand for them iu Mercara, by the native buyers, and prices keep h ig h ; the fine weather of late has given them every facility for being dried quickly and well, which so much improves the quality. The partia l failure in the crop is owing to a shortness of showers, neccersary for bringing out the blossom, which should fall in April or march, being, th is year, both uncertain and late. Cardamoms have hitherto been in th e hands of the Coorgs, who combine together in a distric t and rent large tracts of forest from Govern­m ent . there is little more excitement or expectation of making a large profit in th is way then in being the lessee of a toll-gate. The p lant is indigenous in the forests, as persistent of life as the Petris Aqailina, our common fern, requires no cultivation, little a tten ­tion, self-germinating, and dies only from etiolation. U ntil quite recently i t was a Government monopoly, like sandalwood and tam aiind fru it to-day—and was a large source of income to the old Rajahs who held the country. The yield has grown less year by year : Europeans have never regarded cardamoms as a special culture until th is year ; there was some forest land th a t has been paid tax for above tw enty years, and has literally produced nothing. W ell, under the spirited energy of a new manager, attem pts have been made to grow them. About forty acres are

planted up, some six feet apart, w ith young seedlings The forest, trees are left standing, an occasional tree being felled to le t the ligh t in—there will be a small crop next year,— M adras Standard.

T he N il g ir i C o ffee .—The coffee crop is expected to be late this year. The late spring rains brought the blossom out a little after tim e and the dry weather generally th a t succeeded did not contribute to develop the berry. In some localities i t is abnormally small, bu t the bean shows compact and firm. The crop will probably be characterised as light and small. Most estates are short and even th is lim ited ou ttu rn was menaced during the year. I f prices rise, working ex­penses may be recovered, if no t the outturn will leave m any of the estates with an increasing debit balance. The gold industry has throw n coffee back consider­ably, bu t beyond a t- mporary depression th is product will a s s 'r t its supeiiority and remunerative charac­te r before long .— Indian paper.

Slavery in Br a z il . — In its issue of October 1st, the Anglo-Brazilian Times hasan interesting article on the Free B irth A ct of Sept. 28th, 1871, <;when the ligh t of freedom first dawned upon the dark horizon of Brazilian slavery, and it was pro­claimed th a t from th a t glorious day—glorious alike to Visconde do Rio Branco, Brazil, and hum anity—not a slave could be born w ith in the wide expanse of the Brazilian Em pire.” Our contemporary proceeds to remark as follows ‘‘Happily, the experience of the last ten years has served to dispel in great measure the doubts and fears which a t first clouded th e future. The generally cheerful and even benevolent co-opera­tion of the slave-owners has sm oothed away m any of the inherent difficulties of the law and has extend­ed its benefits far beyonud anticipation. It, is, indeed, m ost honourable to them th a t they have discharged th e ir du ty towards the children of their slaves with hum anity and kindness, and th a t, instead of viewing the continuance of the charge as irksome, and to be rejected a t the earliest opportunity, the right of option has not been availed of in more than two enses in a thousand. I t is also most honourable to them th a t their private emancipations have been upon a scale of unexpected m agnitude th a t proves th e force of emancipatory sentim ent in th e ir m idst and has thrown th e official emancipations completely into th e shade. As regards the solution of the labour question created by death among the slaves and a progress of emancipa­tion which it is the desire of m any ip the nation to hu rry to the goal, the m ists of uncertainty, u n ­fortunately, still, envelop it and render i t obscured. The a ttitu d e of the native freeman, the freedmau and the ingenuo in face of it, is still a problem. Im migration, partially repelled by the existence of slavery, by the defects of the laud system, and by the sanitary perils of our maritim e cities, has not yet become an agricultural power, and Chinese labour, even as a temporary assistance, is still of small promise of attainm ent. Nevertheless, some progress towards the solution is apparent ; imm igrant labour is super­seding th a t of the slaves in m any employments w ithin the cities, the central sugar factories ex* preience no difficulty in obtaining th e free labour the law imposes on them, and yearly the influence of free native labour is becoming more sensible in the production of our staples, so th a t we seem gradu­ally to be approaching the point when a proper ad ­justm ent of wages and the personal relations of the labourer and employer, relations still hampered by mischievous attem pts to retain from the slave system intolerable restrain ts upon personal independence, may suffice, if not, w hat cannot be hoped, to avoid great difficulties and perliapa a revolution in the p lan ta­tion system, and to a t least tido th e country over a labour crisis w ithout great danger to the interests of agriculture.

COLONEL BEDDOME ON CINCHONA

PLA N TIN G IN CEYLON.The report furnished by Colonel Beddome to the

Madras Government on th e result of his short visit to this island will be read w ith considerable in te r^ t . He identifies our strong-growing large-leaved “ hybrid, ” hitherto reckoned a cross between Officinalis and Succirubra, as th e “ P a ta de Gallinazo ” a variety of red bark. B ut there are some contradictions in Mr. Cross’s and Colonel Beddomr’s Reports to the Madras Government, th a t must be cleared up before we can be quite sure w hat these gentlemen mean by the new species. Mr. Cross more especially gave the name “ Pata de Gallinazo ” to the Pubescens, and he speaks of i t as a narrow-leaved variety of red bark . Colonel Beddome classes the glabrous and pubescens (hairy) kind together, and says some of them have h itherto beeu spoken of as Magnifolia. Here is the extract bearing on the subject from Col. Beddome's Report on the Nilgiri p lan ta tio n s:—

“ Pubescens."—No one can visit the Naduvatam plantation or th e “ H ooker” a t Pykara w ithout being struck by the splendid growth 011 grass land of the species known as “ Pubescens ” ; w hilst “ >’ucci rubra” is always very stunted and w ith the leaves very much crimpled and unhealthy looking in th is soil, th is species or variety is of stu rdy fine growth far out- topping the Red barks and w ith very healthy darker green leaves; the difference in the grow t1', however, is not so m arked in the sliola soil, as the “ Succi­rubra ” grows there equally or nearly equally robust. This “ Pubescens ” has generally been supposed to be an accidental hybrid of Nilgiri origin and is often known as Mr. M clvor’s hybrid ; i t is, however, no hybrid* whatever, nor has i t any of the character­istics of one, and it has evidently been in the Nilgiri plantations since their commencement, though not re­cogniz'd as d istinct from “ Succirubra ” in its young growth and before flowering. I t differs from “ Succi­rubra ” (besides in its more robust growth a t a higher elevation and in poorer soil) in its leaves being more pointed, more coriaceous, of a much darker green, and more shining, and in the prim ary veins being less at righ t angles with the midrib. Mr. Rowson pointed me out w hat he called two distinct varieties ; one he said called “ Pubescens” by Mr. M clvor and the o ther called “ Magnifolia”+ On care­ful examination, however, the only difference appeared to be a certain amount of pubescence on the young shoots and under surface of th e leaves in the former, whereas typical specimens of the la tte r are quite glabrous on the under surface of the leaves, and the

* Note.—Hybrids between distinct species could scarcely occur w ithout isolation, or w ithout removing the anthers (of the flowers to be impregnated) a t a very early stage, as I find the anthers burst before the valvate lobes of the corolla are fairly open. I find the flowers of Officinalis (and all the o ther species as far as I have observed) d im orphic; some trees j have all the flowers w ith short included anthers and : long exserted style, others w ith long anthers and short included sty le [this dimorphism occurs also com- J monly in species of H edyotis—Anotis and other genera of \ th is tribe (Rubiacere) indigenous on the Nilgiris. ] Seeds of ! hybrids would be sterile except under certain conditions, j

+ Nothing to do with the “ Chin- Magnifola” Rz and Pa von, which is now placed in a another genus j “ Cascarilla” differing from Cinchona in having a 1 papillose instead of a hairy corolla and in the dehis- ceuee of the capsules.

149

young shoots are very slightly pubescent ; and I found th a t Mr. Rowson could no t tell one from the other except by very close inspection, and th a t the difference in Pubescens, though sometimes much m arked, was in o ther cases not apparent. The pub­escent variety has also been called “ Lanosa” and glowing in shola soil w ith “ Succirubra” m ight be passed by as th a t species by the uninitiated ; I ho leaf however is never so rounded a t the apex and it has a flatter su r­face, and never the crimpled look th a t “ Succirubra” always assumes more or less. I found a good m any of “ Magnifolia” and a few “ Pubescens” in the

; Dodabetta plantations, and there ere some fine old trees of “ Magnifolia” in the 1865 plantation which are cert­ainly not supplies (which alone would prove th a t they could no t be hybrids), b u t here I found them both known to the superintendent (Narrainsawmy) as “ Pubescens," the name “ Magnifolia” not being known,

! Mr. Rowson informed me th a t he considered them hybrids, as they had not appeared before the 1869 planting (it will be seen elsewhere th a t Mr. Cross detected them in the oldest planting) ; th a t they both

I generally came up tru e from seed, but th a t he had , kuown many sown as these hybrids come up true ' “ succirubra”’ which, he however, a ttrib u ted to care­

less gathering. He also sta ted th a ’ he had largely propagated “ Pubescens” and no t “ Magnifolia” on the

( supposition th a t th e bark of the former was much more valuable ; the bark he also said both of “ Pubescens” and “ Magnifolia” had not been sent to m arket except from a few trees taken carelessly by coolies and mixed with other barks, bu t samples had been collected from one or two trees and sent home for analysis, and th is analysis is given in G. 0 .. No, 1,336, of 23rd June 1879, under “ hybrid Pubescens” and is m ost favorable, though I am not inclined, as I have said elsewhere, to give too much reliance on the analysis from single individuals, perhaps, grown under very favorable circumstances. These specimens were taken from the glabrous “ Magni­folia” and not from ‘ ‘ Pubescens. ”

Narrainsawm y, the Dodabetta Superintendent, in ­formed me th a t he did not consider “ Pubescens ” a hybrid, as there were large trees in the 1865 p lan ta­tion which he had always been familiar w ith since he took charge in 1868 ; he also sta ted th a t if sown they sometimes come up true , bu t they often come up “ Officinalis” (th is m ust of course be due to care­less gathering). I subsequently got Mr. Cross to make a careful examination of th is species or variety both a t Naduvatam and on Dodabetta. H e informs me th a t “ Magnifolia ” and “ Pubescens” are one and the same species, and scarcely distinguishable, th a t he is quite familiar with the tree which he found himself in th e red bark region on the slopes of Chimborazo, bu t always a t a higher elevation than “ Succirubra, ” and th a t th e Cascarilleros or bark collectors always distinguished it as the “ Pata de Gallinazo ” (or tu rkey buzzard’s foot), while they called the “ Suc­cirubra” “ te ja ” (or tile bark), b u t th a t the bark was not pu t up separately by these collectors. Healso states th a t he believes th is tree has never beenfigured or deseribed although W eddell (Notes sur les Quinquinas) refers to no less th an four species as the source of PitA de Gallinazo, w hilst Mr. Spruce in his report includes the Pktk de Gallinazo as bark collector’s lore, evidently regarding i t as an alias of “ Succirubra,” though he could never have seen the trees. Mr. Cross also states thatjhe examined the very tree a t Naduvatam, th a t the bark was taken from for analysis, and th a t i t is typical “ Phtii de Galli­nazo ’’ (o r th e glabrous “ M agnifolia” of Mr. Rowson), and th a t there can be no m istaking thestrong growing varieties of both sorts on thegrassland ; bu t th a t in come cases tru e “ Succcirubra” has been pointed out to him as “ Pubescens ” in the Naduvatam plantations and th e same m istake

he says seems to have occurred a t Darjeeling. There is evidently some confusion about the pubescent va­riety, and I fear th a t the officials do not always distinguish between some forms of “ Succirubra ” and “ Pubescens ” when growing in shola soil, and th a t awkward mistakes are liable to occur botli in the supply of seed and collection of bark. Mr. Cross also informs me th a t he found trees of this “ Pktk de G allinazo” in th e oldest plantations a t Naduvatam and th a t he has no doubt it was in tro ­duced here from the commencement, bu t th a t i t was not distinguished from “ S uccirubra” till i t grew up and flowered or till its robuster grow th became ap- a p ren t.

I forward w ith th is report carefully dried and mounted specimens of both “ Magnifolia ” and “ Pubes- ceus,” so I tru s t th a t they may be compared with typical specimens of the various species in the Kew Herbarium . I also forward specimens of all other species referred to in th is report for comparison, &c.

I examined the tw o trees in Dodabetta from which Narrainsawmy tells me the analysis of hybrid "Pubescens” is given in G .O., No. 1.336, dated 23rd June 1879 (Nos. 10, 11 and 12); they are both the glabrous variety that Mr. Bowson calls “ M agnifolia” and Mr. Cross styles “ Pkfa de Gallinazo.” The results from the three specimens sent vary much in the prccentuge of the different alkaloids, and also the variations w ith the samples sent from Naduvatam are considerable ; th is is not satisfactory, though there is proof th a t we have in th is p lant a very valuable species.

The Dodabetta Superintendent informs me th a t this tree suffers less from frost than the “ officinalis.”

Mr. Howard colls th is tree “ officinalis” var. “ Pubescens.” I t is in my opinion nearer “ succi­ru b ra ” than “ Pubescens” [Officinalis?—E d .] and it will be seen from some specimens that I for­ward th a t the leaves from shoots and suckers are nearly as large as those of “ succirubra,” though more lanceolate in shape and more pointed. No varieties of “ officinalis,” not even its largest leaved from “ U ritusinga,” over produce leaves nearly as large as this.

I much fear th a t in some cases seed of tru e “ Succi­rubra ” may have been forwarded from N aduvatam to Ceylon, Darjeeling or elsewhere instead of true “ Pubescens,” and th a t unfortunate mistakes may thereby arise.

I have had long talks w ith Mr. Cross about this tree, and we have examined m any together, and he now writes me : “ The circumstance th a t th is prolific and hardy sort has so long escaped notice, and the uncertainty th a t still exists as to which of the two sorts ( ‘ S ucc irub ra’ or the so-called ‘ Pubescens’) is the richest in alkaloids is much to be wondered a t .” I t is I now th in k all im portant th a t the doubts about i t should be cleared up and th a t we should have a careful analysis from a considerable number of both the glabrous and pubescens varieties.*

This species is very strong growing,and will cert­ainly yield far more bark in a given tim e than any o th e r ; i t will also, I th ink , prove to bo longer lived.

* N ote.—There is still some doubt as to “ M agni­folia ” and “ Pubescens ” being one and th e same species or ra ther slight variations of the same speci­es, though I myself fed fully convinced th a t they are. I trust, however, th a t the fact may be estab­lished from the dried specimens now forwarded. I t is a fact th a t it is Magnifolia (true) which gave the favourable analysis in G. 0 ., No. 1,336, of 23rd June 1879, as far as Dodabetta is concerned, w hilst i t is “ Pubescens ” th a t is being largely propagated a t Naduvatam. The Naduvatam analysis was from trees growing in Ossington which I have not seen, bu t Mr. Cross states they are “ Magnifolia.”

I t is of course, of comparatively little im portance w hether the so-called hybrid belongs to the red or crown bark species, so long as its grow th and yield of quinine are so exceptionally good as is now reported. Colonel Beddome afIer going over the N ilgiri and Cey­lon plantations speaks of i t as the “ Cinchona of the fu tu re,” and certainly if 7 per cent of quinine is a tta in ­able as in the case of the Agrakanda tree, and the trees prove hardier and of more rapid grow th th an the Calisayas, the precious Ledgeriana itself may Cud no mean rival in Pata de Gallinazo. The highest piice secured for “ P ubescens” bark of th is species from the Nilgiris was 7s 6d per lb, I t m ust not be forgotten, however, th a t the growth of Calisayas in several d istricts in Ceylon has been eminently sa tis­factory, as was shewn by Mr. J . A. Roberts of Pus- sellawa some tim e ago. The very successful experience of belts of blue gums on “ Lover’s L ea p ” cinchona estate nearN uw ara Eliya (noticed by Colonel Beddome) ought to be decisive. There are no failures and no canker visible on th is favoured property, we believe, and yet the soil was far from favourable to begin with. Messrs. Taylor and Scott—to whom the credit of the careful planting and the happy plan of belts one chain apart, trees 6 or 8 ? feet d istan t in the row, belongs—are inclined to th ink th a t the gums have not only sheltered the cinchonas, bu t have benefited the soil, more especially in w ithdraw ing superfluous moisture. We believe their experience points to th e wisdom of even closer planting of th e gums, say four feet opart in the rows. In reference to Mr. Cross’s “ P a ta de Gillinazo ” we may m ention th a t in a private le tte r received from M adras, from a reliable quarter, i t is stated th a t the latest analysis of th e “ n a tu ra l” bark of “ P ubescens” gives nearly 13 per cent of alkaloids, of which 7'07 is “ sulphate of quinine,” bu t th is is not so good as 6'77 pure quinine from the tree on Agrakanda. I t w ill be observed th a t Colonel Beddome’s visit to Ceylon has opened his eyes to the value of chemical analyses, and so th e M adras Government (on his recommendation) will no doub t a t once engage a successor to Mr. Broughton, w hile the Ceylon authorities w ithout any reference to ana­lyses, are getting out a trained cinchona cu ltivator in Mr. Nock, to take charge of the wretched neglected piece of waste ground and the p e tty nurseries know n as “ H akgala Gardens. ” Our nex t visitor in connection w ith cinchona cultivation will probably be Mr. Gammie of Sikhim. W riting 011 tb e 4 th in stan t th is gentle­man says :—

“ I cannot yet fix the date of my visit to Ceylon but hope to get away soon. W e have just got our bark boiling apparatus erected, and begin boiling a t once, and until everything is shown to be in fair working order I cannot think of applying for leave.”Mr. Gammie will deserve a hearty welcome here no t only for his intelligent and successful m anagement of the Northern Gardens, b u t also for his indefatigable efforts to manufacture on the spot a febrifuge suitable for use in India.

COLONEL BEDDOME’S R EPO RT ON T H E CEYLON CINCHONA PLANTATIONS.

Colonel R. H . Beddome, Conservator of Forests, has reported to th e Government, th a t he lately paid a short visit to Ceylon ill connection w ith Cinchona. H e says :—

Route Pursued. —I was only able to spare a fortnight,

so th a t my visit was ra ther hurried ; but I was able to see a good many estates a t different elevations and with different soils. I also obtained much information from Dr. Trimen, who accompanied me from Peradeniya through some of the estates in Kotmale and Dimbula as far as Nuwara Eliya, whence he was obliged to return. I afterwards visited the Government plantation and nursery at H akgala, estates about Nuwara Eliya, Kauda- polla and Uda Pussellawa and returned to Peradeniya through some of the estates in th e Ramboda and Pussel­lawa districts.

The Pata.—I was much interested to find the “ Pata de gallinazo” of Mr. Cross, the species hitherto known here as “ Magnifolia,” .about which I have w ritten so much, widely distributed in the island, chiefly amongst th e “ Succirubra ” tvees, between 3,000 and 5,000 feet elevation and m aintaining its uniform character and strong rapid growth. This species is in Ceylon generally known as “ H ybrid” though it has other names, and is sometimes called “ Condaminea.” Most planters appeared easily to recognize all their different individuils of i t as one and the same plant, and always spoke of them as their “ hybrids,” bu t were delighted a t a reaction against the hybrid theory, and to th in k it a distinct species which could be propagated from seed, as many of them th in k w ith me th a t i t is prob­ably within certain elevations, the chinchona of the future. Some planters were inclined to look upon e:.cli individual tree of this as a separate hybrid, ;.nd all dis­tin c t one from the oth<r, though almost uniform in ap­pearance. In one estate in Lindula, known as Agra- kanda, I found that the analysis of tbe bark of three different trees of th is “ P a ta ” had been reported on by Mr. Howard. I t was as follows ;—

No. Q uinine. Chinchonidine. Q uinidine. Chinchonine.IV . 6*77 1*84 trace trace.V . 3*66 4*06 do. do,

A ll. 4*08 2*84 do. do.

These were all large, strong, healthy trees. No. V II. the largest, was a little over 29 feet high and 2 feet iu girth, breast high. I do not th ink correct data as to age was available, but they appeared to be n< t less than 10 years. This analysis is most interesting, as showing what a very large percentage in quinine some of this species can give, and also as showing how variable the yield is from different individuals ; which is, as far as I can see, equally the case with all the other species of tbe genus. I found Dr. Trimen exceedingly interested in this species, and he had been cautioning the planters against th e hybrid theory. I believe th a t he is now fully convinced th a t i t is a perfectly distinct species and an undescribed one ; and he intends, I believe, to discribe and figure i t in bis Journal of Botany.

Pubescens.— I also saw trees of our “ Pubescens ” (or the downy variety of the “ P a ta ” ) p irticu b rly in Pussellawa, bu t they do not appear so abundant as the glabrous species.

Bed Bark.—The growth of “ succirubra” is exceed- ingly good in many parts th a t I visited, and I often saw i t growing well in deserted coffee where th e soil m vst have terribly deteriorated. I f all old deserted coffve plantations can be planted up w ith “ succirubra” i t will be a great thing for both Ind ia and Ceylon ; except a t the lower elevations, however, the “ P a ta ” grows even be tte r than th e “ succirubra,” and is the tree to p lant a t any ra te anywhere above 4,000 feet.

Crown B ark ,—I was not fortunate in seeing any good “ officinalis” plantations of any age or size. I was not however able to go to H aputale or Uva, the two best dis­tricts, I believe, as far as soils and climate go. I saw both a t Nuwara Eliya and in Kandapolla, and elsewhere large plantations of “ officinalis” of very young growth look­ing exceedingly healthy (when sufficiently protected by an eastern exposure) bu t the soil everywhere is much

inferior to what we have on the Nilgiris, often very shallow or w ith a clayey sub soil which induces early decay, chiefly from canker, and the planters do not look to longevity for “ officinalis” in these soils, but they uproot a t 4 or 5 years of age and replant. W e have nothing of th is sort in India, and I trn s t if- m ay never be necessary, bu t the whole conditions <f soil and climate are different. We have not planted any trac ts with a sub-soil <f impervious clay, and we have a period of drought which. I th ink , will tu rn out to be beneficial to “ officinalis” (though probably no t for some other species) and antagonistic to canker; w hilst in Ceylon, iu addition to a very heavy monsoon w ith often no sunshine for very long periods, they have rain all the year round, which induces early m at­u rity and the too early flow* ring of the trees, So profitable is th e crown bark a t present prices that, even in face of th is early m aturity and early decay, th e planters are m aking laree profits. On one estate which I visited on upper Ramboda, called Frofcoft, 45 acres of “ officinalis” had been uprooted a t years of age, and the trees had yielded 25 tons of dry 1 ark which was sold a t 4?. per lb. (= £11 ,200 ', and it was said th a t Is. per lb. would even have paid. There is, of course, much doubt how often soils like this can be replanted ; bu t uprooting in th is case was imperative, as the trees were all beginnirg to go out even a t th is <arly age from caoktr, and th is is said to be generally the case, and th a t cop­picing even cannot be resorted to, as i t is generally the root canker. 1 was even told in several estates th a t whole nurseries had gone out from this cause. This must, I thiuk , be simply the damping or rotting off of the roots of the seedlings from tbe use of too rich or damp soil in the beds and the want of silver sand. On another estate called Lool Condura (in the same vicinity), which I did not visit, I heard that two crops had. already been taken off by the same m ethod of uprooting, w ith very favourable results financially, and th a t the estate had been planted up a th ird time. All these estates are considerably below5,000 feet and consequently a t an elevation much below w hat we grow “ ffficinalis ” at, and th is early decay may possibly be averted a t the higher eleva­tions about Nuwara Eliya, &e ; the growth there is all very young a t present. On one estate called, I thii-b, Thallipody* not far from Nuw ara Eliya, I found th a t all the “ officinalis” trees had been shaved (Java m ethod) before they were barely three years old ! The proceeds, wete said to have cleared the estate of all expenditure, and the trees, small as they were, were certainly nearly all renewing their bark ! In another estate in this locality I saw “ officinalis” w lrch had been pu t down as close as 2£x2£ , growing very well. However, there is an opinion amongst some of the planters th a t close planting can be overdone and so cause unhealthy growth from an early age th a t may not be easily rectified by subsequent th in n in g ; i t is a question on which actual experience 's m ' ch requited.

Belts o f Trees as Br^ak winds,—Near Nuwara Eliya, I saw an “ Officinalis ” p lantation in a high, bleak- exposed situation, which was exceedingly interesting on account of the system atic way in which belts of Eucalyptus globulus had been planted as a brenk-wind. A t a chain apart, throughout the plantatioi s, single rows of these trees, each tree a t 6 feet apart, had been pu t down a t tbe same tim e as the chinchona; they had been topped when young, and grown out w ith a bushy habit, and the Cinchona was growing, com­paratively, exceedingly well, where there could have been nothing bu t most wretchedly-stunted growth w ithout th is prot( ction. I th in k th is plan can with great advantage be introduced into several portions of our p lantation on Dodabetta and a t Naduvatam and

* Tullibody !— E d ,

Pykara, and I would draw the attention of chinchona planters generally to the great importance and value of these or similar bveak-winds, and I know of no tree th a t would answer bette r than the Bluegums at high elevations.

Calisaya.—I had ro opportunity of seeing any good plantations of calisaya such as, I believe, exist in Maskeliya and other parts of the island which I had no t time to visit However, I saw some fin# trees mixed with other chinchonas and coffee in different estates a t low elevations Considering the fine ap ­pearance and growth of one th a t I saw growing on the estate called Agrakanda in Lindula (about 4,000 feet), I th ink it probable th a t finer calisaya will be grown in Ceylon than in India, and th a t with this species the moist climate of the island has the advantage against our droughts ; bu t I have had very little experi­ence with calisaya. 1 he analysis of this tree by Mr. Howard h id given 5'65 p< r cent of quinine, 1 22 of chinchonidine, 44 of chinchonine and only a trnce of quinidine. Two miles from Kuwara Eliya, a t the head of the Bomb- da pass, I saw a m ost re ­mark; bie plantation of w liat were called “ hybrid calisaya.” The d e ra tio n is too high, I should think for the species being ab o u t 6,000 feet, and the trees are all quite shiubs, 4 to 6 feet high, densely branched iroin 'h e base. The p lan ta t on is, however, look' d upon as one of great value by some experienced planters. I reeogniz-d our var. Javaniea, bu t there were quite a crowd of other forms th a t I have not seen in our plantations (we probably had some of them and they have died out) and which would completely puzzle any botanist. I t is quite possible th a t we have here only a single species, a very protean one, producing all these varieties from the same seed, bu t i t is, 1 think, more likely th a t there are many really different speci s mixed, species which have not as yet been worked out by a b o ta n is t; e ither of these views are, I think, preferable to the hybrid theory. On the subject of classification Dr. Trimen has w ritten the following valuable remarks {vide Mr. Owen’s “ Chin­chona P lan ter’s Manual ”):—

“ The genus circhona presents us with a very well- m arked and striking instance of a clearly defined n a tu rd group, in which the individuals composing it, instead of as usual being w ith more or less facility thrown into different sets m arked out by clear dis­tinctive characters, (and thus forming the 6 species ’ of the naturalist) offer themselves as a crowd of forms closely connected in different directions, but showing only trifling modifications of structure of a sort usually regarded as of bu t little system atic value. Such general are not very uncommon and the botanist of Europe is bu t too familiar w ith cases in Salix (willows), Liibus (blackberries) and Hot a ^wild roses).

‘ ‘ 'i his state of things is natural and has not arisen under cultivation. In ‘ chinchona,’ the great majority of the described forms have been found in the Andes themselves, where the g< nus has a range of over 2,000 miles from north to south, and a t altitudes from 2,000 — 11.000 feet, bu t chiefly between 5,000 and 8,000 feet. I t would appear th a t every d istric t of this extensive area Ins its own peculiar chinchonas, and very few species are known to range widely through i t ; none to occur throughout. A very similar statem ent m ight be made w ith regard to the fruticoee Jfubi in Europe.”

Real’y careful experiments w ith the seed of each marked variety or species would be exceedingly in­teresting and would probably clear up the doubt whether they are distinct species or all forms of one very protean species ; but if the latter be proved to be the case, the botanist will have a most difficult task in the classification of the genus. Analysis is all im portant in a plantation of this sort, if profit is to be looked to, and the same may be said of the ordin­ary form of Galisaya or of Javaniea or any other

of its forms, as i t has been proved th a t forms appar­ently quite similar in every way may in some ind i­viduals be very rich in quinine and in others have no trace of it. The planter has therefore to be cau­tioned against any indiscriminate grow th of “ Yellow b a rk s” a t this stage of our knowledge, as not only is this an established fact, bu t we a t present know little about the elevation or climate adapted for th ise species.

Ledgeriana.—Dr. Trim en informs me th a t both he and Mr. Moens of Java consider this species as quite a d istinct one and not as h itherto supposed only a variety of “ calisaya.” and th a t he has lately de­scribed it as such in his “ Journal of B otany.” He also pointed out to me th a t the flower pedicels always have a drooping habit not seen in “ calisaya,” and th a t the flower buds w ant the knob-like apex charac­teristic of “ calisaya.”

The enormous profits of the Ledgeriana plantation in Java under Mr. Moens, and the visit last year of th a t gentleman to Ceylon, have given a great im ­petus to the planting of this species in Ceylon. I had not an opportunity of seeing the best or oldest grown in Ceylon, bu t I saw some large trees m any of young growth, and also experim ents with Mr. Moens’ sys­tem of grafting th is species on “ succirubra.’ I, how­ever, learnt th a t no analysis of this bark in Ceylon could- in any way be compared w ith th a t in Java, and i t is prob able th a t the deep, rich, volcanic soil in the la tte r place is the real cause of the wonderful results. Mr. Moens has obtained as much as 13 per cent, of pure quinine from one tree of this species, and Dr. Trim en tells me th a t he (Mr. Moens) destroys all trees which on an a ­lysis do not give a very high yield, and th a t he grafts from the richest on to “ succirubra,” and th a t he has a small area of these grafts which are giving most surprizing results and astonishing every one. Dr. T ri­men also informed me th a t th is grafting on “ succi­rub ra” was resorted to, owfing to the great difficulty of propagating th is species by cuttings ; but Mr. G rant in the Ouchterlony Valley (I was over his establish­m ent lately) has been most successful with cuttings under glass with bottom heat, scarcely having a fail­ure, so I cannot, I confess, see the advantage of the grafting, if cuttings can be grown easily in India, and I believe not only Mr. G rant bu t also Captain Cox has had no difficulty ; th e grafting process besides could hardly be resorted to for large areas. I t is, however, im portant I th in k th a t we should have some experiments on this plan, when we open ground for “ calisaya” and “ Ledgers” a t a lower elevation. M r. Moens’ plan is described as follows in the Chinchona M anual above referred to :—

“ This system has been largely pursued by Mr. Moens in Java for the m ultiplication of Ledgerianas, with great success. For a description of the m ethod we are indebted to ‘ V iator’ and Mr. Kay-Shuttle- w ortk wffio visited Java and there saw th e operation performed. Succirubra being the commonest and most rapid-growing cinchona is chosen for the stock succirubra plants about a year old are chosen, and to economise space are stum ped a t a point six or eight inches above the soil. This is done ju st above a jo in t. A flat cu t is then made in the stem under the bark which is not removed sufficiently deep to make a surface large enough to allow a ledgeriana shoot (cut through diagonally, the cut being one to one and-a-half inches long) to fit cambium to cambium to the succirubra, the bark of the succirubra overlying the cut being left intact. The ledgeriana shoot m ust be cut ju st where the hard m ature wrood ends and where the branch begins to be tender and succulent from the newness of its growth. I t is then fitted carefully into the cut in the succirubra stem, the flap of bark pu t over i t and the whole bound firmly w ith Berlin wool. String pulled out of an ordinary sack will

do almost equally well. The operation is simpler, if the succirubra has a double stem, one of which is then cut off diagonally a t the fork, leaving a flap of bark a t th e upper end of the cut. The ledgeriana shoot is then cut, so th a t it shall correspond in shape and size with the cut sur­face of the succirubra. but a flap of bark is left hanging from its lower end. The two cut surfaces are then fitted together, the flap of ledger bark overlying th e succi­rubra stem and the flap in th e succirubra over- lying th e Ledger cutting , and 1 hus giving a b e tte r hold to th e binding. The pots which contain th e grafted plants are then laid on th e ir sides g raft uppermost, iu propagating frames and k ep t u n 'i l th e bark begins to unite and new leaves to show, when they are placed upright. The succirubra is cut off ju s t above the g ra ft as soon as th e plants are fairly united and there is no fear of th is fu rther m utilation of the tree injuring the young graft the bandage being removed a t th e same time. Four weeks is the time that generally elapses before this can be done. I t has been proved th a t a good graft grows faster th an an original Ledgeriana tree, and th a t th e qualities of the stock never in the sligh t­est degree affect the tree i t bears. A skilled laborer can graft from 200 to 250 Ledger cuttings on succi­rubra stems every day and ihe operation is therefore evidently not a very expensive one. There can be no dout as to ils advisability in all cases where individual trees of special value are to be propagated from .”

Crispa.—I saw abundance of w hat Dr. Trim en calls the “ Crispa variety of officinalis,” and it is th e same as we have abundantly represented in th e Dodabetta plantations not differing from ordinary “ officinalis” except in its ra ther smaller leaves and often running into the ordinary form so as no t to be distinguishable.

Uritusinga.—I saw no “ U ritusinga ” in Ceylon amongst the older Crown barks, and I am unable to distinguish th is variety7 from “ Officinalis ” when they are young.

Hackgalle Government Gardens.—As a cinchona plantation these have been u tte rly neglected. The older trees have alm ost all died out, or been cut down and the coppice not attended to ; they were scarcely worth a v is it; there were, however, numerous nurseries for seedlings of various kinds.

Grass Land .—I saw scarcely any grass land p lant­ing. Unlike the Nilgiris, where nearly all the grass land rejoices in an open and gravelly soil, the grass land (or pa'anas, as they are called) in the Central Provinces have generally a black peaty soil quite un ­fit for the growth of chinchona, and sim ilar to what we have in swampy ravines only. I daresay there may be suitable grass-land soils in parts that I did not visit, but I only saw some small patches; but in these “ officinalis” was growing well where planted, but it was quite young.

Importance o f Analysis.—My visit to Ceylon and the advantages I have had of discussing m atters with Dr. Trimen, and also of hearing Mr. Moons’ views through Dr. Trimen, has made me alter my opinions very much w ith reference to the value of analysis, and I th ink it now all-im portant th a t very great attention should be paid to th is subject in our plantations, partic­ularly with reference to “ officinalis" and the “ P a ta” (Magnifolia), individuals of which have been proved to differ so one from another in th e ir yield of quinine. W e should find out the individuals which give the richest yield and propagate largely from these, and these only, both as to seed and cuttings, continuing the ex­periment through several generations. Though th e ex­periments m ight not be altogether satisfactory a t first, and though we m ight find th a t th e seed and even the cuttings of the richest yielders m ight often give very varied results when planted out ever large areas, I feel sure experiments of th is sort m ust be in th e righ t di­rection, and if persevered in, would ultim ately give very good or even startling results, as with Mr. Moens,

150

I and we should then be able to d istribute the very best (and only the very best) seed and rooted cuttings to the public. This, however, can never be carried ou t satis ­factorily ui less we have a qualified Chemical Analyser for our plantations as well as a thoroughly practical gardener, but surely in a question of such importance the expense should no t be considered or allowed to interfere.

Chinchona Planter’s M anna1. —A most excellent little Manual has ju st been published in Ceylon a t the Observer Office by Mr. T. C. Owen. I t treats most fully upon all subjects connected with chinchona planting, planting, and has evidently been most carefully com­piled from all the books, pamphlets and reports on the subject in th is and other countries, and from much personal observation. I t is ju s t the book required by the officers in charge of our plantations, and not knowing th a t anything of th e sort was likely7 to be published, I had intended, as already reported, drawing up a somewhat similar though much briefer pamphlet, after I had bad th e advantage of some further experience outside our own lim ited area; this, however, will now be unnecessary. I hope th a t Governm ent will tak e a certain num ber of copies of th is Manual, and th a t the Nilgiri Cinchona office may be supplied with 25 copies.

T H E FU T U R E OF QU ININE.(Communicated.)

Quinine is not so low as quoted by you the other day, bu t i t is true th a t one contract was en 'ered into as low as a t 7s 6d per oz. Im m ediately after, however, the price rose again to 8s.

The present low price though injurious to the few who may have bark cu t and ready for the market, is u n ­doubtedly to the advantage of everyone in te rss tid in cinchona, and who can w ait for a year before cutting, as by th a t time the m arket will have doubtless re­covered, and, as most of the cinchona in Ceylon is a t a stage which will not admit of its being out for the nex t year or two, the present fall may be con­sidered for the general good.

Those who know the trad e best are very confident of the great increase in consumption which th e pre­sent prices will bring about, and th a t the use of quinine once taken up becomes a necessity and is never abandoned ; so th a t consumption becomes per­m anently increased, even though prices should re ­tu rn to the old level. I t was a t about 5s fid per oz. th a t quinine came into general use, and none of the ground gained a t th a t low figure was lost when it reached 12s fid per oz.

These are reasons why the fall is particularly op portune a t the present time, checking, as i t will, if not entirely stopping, th e shipm ents of Cuprean bark which are now flooding the London m arket, and may be considered the prim ary cause of the depression. This Cuprean bark is brought to port a t great cost and i t was questionable whether even a t late prices i t would prove profitable to exporters. Besides check­ing the development of this new bark, all the inferior qualities of South American will now cease to be shipped and another gain will be the check which the m anufacture and use of quinetum and other mixtures of the lower alkaloids will receive, which, i t was feared, m ight in tim e becomes serious opponents of quinine.

I t is interesting to notice, in connection w ith this question, th a t barks have not fallen proportionately w ith quinine : vide th e prices obta'ned for th e parcels of Abbotsford bark a t the last sales, and th is may be accounted for by th e fact th a t a large quantity of bark now goes direct to th e continent, being bought in Colombo and elsewhere by the agents of the continental manufacturers, and thereby a great saving in freight

charges &c. is effected by the la tter. The plan they were formerly obliged to follow in buying in the London m arket did not give them a chance to com­pete w ith the English manufaturer, and the result is a reduction in the price of quinine, and profit of the English maker w ithout a fuliy corresponding reduction bark in the value of bark.

I t is not, perhaps, generally known that, when Messrs. Howard h Sons enter into contracts to d d iv 'r quinine a t a certain rate , they reduce the ra te a t tim e of delivery, if in the m eantime the m arket has favored them, bu t should the m arket have gone against them, they prom ptly deliver a t the contract rate. I t is evident th a t such a magnanimous system of business could only be carried out where profits were very large, and this again accounts for the price of ba’-k not falling proportionately with quinine.

I t is evident that low prices mean increased c nsutnption, vhicli \\ ill not only be a remedy to their cause, but, by m aking the present m anufac­turer increase and improve his p lan t to meet the add ional business, and by bringing new makers into the field, it will tend to reduce the cost of manufacture and increase competition to the manifest advantage of the raw m aterial.

A t first sight, i t would appear th a t all cinchona pro­perty "is reduced in value relatively with the fall in value of bark, bu t it must he borne in mind th a t this fall was anticipated, and has been calculated for in valua­tions and estimates made in connection w ith plantations and we suppose in no valuation has the full late market value been calculated upon. Taking th is view of the case, cinchona planters have ra th e r to rejoice a t the expected fall having come in time to increase consumption and improve th e general stability of the m arket, before the vast bulk of the Ceylon bark is ready to be placed upon it. Our aim should be the cultivation of barks containing upwrnrds of 2 p e rcen t of quinine i.e. officinalis and calisaya as these will suf­fer least from low prices. W ith succirubra we should recommend renewing under moss &c., to raise the percentage of quinine.

“ FROM ADAM’S PE A K TO M IN NESOTA."

E xtracts from the le tte r of an ex-planter to a friend in Ceylon :—

Heron Lake, Jackson County, Minnesota, U.S.A.,September 27th.

I was awfully glad to receive the Observer, which I knew came from you by th e well-known hand­writing. I thought of sending the copy of the Observer to our local paper anonymously, bu t do not dare, as they would recognize it. They had an article a short time ago ava’nst me for writing against their roads which we have=to put in a day’s work a t, with a team, as poll- tax. Their method is rotten and you just “ h itch u p " and plough a burrow anywhere i t suits you best, and nobody thinks of doing anything. I wrote and told them I should work my tax out on such a day and proposed bringing a pack of cards with me and requested the pleasure of all true lovers of euchre to join me, as it was so horribly dull having to pass all day there doing nothing. They term ed the whole le tter as “ unfriendly, maliciously satirical and a production of trenchant wit,” m u 'h to my own amuse­ment. Since writing to you I have cu t ------& Co.’sestablishm ent and taken a section of land (640 acres) about 4 mile out of town, w ith 230 in grain, a nice house, barn, and granary ; the wheat, of which I had 75 acres, was as usual a signal failure, on account of w et weather. My flax, however, of which there is about 120 acres, paid me well, and I was luckier than my neighbours w ith regard to my oats, and notw ithstand­ing rain for live months, almost w ithout intermission,

I shall get 10 per cent on th e capital invested, and ex- p r ie n c e th a t grain-raising alone in th is locality is not so paying as “ mixed farm ing.” I have been joined by a very nice fellow from home, and we in tend buying sheep extensively, and also raising stock, colts, and hogs. A businc-s which pays hand over fist here is hay pressing. A machine costs about £300, you buy hay (prairie grass) for $2 per ton, press it, and ship to St. Pau l’s, Minneapolis and Chicago, and m ake a clear profit of from $5'75 to $6 per ton. This line is a t present monopolized by an American in this village, who has mortgages on p re tty well every­thing belonging to the small farmers, and so has th e whip-hand, bu t I am feeling my way around, and, as the country gets settled up w ith Englishmen, I shall probably go in for i t myself. U pland grass averages from 1.J to 2 tons per acre, while bottom land hay varies from 34 to 5. W ith hired labor i t costs about 80 cents to 85 cents to put up. Sheep cost about §2 in the fall (au! umn). They live on hay and in w inter on J p in t of Indian corn per day. You then have the dips of 6 lb. per head a t 25 c. per lb. and sell as fattened stock for $5'50 and may allow 75 per cent of lambs. I th in k you will allow th a t this is a p re tty paying investm ent. The tip for stock is to buy calves (six m onths old) in fall for §5, keep them through the winter and spring, and in summer you get $15 as fattened cattle. Hog-raising is a very paying spec­ulation, bu t I have no reliable estim ate to quote. I should advise fellows w ith £1,000 or so, to buy half section, p u t in enough corn and oats for sheep and horses, 10 acres wheat fur home consumption, and the rest of their funds into sheep, which give a quicker re tu rn than cattle, for which you m ust w ait till you can get them into a favourable m arket, whereas th e sheep give you an income from their clip-, and you can also afford to w ait un til you th in k proper to sell. Raising colts requires great experience, and I only do it in the sm allest way, such as having eight mares instead of horses, which are requisite for cultivation. Down south in Kansas, there is a lo t of money to be made in stock, but you have to live in a “ dugout” (a hole iu a river bank), and are sure to die of fever, so I prefer m aking a little less in these healthy and more civilized parts.

I often think of the old days in Ceylon, and have a heap of your old letters w ith me, which I of'en look over, and pick up some good tips in buildings. I have had a lo t of shooting lately. Duck, geese, prairie chickens (partridge) and snipe swarm, and you can feed yourself from them , bu t one gets to hate the sight of a bird, especially as cooking is not their forte in th is land, the great object apparently being to cook the meal in ten minutes and to eat in five.

T H E LANKA (CEYLON) COFFEE COM PANY.W e have been favoured w ith the R eport and

Balance-sheet of this Company for the half-year end­ing 30th June l is t, and we th in k th e perusal of these documents is calculated to re-assure a good m any who are inclined to criticise ra th e r harshly th e local planting enterprise. If i t had no t been for th e ex­penses incidental to th e starting of a new enterprise, the profit available for division would have been a good deal larger than i t is, for we observe th a t th e gross grain on the th ree estates Rappahanock, Am- pitiyahande andArnhall amounts to£10,255,theproperties having cost £67,500, a sufficient proof surely to any unprejudiced mind, th a t coffee can still be profitably cultivated in Ceylon. W e th in k the R eport and Balance- sheet give a clear statem ent of th e actual position,

J a n u a r y 2, 1 8 8 2 ] THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. ...

599

chewing the net profit realized from each estate separ­ately , so th a t no one can accuse the Lanka D irect­ors of paying dividends out of capital. The Deport is as follows :—

Thf. L a n k a P l a n t a t io n s C o m p a n y , L i m i t e d . — Re­p o rt to be presented a t th e first ordinary general meeting of the Lanka Plantations Company, Limited, to be held a t the offices of the Company, on T hurs­day, the 10th day of November 1881 :—The directors beg to subm it their report for the fifteen m onths from th e formation of the Company to the 80th June last, together w ith th e balance sheet, as audited, showing th e financial position of the Company, the profit and loss account, and a crop account or statem ent of tbe working of the three estates, which during th a t period were in the po session of the Company. The balance of the profit and loss account is £6,692 10s 4d, out of which sum there was paid, prior to 30th June, £1,994 8s l i d for two interim dividends a t the rate of 8 per cent per annum, and for in terest on monies paid in anticipation of calls, reducing the £6,692 10s 4d to £4,698 15s Od. Since the 30th June, £364 0s 2d has been paid for 6 m onths’ in terest to th a t date on monies received in anticipation and advance of calls, and £2,848 17s 6d has been distributed in a th ird interim dividend a t the ra te of 8 per cent per annum on the capital called up and paid, leaving the sum of £1,485 3s 9d, which the directors propose to carry forward to the new profit and loss account. The average price obtained for the coffee has been below the average of previous years, and the small quantity of cinchona which came forward was sent only to test its m arket value nevertheless the net profits have been equal to 10J per cent. The Company is now in pos­session of seven well selected estates, and it is be­lieved th a t as these properties are in different dis­tric ts, a good average yearly profit for working opera­tions will be attained, which the directors do not doubt will prove sufficient to ensure the paym ent of regular, and satisfactory dividends.

Name. D istrict.% §

o s

- i l

Patn

a an

d C

heua

.Fo

rest

an

d

Tota

l A

cre­

age. Cost.

Rappahannock Udapussellawn 360 86 14 460£ s.

22,862 7d.3

A rnhall H aputale 4Ut 50* 15 473| 18,521 6 9R illam alle M aturata 199 14 34 V 560 8,408 14 8Am pitiynkande H aputale 327 3 38 368 26,225 5 0G onagalla Dikoya 183 3

20186 1 28,561 12Fordyce do 434 454 J

T hotulagala ... H aputale 40J- 137 540 33,000 0 0F ru it H ill ... Dikoya 227 — — 227 10,000 0 0

2541

j

434 3,268§ 147,579 6 4

In addition to the foregoing, the purchase of a small property (155 acres) is contem plated, as i t adjoins one of the estates belonging to th e Company. The reports recently received relative to the c m dition of the es­tates are generally satisfactory, and the manager has been authorised to bring them into as high a sta te of cultivation as is consistent w ith true economy, and so to m aintain them . The expenditure during the next two years may therely be somewhat above the average, bu t in the opinion of experienced advisers such an outlay will be judicious, and, with favorable seasons, will certainly be productive of commensurate returns. I t will be seen by the preceding statem ent of estates purchased, th a t the to ta l cost of properties acquired has been nearly equal to the nominal capital of the Company. In some instances the purchases w ere made subject to existing mortgages, and to the am ount of £25,666 13s 4d the mortgages have not been discharged. In two cases the mortgagees have

consented to accept 6 per cent in terest from th e Company, and it is not propo-ed to pay those m ort­gages off. The o ther charges, wich amount to £10,666 13s 41, will, unless 6 per cent in terest be also ac­cepted, be paid off a t their due rate, and to provide the requisite amount a call w ill be made.

From the Balance-sheet, we take the crop account which shews the profit on each estate :—

c h o p a c c o u n t , 1880-81.

Labour and other expense^incurrec a t the estates .. Curing and Ship­

p ing C harges.. F re ig h t, Dock Charges, Brokers Commission, &c

Insurance

: Rappalian- A m pittia-knnde.

A rnhall. Total.

, £ s. d. ] 6,191 18 11

j 577 15 10

j 1,036 7 7 : 157 7 10

£ s. d. 3,494 3 6

270 19 7

317 16 2 71 14 9

, £ s d 2,496 1 2

189 7 7

289 10 1 54 11 2

£ s. d. 12,182 3 7

1,038 3 0

1,643 13 10 283 13 9

Balance carried tc Profit and Los Account

Proceeds of cof­fee sold in Lon-

Do. of refuse coffee, &c\, sold in Ceylon

V alue of coffee (crop 1880-81) no t yet realised

I 7,963 10 2

3,959 3

4,154 14 0

5,391 0 10

3,029 10 0

902 11 0

;i5,147 14 2

10,255 14 11

11,922 13 3 9,548 14 10 3,932 1 0 25,403 9 1

R a p pa h a n - A m p it t ia - Ar n h a l l . Tota l .

£ s. d. 11,653 19 11

24 3 4

£ 8. d. 4,411 13 1

22 14 3

£ s. d. 3,793 16 6

44 17 0

£ s. d. 19,859 9 6

91 14 7

11,678 3 3

244 10 0

4,434 7 4

5,114 7 6

3,838 13 C

93 7 6

19,951 4 1

5,452 5 0

11,922 13 3 9,548 14 10 3,932 1 C 25,403 9 1

W e may, therefore, well congratulate the shareholders of ihis Company on the good business done for them in Ceylon by their D irectors, Agents and Manager.

COFFEE PLA N TER S AND T H E IR CRITICS.W ith reference to the le tter of “ Post Tenebras

L u x ” on page 605 we may rem ind the w riter th a t Dr. Trim en and Mr. M arshall W ard have said their “ say ,” and we doubt if they have “ more last words ” to u tt» r conveying knowledge beyond the existing ken of intelligent and experienced planters. A special question has been dealt w ith by specialists—Thwaites, Morris, W ard, Trimen, and others. The disease has been diagnosed aud pronounced not to be constitu ­tional, but due to an insidious external agency, as difficult to destroy as th e m ythical personage who derived fresh strength from every fall on m other earth. For long-continued years the coffee trees were forced into heavy bearing by sharp pruning, bu t retribution did not take the form of a leaf fungus. Hemileia vastatrix resembles th e w in d : its effects we know ; bu t the laws which govern its coming and going, we, as yet, know not. We have seen its coming, watched its existence w ith an interest the reverse of benevolent, and, with Irish vision, we hope to see i t go out of sight. Meantime, i t seems th a t crying further to Hercules for help will be of little use. P lanters must pu t th e ir own shoulders to th e wheel. Many of them are or ought to be men of science, know ­

ing thoroughly the main principles of the pursuit to which they have devoted their lives. If the external affection could be killed or kept from their trees, they know th a t health would be restored to the l itter. B ut if the fungus can neither be killed nor kep t away, then practical science as well as theoretical dictates such treatm ent as will best support the trees under de­bilitating attacks. Judicious and discrim inating man­uring and pruning are the p lan ter’s chief remedies, and science has no others to offer. Except in the covering of large spaces with one product, and, in some cases, planting up inferior soil, we cannot feel th a t planters have shewn ignorance or deserve blame.

CINCHONA ROBUSTA OR M cIVOR’S “ HY BRID ."

W e lose no tim e in giving a place to Dr. Trim en’s comments on Colonel Beddome’s Report, and it is w ith a feeling of relief th a t we find our experienced Director and Botanist denying “ the soft impeachment ” th a t he had, equally with the Colonel, condemned th e application of “ hybrid ” to the fast-growing, large- leaved and robust cinchona so long associated w ith M clvor’s name. A fter th e explicit statem ents made by th a t veteran horticulturist as to hybridizing and the result in th is p lant which combined the good qualities of both officinalis and succirubra, i t was w ith considerable surprize we read the following rem arks in Colonel Beddome’s R eport on the Nilgirie plantations in addition to those we prin ted the o ther day :—

Hybrids—I am inclined to disbelieve in any hybrid of Nilgiri origin; it lias been stated that there are many hybrids amongst the “ Officinalis ” and “ Calisaya ” trees, but after most careful examination I can stfe no indica­tion of such, nor have any of our *rces the characteristics of hybrids, which I am snre would not se- d so prolifically; individual twigs may be gathered from many Officinalis” trees and also from “ Calisaya” showing great difference in the shape and size of the leaves, but the same differ­ence may be found on one and the same tree, and often on the same bough. We have varieties or sports of species, such as 11 Uritusinga ” and u Angustifolia.” varieties or sports of “ Officinalis,” sometimes looking very distinct but a t other times running into the type and not to be distinguished; but of hjbrids between distinct species I do not think we have any.

Hybridizing experiments.—Though I do not believe in accidental hybrids between different species on the N il- giris, I have no doubt that the different species could be crossed. I am not inclined, however, to recommend any experiments of this nature, as it would be use­less to attempt it without the services of a scientific gardener, thoroughly trained in the art of hybridizing, such as Mr. Dominey or Mr. Seden on the establishments of Messrs. Bull and Veitch, and such a man could only be pro­cured on a very high salary, and other expenses connected with any experiments of this nature would be very costly. The experiments would be exceedingly interesting and of great scientific value, hut practically perhaps of no value. We have now in cultivation all the finest-known species of the genus, and it is not likely that hybridizing would improve the bark, or give us anything better than, or as good as, we now possesss; so that we might be spending large sums to get some variations in leaf and flower, or perhaps in some cases sturdier growth.

From a W allaha correspondent we first received the news th a t Dr. Trimen agreed w ith Col. Beddome th a t there were no hybrids, and since then we have had no light un til the D irector’s letter came to hand today. After its persual, we think few of our readers will have any doubt th a t Trimen, M clvor and Howard

are right, and Beddome and Cross m istaken, in the view they have taken of both the pubescens and smooth-leaved, robust cinchona trees—the “ cinchona of th e future ” as some th in k —which are to be found freely scattered throughout th e Ceylon and Nilgiria plantations.

COFFEE CULTURE.We call attention to the letter of Mr. John Hamilton

on page 607. On the supposition, which we suspect many will deny, that General Maitland Showers’ pre­mises are correct, the important question arises whether ageratum, is left to its own sweet will for months, at certain seasons of the year, would not flower and seed, and so infect not only the adjoining coffee on the same estate but that on neighbouring estates. Looking at the mode of culture pursued in India and Java, many a Ceylon planter might feel inclined to let weeds grow. But he has to consult the wishes of neighbours who may not agree with him. How is the difficulty to be got over? On Kandanuwara estate, the sweeping of leaves and weeding were combined. Is it so still, and what are the results?

BOTANICAL GARDENS IN INDIA.

The Times o f India has a very good article on Botan­ical Gardens in India, and their functions, from which we quote as follows:—

A botanical garden ought not to be a mere pleasure- ground—it ought not to be a mere living museum of the various forms of vegetation; but it should he the model for all private establishments; it should aid them in every­thing that is useful in the vegetable kingdom. A Go­vernment botanical garden ought to grow every plant which is to known to have any useful application, and these ought to be distributed at a small charge to those who want them. We do not want our superintendents of bot­anic gardens to be mere market-gardeners, for, we be­lieve that the truest and surest foundation of economic botany lies in pure botany, and that the vegetable pro­ducts of a country can never be to their fullest extent utilised without the aid of scientific knowledge as a guide. But we think the principle needs enforcement that our Government gardens ought not to sacrifice economic botany for pure botany, but it also contains objects of purely scientific interest. Kew attempts to give an illustration of every possible use to which vegetable products can be ap­plied. The gardens a t Kew have done a grand work in plant distribution in all parts of the world.Our readers will agree with the sentiment while they

sympathize with the writer of the article in being made by the printers to say :—

W hat it has done in such matters as cinchona, eaou- tclieric, Siberian coffee is well known.Coffee has a pretty wide range on each side of the equator, and in favoured positions it flourishes even somewhat outside the tropics. But certainly the latitude of Siberia would not suit it, although Liberian coffee seems destined to be printed “ Siberian.” “ Caon ” migh t be mistaken for cacao, but for the immediate sequence of the remarkable word tcheric, which resolves the mystery and shows that from “ caoutchouc ” or indiarubber two new and hitherto unknown products have been evolved by this compositorial genius. The concluding paragraph is as follows:—

We wish to know what the botanic gardens of this Presidency have done towards their improvement. Thy climate of Poona is superior to that of Lucknow, the so^

is richer, and Poona possesses a canal which could irrigate any number of acres. The parties, we consider, have a right to have the question answered—W hat are the gard­ens at Poona doing for horticulture and agriculture ?

W hat is here printed “ p a rtie s” was no doubt written “ public.” But, reverting to wliat is said of Ivew Gard­ens, we again quote :—

Sir William Hooker iu one of his reports w rites;— “ Upon the Boyal Gardens devolved the duties of receiv­ing and transmitting the seeds and plants to India, of raising a large crop of seedlings, of nursing the young stock lest those sent on should perish, or the seeds loses their vitality, and of recommending competent gardeners to take charge of the living plants from their native forests to the hill country of India and to have the care of the planta­tions there. Further, with the sanction of the Indian and Colonial Governments, it was arranged that our West Indian Colonies and Ceylon should be supplied with a portion of the seeds.” The success of cinchona in India is now an undoubted fact, and this country owes t-o ICew a debt of gratitude.Then comes an equally well-merited tribute to the Saha- ranpore Gardens in North-Western India and to Dr. Jameson as the introducer of tea cultivation on the lower ranges of the northern Himalayas. Among heaps of papers which we intended to publish, but never found a convenient season to do so, is a very interesting and valuable letter on which Dr. Jameson reassured us as to the cultivation of tea at high elevations, his opinions having since been fully sustained by the high quality of Kangra Valley and Darjeeling teas. Saharanpore is on the route to Roorkee, the DeTirah Doon, Mussoorie, and Landour—the two latter real “ abodes of snow,” and the degree of cold secured at Mussoorie and even at Lucknow accounts for the flourishing of strawberries, apples and other European fruits, as noticed in the fol­lowing ex tract:—

To the gardens at Kew, then, India is indebted for the introduction of cinchona, which promises to be one of her most valuable products, and to the fine garden at Saharunpore she owes the development of the cultivation of tea, Mr. Buck, the director of Agriculture and Com­merce, writing about the condition of the garden on the retirement of Dr. Jameson, who has won for himself a European reputation, sta tes:—“ Through his position in charge of the gardens, Dr. Jameson was enabled to de­velop what has proved to be the most successful and remunerative enterprise which has been carried out iu India under the British Government, viz., the cultivation of tea. The wealth acquired by India through Dr. James son’s efforts in the development of the tea industry ha- repaid Government over and over again for any outlay which has been expended on these botanical gardens. Dr. Jameson proved that in an Indian botanical garden science can be combined with utility. He not only developed an important industry, but he also founded and maintained a museum, one of the finest views* to be met with in Upper India, and he accumulated an important herbarium.”

The report on the progress and condition of the Go­vernment Botanical Gardens at Saharunpur for the year ending 31st March, 1881, proves that the gardens have not suffered either in economic or scientific point of view under Mr. Duthie, the able botanist, who succeeded Dr. Jameson. The grant sanctioned by Government for ex­penditure on the Saharanpur and its two affiliated gardens (at Mussoorie and Dliaguir) during the year amounted to B30,000 and the actual expenditure amounted to B24,524, so that there was a saving of B5,000. But this saving was not gained a t the cost of efficiency. There was a considerable increase in the distribution of plants and see Is. Almost any kind of fruit trees can be raised a t the Saharanpur Gardens. And there are to be seen there “ rows of plum trees bearing magnificent crops of fruit, though they had received but little special treatment.” Mr. Duthie informs us that a large number of young fruit trees have

* “ Views ” (?) is another misprint which defies us.—E d . 151

been permanently transplanted throughout the garden during the year. In the piece of ground known as the farm over 500 of different kinds have been planted out. They all promise to do "well, and in the course of four or five years their yield of fruit should bring iu an income almost equal to our present “ annual receipts for fruit.” The Superintendent adds:—“ Very great progress has been made, both in Europe and America, in the improvement of different kinds of fruit, and a good deal could, no doubt, be done in this country.” The Portuguese showed us how much could be done in the improvement of man­goes, ami a great deal, no doubt, could be done in the improvement of the peaches of Panchgunny, the straw­berries of Mahablcshwar, and the grapes of the Deccan. "With regard to vegetable cultures we are told that, with the exception of artichoke, lettuce, beans, 2)ea*> mustard, an ' cre.<$, it was useless ever to think of raising vegetable seed in this country which could at all compete with home­grown seed.” However, iu order to be supplied with cauli­flower during all the cold season “ both English and ac­climatized seed is required.” If the acclimatized seeds is sown in June, July, and August, fine heads can be cut iin November, December, and January. The same seed, if sown later than the end of August, runs into flower with­out forming a head. English seed, on the other hand, when sown in June, sometimes does not germinate, and when it does successfully germinate the plants are often killed by the damp heat during the rains. “ When sown in August, September, and beginning of October fine heads can be cut from January until the middle of April.” At the Saharanpur Gardens success was obtained in the cultiva­tion of Taraxacum and preparation of the extract. We agree with the North-West Government in the remark that “ there is no field where there is more room for doing good service in the gardens than the production of indi­genous drugs. At present dispensaries and medical practi­tioners are dependent for the supply of these drugs on the dealers in the native bazaars; and it is often impossible to be sure that the article supplied is genuine and of good quality, or that from long keeping it has not lost its peculiar value.” This distrust of bazaar medicines is well warranted by facts. In many cases bazaar medicines are simply trash,* Not only bazaar medicines, but many now imported at great expense from Europe for the use of the army, jails, and dispensaries might be grown in the country. We see no reason why ipecacuanha, belladonna, aloes, jalap, digitalis, podophyllum, quassia, dandelion, and others should not be grown in India. Dandelion and senna used to be supplied to the Medical Department from the gardens at Saharanpur, anti we see by the last report that hyoscyamus is supplied still to Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay.

The report on the Horticultural Gardens, Lucknow, for the year is as satisfactory as those on the Saharanpur Gardens. In fruit culture Lucknow almost carries away the palm from Saharanpur. Experiments were made in culti­vating the Malta oranges in good soil, and oranges were grown at a net profit of R88 per acre. Peaches* were culti­vated a t a profit of EDO per acre, and plants of six kinds of peaches were added to the gardens. There are two es­tablished plants ef Black Hamburg. “ The superiority of this vine over what a:e known as Bombay Eed and Country W hite in such important points as regularity of bearing and flavour is well established.” Strawberries are grown at Lucknow, and are larger than those grown on the hills. Two kinds of loquats are grown in the garden, and plants of the Avocado pear and the apricot have been planted out and doing well. Numerous experiments were tried in early sowing in vegetable culture, and the produce of different seeds was compared. The silver-skin onion was introduced from Italy with snccess. The efforts to acclim­atize vegetable seeds have not at Lucknow as well as Saharanpur been successful. However, the Blue-books prove, in spite of certain failures, that excellent work has been done fo Indian horticulture by the botanic gardens at Lucknowr and Saharanpur. From both the distribution of all kinds of trees and smaller plants besides—some for a small sum, others gratuitous—has for some years been ex­tensive. These gardens and the agri-horticultura! associa­tions in other parts of India have done a great deal of good in the way of disseminating seeds of English flowers and vegetables. Much, however, remains to be done, even for the gardens of Europeans, and almost everything for those of natives, the poorer class of whom are too ignor-

ant to profit by any efforts that are not particularly j directed to them. The necessity for improving Indian liortiy I culture and agriculture is a point that requires no discussion. ■ Now that Mr. Buck has been afforded larger scope for his efforts on behalf of Indian agriculture and horti­culture, we look for many and great improvements.

CHEMICALS AND LEAF DISEASE.Mr. Sclirottky writes :—“ In what I said about the sulpnur and lime treatm ent

establish 111^ sour and therefore cong< nial conditions for the developmer-t of the fungus, I referred only to t i n t portion of sulphurous acid gas which would be absorbed by the foliage w ithout being neutralized by lime or other soil ingredients. I have a very high opinion «d the m am m al value of sulphate of lime (gypsum). Having regard only to w hat degree manures can affect leaf disease, my inoculation ex-

erimeuta- led me to believe th a t chlorides, nitrates, isulphates, superphosphates and all acids and sour

organic manures are ap t to increase the susceptibility of the tree to the disease. Sulphates, phosphates, or generally speaking nenfcral sales th a t can combine with another atomic we:gh t of acid, all alkalies and antiseptic chemicals (other than chlorides and such as do not owe their antiseptic character exclusively to their oxidizing or deoxidising power) decrease the susceptibility of the tie e to fall a victim to tho dis­ease. Oilcake, for instance, ought to be well ro tted in pits with thrice its volume of soil for about three months before i t is put in th e ground.”We need scarcely dwell on the importance of this state­ment regarding oilcake. If accepted by planters, it means a considerable additional expenditure in manuring. There is first three months’ loss of the use of capital and the interest of the money paid for oilcake. Added to this will be the cost of forming pits (wliich ought, we suppose, to be protected from sun and ram, or at least rain ?) and of placing the oilcake in the pits, treatment to induce the rotting process, and finally removing the mass from the pits fur application to the trees.

C h in c h o n a . —Mr. Cross who was sent out to India some time back to assist the Madras Governm ent in th e propagation of Cinchona Santa Fe plants on the Nilgiris, returns to England early in December next. The plants are reported by the Officer in charge of th e N ilgiri plantations to have been sufficiently well estab lished and their safety' secured, so th a t the further retention of Mr. Cross in th is Presidency has been found unnecessary, and he has, therefore, been provided with a re tu rn passage to England a t the expense of th e State. The Government have also placed on record their recognition of the valuable advice and assistance received from Mr. Cross during the com­paratively short period of one year. — S. I. Post.

C o f f e e L e a f D is e a s e a n d it s C u r e . —A scientific arthority , who is equally sceptical of the value of carbolic acid vapour as he was of sulphur in Mr. Morris’s m ixture, is inclined to believe th a t further experiments will shew th a t the benefit derived by tbe coffee in each case will be found to be due entirely to the lime in the m ixture applied. I t would be a curious coincidence if i t were found th a t to tbe action of the lime should be a ttribu ted the good done in all the experiments of M r.D. Morris, Mr. W ard. Mr. Sclirottky, and perhaps of Mr. J . P. S to rck ! But th a t is not likely.

T e a i n Y a k d e s s a . — Phis moist region is regarded as capable of producing as abundant crops of tea as any d istrict in Ceylon. Q uantity there is in abundance ; the only doubt has been about quality . But, to judge by the sample we have had of Sem bawatte tea, we should say its leaf, if as well prepared as this, pro- misi s to yield as good tea as any in the island. The flavour is full and fine and th e leaf well rolled and fired, and we congratulate th e proprietors and Mr. Ross W right, the manager, on the resnlt.

I n d i a v s . C h i n a « X e a .— W e have received soma cir­culars issued by Mr. Goodricke, grower and im porter of Indian tea, who has offices in M ark Lane and Cannon S treet, London. One of these circulars shows the excellence and purity of Indian tea. while th e o ther is head-d “ China Tea—w hat it is ! Maloo M ixture ! ! !” and gives an extract from th e Home and Colonial Mail, regarding some abomination imported under th a t name. W e are glad to see th a t India tea is gradually winning its way and ousting its Chinese rival in Britain.

C o f f e e S a c k s . —In response to various complaints, th e Sao Paulo Railway Company published a circular on the 22nd u lt., in whiuh were the following instruc­tions relative to carrying empty coffee sacks The sacks should be made into packages and legibly marked with th e name and address of th e consignee ; the em pty sacks will be transported free ; th e sh ip­ping bill should specify the num ber of packages and w e 'g h ts ; the packages will receive the same care as regular freight. This certain ly ought to satisfy all the parties concerned. —Rio News.

A C o m b in a t io n C o t t o n -p i c k e r , w ith fingers of iron, is working a revolution in cotton-growing in th e U nited States. I t will, it is thought, reduce th e price of cotton two cents a pound. The machine, by means of beaters and fans, takes th e fibre from the boll, removes the seeds and all im purities, finally delivering it straightened, ready for the bale. Efforts are m aking to develop the invention in season for exhibition a t A tlan ta .—Ibid. [This reminds us of Nelson’s finger and thum b machine, intended to pulp coffee beaus as they were gathered. I t produced only am usement. —E d . ]

An A m e r i c a n E n t o m o l o g is t advocates the use o f arsenic for th e destruction of cotton worms, and says i t will cost only a cent and a quarter per acre to ex ­term inate the worm w ith th a t poison. The method of employing it, which lie recommends, is a solution made by adding to five gallons of w ater five pounds of nrsenic and one pound of soda, and boiling un til

1 the a-senic is dissolved. In using, one measure o f : th e solution is added to ItiO measures of water, and

sprinkled upon th e plants infested by worms.—Ibid. [Query ? Application of this solution, for the destruc­tion of grub. I t m ight kill them without in juring the roots,—E d .]

M e r c a r a , l l t l i Nov.—Regarding coffee, it is im ­possible to say what immense good has been done by the rain th a t has fallen since th e 2nd of November. Over six inches have been registered, and th e sky is still overcast. The young saplings have renewed life in them and are n >w firmly established, w hilst the coffee berries th a t were, by th e intense haat being prem at­urely ripened, have obtained a reprieve, and will will now increase in stamina and size, and less ex­haust th e tree—in fact, save i t from dying. I t is reckoned th a t hundreds of tons w ill be thus saved, th a t otherwise would have either dropped from th e trees, or tu rned in to light beans. As an example, an estate th a t would w ithout these raius have barely yielded 35 tons, is now assumed to promise 45 tons.

| A flying picking has commenced on a few estates in Poutli Coorg, but i t will not be general un til the 1st

J of December. Leaf-disease is gaining ground over the whole of the country.-— M adras Standard.

To the Editor of the Ceylon Observer.NO BEES : NO BER R IES.

D e a r S i r , —The enclosed cu ttin g from a hom e p a ­p e r m ay (if yon can find room for i t in th e Observer) be of in te re s t to som e of your re a d e rs .—Y ours tru ly ,

JO H X PATERSON.No B e e s , no B e r r ie s !—The common flowering currant is

much frequented by bees as well as by other species of in. sects, and usually produces abundance of berries. The writer, last summer, carefully covered with muslin several of the newly-opened blossoms of this bush. This had the effect of preventing any insect gaining access to these flowers, and it was observed that they continued fresh and bright long after all their unprotected neighbours had withered, and that, whilst an abundant crop of berries was produced on all the exposed branches which had been visited by bees, not a single berry appeared on any of those from which insects had been excluded by the muslin.—Professor Wilson in “ Good Words ”

COFEEE LEA F FUNGUS ON OTH ER TR EES.D ear Sir , —I now send you some kitu l, cinnamon,

suriya, aud other jungle leaves, even creeper, ferns, and grass, taken from a native man’s garden (which all show the piu-spots), in proof of my former statem ent—th a t leaf disease having left the coffee has taken up its quarters in a native man's garden. I may call i t jungle, as it is full of large trees as well as underwood and abandoned cofiee,—Yours faithfully,

J . H .[The leaves sent to us shew no signs of hemileia when

scientifically exam ined: th e spots are due to other causes.—Ed.]

PLA N TIN G E N T ER PR IZE IN BORNEO:A CEYLON P L A N T E R ’S EA RLY E X P E R IE N C E .

Sandaken, N orth Borneo (via Labuan), October 23rd.D e a r S i r , —I promised, when leaving Ceylon, to

le t you know from tim e to tim e how planting m at­te rs progressed in th is part cf Borneo, but I am afraid” I have nothing of m uch interest to tell you a t present. *

I had a very pleasant voyage here, stopping a fo rtn igh t a t Singapore, a t which place I bad the pleasure of meeting several old Ceylon planters, namely, Messrs. Parry, W . W. Bailey, E. A . W atson, W. J . G ar­land and C. H. Bagot, all of whom, I am glad to say, appeared in a flourishing condition, and were m ost kind in assisting me to see w hat I could of th e country while there. During my stay, I visited th e Johore p lan ta tio n s; as well as the tapioca, gambier, pepper, citrouella estates around Singapore, all of which were most interesting. I was sorry to miss seeing the sugar estates a t Province W ellesley, but our stay a t Penang was too short.

Since my arrival here I have been, and still am, travelling about the country, but I hope to settle down in the course of another month. I have selected a piece of land for my experimental garden about 25 miles from here aud 011 the banks of one of the m any rivers th a t flow in to th is tine harbour. All these rivers are navigable for many miles aud will be most useful for transport. In my travels, I came across some old cocoa trees, bearing well, though in a much neglected condition. My garden will consist of coffee Arabica, Liberian coffee, cocoa, citronella grass, pepper, vam lia, tea, jute, tapioca, tobacco, sugar, cinnamon, \ ipecacuanha, nutmegs, cinchona, cardamoms, India- rubber, Manila hemp, and several useful shade trees ; so th a t 1 hope to be able to supply the wants of any planters who may come here.

I had a very pleasant trip to Sulu, a small island tw o days’ journey from here, and belonging half to th e Sul us and half to the Spaniards, and which is,

as regards soil, a regular little gold mine, bu t un ­fortunately has a very unsettled Government. I was to ld there was one European there who grew coffee, cocoa, tapioca etc., aud whose plantation I was very anxious to see. I t is only one hundred feet above the level of th e sea, bu t never­theless what few coffee (Arabica) and cocoa trees he had were bearing a heavy crop. I sought anxiously for leaf-disease bu t could find no signs of it, though plants a t Singapore, which came from this island, had as bad an attack as I have seen anywhere.

I am getting all my coffee and cocoa from Sulu, and thought of sending some of the former to Ceylon, but I remembered the fate of the Blue M ountain coffee a t Peradeniya and did not get any. If, however, any planter would like a very little seed, as an experiment, I shall be happy to do my best to procure some.

Our natives here prefer earning a living by th e rich produce of the jungle, to agriculture, bu t Chinese labour can be procured easily and cheaply ; so th a t th e ir serv­ices will not be required. I hope to finish my low- country garden about September, and then steer for the north of the island and s ta r t one “ on the h ills.”

The Tropical Agriculturist (or “ Enquire W ith in”) is much appreciated, as also is th e Ceylon Observer. Mr. P r \e r , the resident here, who has had great ex­perience in China, pronounced the Ceylon tea, wh ch I brought w ith m e, as being of a most excellent quality, and does no t wonder th a t “ John Chinaman” has got to shu t up shop in Ceylon. Has any one ever tried im porting Ceylon tea in to th a t country (China)? I anticipate a good deal will be grown here some day. Our climate aud soil ought to su it its growth, the rainfall las t year being 157 inches evenly dis­tribu ted throughout the year. I append rainfall, as i t may be of interest to your readers :—

H eat and R ainfall, Sandaken, 1880 and 1881.

1880. 1881.

M ax. M iu. fall. M ax. Min. ^ l i !

Jan u ary 83 72 22-73 82 73 14-21February 86 74 5-17 83 72 9-09M arch 87 74 10*37 84 74 , 1-54A pril 88 74 8-71 85 74 4-47M ay ,.. 90 74 6-72 88 74 10*09

88 73 5-73 87 73 11-23J u l y ................................... 89 73 6-37 88 73 6-66

90 74 17-88 88 71 ; 4-91Septem ber 89 73 11-60 85 ,72 i 19-18October 90 73 8-77November 85 71 26-40December 83 71 26-59 — — | —

Total ... 157-04

I am glad to see the old P. A. has had a very suc­cessful m eeting and th a t the H aputale wound has been healed.

Mr. Schrottky’s experiments on leaf disease appear no t to be thought successful, bu t I hope they will nevertheless throw some further light on the subject. Me°srs. W hittall & Co. certainly deserve the thanks of the P. A. for the plucky m anner in which they gave up an entire property for Mr. Schrottky’s ex­perim ents ; not to m ention the heavy outlay they have incurred. I see th e Secretary of S tate for the Colo­nies has a t last consented to allow the introduction of Indian cooly labour into the N ative States, pro­vided the consent of the Iudian Government is ob­tained. This is, I th ink , a step in the righ t direc­tion, and I hope before long to see some boat loads of them here, where they will get a good climate, good wages, cheap rice, and every protection from an Eng­lish Government.

T rusting you are all busy w ith crop,—I remain, dear sir, yours faithfully, L. B. VON DONOP.

P. S .—1 hear an application for land- (the first) has ju st been received from a gentleman in China.

“ N E W PR O D U C T S” CHANGE IN T H E MODE OF TA N N IN G LEA TH ER ,

London E.G., 24th Oct. 1881.S i r , —So m any of your subscribers ask me to keep

them informed of the natural products which are likely to tu rn to a profitable account, th a t I th ink I cannot do b e tte r than to give you th e opportunity of pub­lishing a change th a t is sure to take place in the mode of tanning leather in th is and other countries.

I t is known to most of your readers th a t the old process has been to place the hides in pits, and, after the hair has been taken off by lime, purge out the lime by glucose: they are then placed in pits and exposed to the action of bark, the tanning of which is extracted generally by cold w ater. To obtain perfectly tanned bu tts, i t has been thought necessary to w ait twelve m onths for the tannin to enter the hide.

The Americans have shewn th a t by using extracts, prepared w ith hot w ater and carefully sent to this country in casks, the process has been greatly ac­celerated. O ther compounds have been found which assist in turning out the leather rapidly, and tanning i t effectually and sufficiently. Some of the advanced tanners now go so far as to say : “ W e adm it the great difficulty there is in collecting and drying the bark of trees, also the costliness of tbe freight, owing to the unsatisfactory nature of the packages, and, a t the same time, we adm it th a t we can w ith much greater effect em pliy e x tra c ts /’

Since they have had the small “ tannom cter ” or “ tann-tester,” which only costs £ 4 complete with glasses and test tubes, they are enabled to gauge exactly the value iu tanning m atter of anything th a t they may use, or th a t may be offered to them , and i t is only th is week th a t I have had sent me, by one of the most advanced tanners who thoroughly understands chemistry, two barks, which are said to come from India, which yield 15 per cent of tanning. The extract from th is wood can be easily made on the spot, and shipped home in casks, or cases. One is “ Acacia A rabica” babao bark ; th e o ther m aterial we have not yet found out the name of for certain, bu t i t is one of the varieties of the “ mimosa.”

A nother great point gained is th a t, in India, ex­trac ts are so easily made in large pans, and the sun so helps in evaporating the last portion of the moist­ure, so th a t extracts actually come from hot climates in better order than they can be prepared in th e cold damp clim»tes. In South America, where there is a large quantity of fine tanning material, such as the red Quebracho ( 6 Quebracho C olorado” ), they can m ake the extracts, bu 1 they are not so well off for coopers to tu rn out th e casks a t a low price ; bu t there is room for all. I need hardly add th a t I shall be delighted to render your subscribers any further information in my power, and also pu t them in the way of testing the value of the trees and plants th a t may be growing around them .—Yours truly,

THOS. CHRISTY.[The Government of India have published numerous

and elaborate reports on tanning barks, bu t there is room for fu rther experiments in the direction of pre­paring extracts.—E d.]

POTASH VERSU S SU PER PH O SPH A TE OF LIM E AS M ANURE FOR COFFEE.

32, G reat St. Helens, London, 28th Oct. 1881. D ea r S i r ,—I t is a long tim e since I inflicted a

letter on you, and I will not allow another number of the Tropical Agriculturist to reach me, without compliment­

ing you on the idea and its execution. I observed in No. 1 th a t Mr. Hughes had fired a parting shot a t me, to which I turned my other cheek, having passed the age when an accusation of wasting anything is likely to apply. In th is case, th e expression ‘ ‘ expensive fertilisers of an exceedingly soluble na ture” is singularly infelicitous, since the m ixture I use costs ju st about half as much as th a t recommended by himself, and should be worth about one-third more according to th e valuation. So much for the expense. Now for the solubility : I do n o t use superphosphate a t all, because, unless I am very much misinformed, i t is too soluble for soils containing a large proportion of iron, which has a greater affinity for i t and turns it into phosphate of iron instead of phosphate of lime. Moreover, the Aberdeenshire experiments shew th a t a finely ground bone-dust or natural phosphate is for us coffee p lan t­ers quite as soluble (practically speaking) as super­phosphate, and much mere lasting. I m aintain my opinion as to th e necessity of a larger proportion of potash than Mr. Hughes recommends, and I have another year’s results to confirm it. Before entering upon them , however, I will mention th a t , conversing with Mr. Dyer some tim e ago on the subject of potash, he rem arked th a t most probably our soils had a much gr< at**r affinity for i t than was generally supposed, from the heavy rainfall they had to endure. He said he would tes t the idea, and afterw ards most k indly sent me the results in an interesting paper, too long to give in extenso. I may summarize them as follows :—

The soil experimented on containedOxide of iron about... ... 10‘7Alumina ,, ... ... 10 7Potash „ *275

Two columns of soil 16 inches deep had a top-dress­ing of m uriate of potash = 2£ tons per acre (of course an excessive dose); Si inches of rainfall percolated through the soil w ithout potash e x tra c te d — *0029 or about 1 • 100th of the natural potadi. The same w ater extracted only l-12th of the added potash, so th a t ll-1 2 th s were fixed by the soil. W ith n itra te of potash (saltpeter) 81 inches w ater removed 1-10th and a fu r­th er 81 inches 2-10th ; so th a t 162 inches rainfall removed less than 3-10ths—which does not look like “ exceeding solubility .”

1 have steadily persevered in the same plan for th e last 3 years, and have b u t one uniform report of m arked improvement in results. In W ynaad a new head-superintendent, a gentleman fresh from Ceylon, appears astonished to find estates so free from leaf- disease and w ith a good crop on them . From two or three Ceylon friends who have followed my advice, and from Coorg, Mysore, and the Neilgherries, I have th e same encomaging results, and by7 the last mail only I learned som ething I have been anxious to know. On estates poor in phosphates bu t rich in potash, I applied bone-dust alone, and the mixed manure. The superintendent reports :— “ There seems to be little difference between the parts m anured w ith bone-dust and those done with the m ixture, so far as leaf is concerned, bu t crop is heavier where tt e la tte r m an­ure was applied.” An estate I m entioned in a previ­ous le tte r as richer in potash than any I had heard of ( ‘418) where 1 intended try ing the m ixture, n o t­w ithstanding Mr. Hughes’ objections, gives the same result, and the report is :—“ The half of th e northern bank done with the m ixture, when I took charge in April 1880, has a splendid crop and abundance of new wood.” The previous year i t d id no t pay expenses; in fact, had, 1 believe, never been m anured a t all.

I write th is mainly because I have many friends interested in Ceylon, and I observe there a sort of reckless rushing after every quack of w hatever nation­ality who ra ttles off a lo t of glib nonsense, and after any product you can mention except the good old staple coffee, which I believe and have found, only

requires fair treatm ent to give a generous return. The British grocer is, I consider, our worst enemy, so long as he is allowed te sell any infernal m ixture th a t can be pu t into a tin with a showy label, and call it coffee. V\7e sadly w ant some organization a t borne to look after our interests, free from any local prejud­ices and action against common enemies. Even a few pounds spent in analysing and exposing the m ix­tures palmed upon a credulous public would be pro- due* ive of some good.—Yours fa'fchfully, H. TOLPUTT,

COFFEE C U L T U R E : TA K IN G REST IN SLEEP ” OR ?

Kotmale, ISth November 1881.“ I t may perhaps occur to the planters’ m ind that,

if rest bo required in Ceylon to recruit the strength : of the coffee tree, the remedy has been taken in hand ■ by tbe true itself, in only yielding about one-third of • what i t was formerly capable of doing.” - / . 2*. G. ’s 1 letter o f 19f/t October 1881. !

“ Some estates hold forth promise of even large 1 crops, and the general aspect is decidedly b e tte r than j

i t was last year a t a corresponding period. There ! can be little doubt th a t th is improvement is largely 1 due to the more favorable season of the current year, and the condition <>f the trees after the rest of last year.” — Concluding paras o f the Prologue to Mr. Marshall \ Ward’s Third Report on L e a f Disease,

Dr a h S i r —W liat is tllia ‘ r e s t5 th a t is talked of ? Is it the repose of the tom b which appeals to be already closing over the life’s work of coll'ee m Ceylon ; or is i t really rest, i. e. a season of re freshm en t» W e know that, chemically speaking, there is no such thing as r s t : whatever the organism may he, there is always some change in progress, be i t of composi­tion, or decomposition. I* our coffee la nu ̂ being re­suscitated, then, a fortiori, there is decay in process, and such a change we can hardly ca^ remedial rest.

We may safely assume that, wliat was m eant in both tbe writings cited above was a sta te of preparation for further work, ra ther than an entire ceasing from work. And, if I read the*® writers aright, surely, they would not intentionally speak of ‘ torpor, “ nor any want-begotten rest,’5 as likely in any way to benefit our coffee !

Coffee is no free agent to be fruitful or barren as the humour leads her. If rest is wanted—and who can doubt th a t i t is wanted after the years we have been forcing, and more lately try ing to force abnor­mally large cr -ps from our trees ? and i t should be noted th a t i t is these years alone wherein we have suffered adversity”—then we m ust keep our knives off the live branches and our mamoties and forks from the ro ts. _

’ T is not in th is country as iu old England, where you can, by heavily pruning, force a large or extra­ordinarily good crop of fruit to be borne by trees for which a bountiful providence has assigned an un­mistakable season of apparent rest. Assuredly we have no reasonable grounds to look for a good “ next year 5 so rt of crop and also a supply of Wvod for the corning season, as the results of our annual heavy prunings, j I t seems on the surface to be against all laws of arboriculture !

No doubt both Dr. Trimen and Mr. Marshall Ward have observed many most flagrant violations of laws agri-and arbori-cultural in the management (?) of our coffee estates. One can only respect their silence, re­membering the old Greek saying. “ N othing is more55 disgraceful than meddling w ith other people’s affairs. B ut if you, Mr. Editor, would ask one of these gen­tlem an to give us planters a few plain hints on such m atters as the use and abuse of pruning, manuring, and weeding, I feel sure that, apart from his ex-

152

officio du ty to furnish such, lie would be glad of the i opportunity of rendering us such a politico-ecouomic

boon. The P. A. m ight make a collection of p lan te rs5 doubts on the u tility or fu tility < f the works above m entioned, and from thorn ex tract a catechismal set of questions. This would simplify the work of our instruction. Or if in the face of our favorable sea­sons, and their concomitant leaf-disease, those g tntle- men th ink th a t much may yet be done for ov staple a t a cost w ithin the means of most, and th m all our toil and cultivation is not absolutely stone boiling, let them, while there is yet time, bring to our rescue the wisdom of th e ir years of scientific research and learning, th a t i t may not be said, a few years hence, as the last sad p lanter waits, watching for the last cherry to ripen, ere he quits th is land for ever:—>

“ Science moves, but slowly, slowly,, creeping on from point to p o in t:

“ Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers, and I linger on the shore;

“ And the individual withers, and the world is more and more.

“ Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers, and he bears a laden breast

“ Full of sad experience, moving toward the stillness ofhis rest."'3

Faithfully yours,POST TEN EBRA S LUX.

j

(

CINCHONA C U L T IV A T IO N : FROTOFTS5FO R TY -FIV E ACRES OF O FFIC IN A LIS.

21st November 1881.D ear S i r ,— I n xour issue of th e 19th in s ta n t, m en ­

tio n is m ade of 45 acres 4£ yr. officinalis in R am - boda y ie ld ing 25 to n s d ry b a rk w hen uproo ted , and th a t th is w as sold fo r £11,200.

Could n o t th e particu la rs of th is very rem u n era tiv e transaction* be ob tained and m ade public? I re fe r m ore especially to th e n u m b er of tre-.’S to th e ac re , th e ir h e ig h t an d g ir th .—Y ours tru ly , PLANTER.

[See parag rap h on page 609.— E d .]

T H E ROBUST CINCHONA OF CEYLON. Roj al Botanical Gardens, Peradeniya, 25th Nov. 1881.

S i r , — I have read with much interest, in your columns, Col. Beddome’s account of his short visit to Ceylon and his impressions of cinchona cultivation as carried on here. Taken in connection w ith his p re­vious able report on the N ilgiri plantations, we pos­sess his “ views 55 in a very clear and definite form.

I purpose to make a t once a few observations up­on the robust and quick-growing cinchona of Ceylon and Southern India, w ith which it seems likely Col. Bed* dome’s name will henceforth be connected, since he considers it in all respects the kind to cultivate. And first, I wish mdst d istinctly to disavow the convic­tion a ttribu ted to me in th is report, that I am “ fully convinced th a t i t is a perfectly d istinct species.” Such is far from being the fact, and I am a t a loss to understand how my friend the Colonel could have deduced such a view on my p art from our frequent discufdons on the subject. Ever sinca I have knoAn the plant, I have avoided any dogm at­ism as to its origin. In Mr. Owen’s little “ M anual5>I say of the smooth-leaved form th a t i t “ may beanother variety [of officinalis] or not improbably apermanent hybrid of officinalis with succirubra,” andof the pubescent form th a t i t “ approaches C. succi­rubra” (pp . 23, 24). I t may. tu rn out a distinct species, bu t I tn in k th a t data are wanting still to se ttle the question, and th a t Col. Beddome’s report does no t supply them. In our view of the p lant being a “ hybrid, ” we, in Ceylon, have, of course, followed

Me Ivor, who, on many occasions since 1872, had stated such to he the case. Col. Beddome throws over the late Superintendent w ithout hesitation as untrustw orthy, and pins his faith to the recolleclions of Mr. Cross. A part fr>>m the la tte r s story of the collection of the plants (which will be found in a letter prin ted a t p. 32 of Col. Beddome’s report*), the only direct evidence against M clvor’s view brought forward is th a t trees are found “ in the oldest p lan ta­tions [1802] a t Nedivatam ; ” bu t i t appears th a t this is not Col. Beddome’s own observation. The mrliesfc plantation in which he has seen trees of the kind is one of the 1865 planting, and no satisfactory evidence is given that th e plants here were not sup­plies. The acknowledged fact th a t sowings of th e teed always show a proportion of succirubra and otficinrlis in the progeny is readily disposed of by the observation th a t i t is “ of course ” due to care­less gathering. Careful experiment alone can decide th is point—in a practical planter’s view, the most important one of all : it w ill not be settled by dogmatic statem ents one way or the other. As re ­gards the characters of the plants, they are in all respects interm ediate between offic'nalis and succirn ra, aud in every point and degree in which a given specimen differs from one of these species i t a2>pro:iches the other. The interm ediate character is also carried out on the whole in the proportions of th e alkaloids in the bark, variable and uncertain as is the analysis of these trees.

No doubt Col. Beddome may prove to be perfectly right in his opinion as to the autonomy of this cinchona:I merel}' wish to point out th a t in my opinion the evid­ence he brings forward is by no means conclusive.

B ut indeed on th is m atter the Colonel's opinion poss­esses less weight than it m ight have from the singular position he has taken up w ith reference to hvbrid ity in cinchona in general. This is, of course, not the place to enter into any discussion. I t is scarcely ne­cessary even to point out th a t the dimorphic arrange­ments of the flower which Col. Beddome cites as conclu­sive against natural crossing are precisely those which have been shown overandover again to be those specially adapted to ensure cross-fertilization by insect agency. The production of hybrids in . nature is by no means an uncommon thing. In some genera they are frequent ; and whether our “ hybrid ” cinchona turn out to be one really or not, th a t cross-fertilization and hybridity occur in our ufixed plantations by the visits of insects to consider almost certain. Mr. \loens is now engaged In an elaborate seri so f experiments inartific ia l cross- iertilization with the object of comparing his results fwith the naturally-produced sports and varieties in the plantations. This is a long business, bu t in due time we may hope to have some direct evidence on this perplexing m atter.

I also desire to say a few words as to th e name which th is cinchona should bear. I t is I think m uch to be regretted th a t the name “ P a ta de G-allinazo ” should have been brought out of its obscurity by Mr. Cross aud adopted (even provisionally) by Col. Bed­dome. This is a mere bark-collector’s name and is used in difierent parts of the Andean chain for a t least 6 different kinds of bark. T hat which has the best claim to i t (as having been first published and more often used) is the best sort of grey bark col­lected by P ritche tt in Huanuco and referred to C.peru- viana or C. micrantha. This “P ata de Gallinazo” was one of the first cinchonas sent to Hakgala from the Nil- | giris. (See Dr. Thw aites’ Report for 1860-61.) I t is, of course, the case th a t the name is also used for the “ Cascarilla serran a” or H ill red bark, which Dr. Spruce obtained on Chimborazo a t 8,500 to 9,000 feet,

* In conversation, Col. Beddome to ld rue th a t Mr. Cross declared he had sent seed of th is to India, bu t nothing is said of this in the report.

and with which Mr. Cross (who accompanied Dr. Spruce as gardener) now identifies the p lant under discussion.* But Dr. Spruce himself, w ith Mr. J . E. Howard, long ago determ ined his “ P ata de G allinazo” to be G. coccinea Pav. (see his le tte r quoted in W eddell, notes, page 30 (1SC9)), aud it is no doubt in accordance w ith th is determ ination th a t Howard now refers Cross’s “ P a t a ” bark from the N ilgiris to th a t species (see Beddome's report, page 30. The plate, however, of C. coccinea, (taken from au then tic specimens) in th e “ Illust. Nuev. Quinol.” is to ta lly unlike our p lan t.

All this is, perhaps, scarcely in place in your columns, bu t i t will show how far th e m atter is from final solution. I t is to be hoped th a t the copious dried specimens sent home by Col. Beddome for comparison w ith types in the London H erbaria may clear upthe m atter ; bu t this cannot be very confidently ex ­pected. Meanwhile, I would recommend the sup­pression of the Spanish name of “ P a ta de Gallinazo ” for our “ hybrid ” If the tree has been duly described and named we shall, of course, give the proper ap ­pellation in tim e ; if not or till then—since the names“ pubesceus,” “ m agnifolia,” “ villora,” and others are all for various reasons unavailable—we cannot, I th ink , do be tte r than adopt th a t already coming into use in Southern India, robusta, which is a very appropriate one. By using this we do not commit ourselves to any views as to the origin of the plant, whether in the plantations of the Nilgiris, or the higher slopes of Chimborazo.—I am, your obedient servant,

H E N R Y TPxIMEN.

A PH ILO SOPHICAL CURE FOR T H E COFFEE GRUB : “ G IV IN G TH EM T H E SACK. ”

Agrapatana, November 25th, 1881.D ea r S i r ,— Perhaps the following m ethod I have

invented for the destruction of grub may be of in terest to you, aud, now th a t th e discovery is being conducted on more estates than one, i t would be impolitic for all to consider the invention any longer a secret. Decided proof as to the remedy can be obtained, on reference to those gentlemen who have seen th e experiments here, and who have tried and are now try ing it themselves, and further information as to the success a ttendan t upon their efforts will I am sure be gladly accorded. The discovery would have, doubtless, been made known before th is had it been already tried elsewhere by anyone, excepting those to whom th e process has been explained and through whom th e

I facts of the case have been, inadvertently , somewhat widely disseminated. Owing to the rapid and terrib le depredations of grub I was induced to make repeated attem pts as to a cure early in Ju ly las t, a t a tim e when the a ttack was becoming dangerous, and having tried every available means with little if any success I thought of suffocation, and determined to spread old and useless bags between the lines of coffee ; thinking the grub would be sm othered or probably th a t the bags would a ttrac t them : the plan was successful. All grub under the covered area rose to to the surface, and on rolling back the bags were discovered in large numbers. They were no t be found a t a greater depth th an th ree or four inches, and if allowed to remain long under the bags 20 per cent are attacked by the “ white fungus” ; the insects do not again descend deep to the ground.

I wish, however, to particularly draw* atten tion to

* Col. Beddome’s Report (p. 8.) contains the ex tra­ordinary assertion (derived from Mr. Cross ?) th a t Dr. Spruce “ could never have seen the trees.” B ut the la tter describes their appearance, bark and leaves—the flower and fruit he did no t get—in his paper in the

j “ Journal of the Linnean Society ” iv. p. 185. In d e e d it ! is Mr. Cross’s share in this m atter th a t is the novelty.

the fact tliab from four to eight or ten days after the covering has been pu t down, every grub below i t will come to the surface and can be picked o u t ; or destroyed there and then with a th in sprinkling of purpuline, which I have found efficacious in no o ther manner ; th is process doing away with the necessi­ty of constantly disturbing the soil and damaging and loosening the roots of the coffee tree. I t m ust also be borne in m ind th a t the same covering can be used repeatedly, for when th e grub have been eradicated from one p a rt of an estate the bags can be moved on elsewhere. A few grub will appear the fourth da)7, if the weather is favourable, b u t not till the eighth or tenth day after the bags have been pu t down can we be positive of their having all come to the surface. The simple spreading out of bags is not sufficient, but I shall be pleased to give full instructions to those purposing carrying out tbe remedy, and answering any questions th a t may be raised. The remedy is simple, when we consider the habits of grub and th e m anner in which they congregate under logs, planks, etc., and will be found to be cheaper and more thorough than any method y e t known. The process will have been carried out on a large scale shortly, and, if successful, I can then speak with even greater confidence. In conclusion, 1 trust you will excuse th e length of this letter, and will feel w ith me th a t i t may ba the means of assisting many in their destruction of one of the worst enemies we have to contend against, and, if, as I hope, further information as to a cure for. grub will be the outcome of th is letter, I shall consider i t has done some good.—I am, dear sir, yours faithfully,

H. G. P.[The plan is a t once philosophical and very easily

tried . The only fear we have is th a t a considerable num ber of grub would be too far down in the earth to be affected ?—Ed.]

T H E “ FA LLOW F IE L D ” SYSTEM.D e ar S ir ,—I was ra ther struck by an article I

read some weeks ago—I think i t was in the Field— by a General Strachey,* on th e vine pests in France, giving it, as his opinion, th a t the incompetency of the vines to withstand the attacks, both of fungi and insects, was brought about by ovevforcing the plants w ith a cultivation too artificial, such as excessive pruning and manuring every year, leaving the operations of nature entirely out of th e question. The main remedi­al suggestion of his le tte r was th a t i t would be advantageous in every way each season to allow a por­tion of the vineyard to be fallow : the acreage to be so treated be pu t at one quarter of the property in reg­u lar rotation every year.

Now how could General Strachey’s idea be carried ou t iu Ceylon, even j'in a small way, on our estates ?

Let us take a plantation of 240 acies for example. L et 60 acres of th is which has given th e heaviest crop be selected as the first “ fallow field.” L et it be weeded (and suekered a t the same time) six times a year. L et nature have its own way w ith i t o ther­wise. This field will, I anticipate, recover itself in due course, w ithout the artificial process we so con­stan tly follow, w ith a heavy bearing piece, after crop, by m anuring and pruning it. No field in old coffee nowadays gives a bumper crop more than once in three years, except on the H aputale side of the country.

The advantage, I think , to the rest of the estate would be palpable. The manure th a t would o ther­wise be used to pull round this field cau be used elsewhere. The saving of expenditure on 60 acres, taking R 12 50 an acre, on pruning and handling, would

* General Maitland Showers, whose le tter we quoted the other day.—E d.

am ount to R750, and on six weedings, taking R1 25 per acre per m onth, would be R450, m aking a to ta l of Rl,20O.

The chief a ttention of the superintendent could then be concentrated on the rem ainder of the estate, which would be, after deducting 20°/e of the land as inferior to the rest, including grass ravines, roads, ridges planted with cinchona, and grass fields, one hundred and forty-tw o acres.

I t stands to reason, if 142 acres are worked up with pruuing (this work could then, perhaps, be finished by the end of March, instead of the end of May) and m anuring (say two-thirds, if funds will not permit, m anuring the whole of it) and shall we say sweeping, the chances are th a t th e crop would be more in th is p a rt of the estate, and so cheaper and easier to pick ; and in th e event of a bum per crop again, there would, not be the necessity for such a large re ­sident gang of coolies, and the strain on the super­in tendent would be considerably lightened.

I t is very evident th a t we should now find it a l­most impossible to keep a large force going, w hilst crop was hanging back, which is too frequently the case. Form erly i t was different. W e generally had clearing work to complete, roads and drains to cut, ravine composts to fill up, cinchonas and grass to p lant, and especially money to spend. Luckily these works are m ostly done, for m auy of us could not afford to do them now, and we all know w hat an ex­pensive business i t is m aking work for coolies.

Mr. M arshall W ard tells us we m ust first of all ! sweep up the leaves, if we ever mean to make head­

way against leaf-disease. To do th is once we m ust spend K4*50 an acre. So th a t, to sweep 142 acres, we should have to spend R639. Now I would hum bly suggest th a t the savings off the “ fallow field” could be devoted to th a t purpose. The 142 acres m ust be cultivated extra highly, and, w ith the sum of R l,200 we certainly could sweep twice, and nearly three times in a y e a r ; for after the first outlay i t would not be nearly so expensive, and R4*50 an acre is an outside figure even for the first sweeping. Of course i t will be urged th a t the fallow field would suffer from the weeds (but we m ust let nature have plenty to do) from w ant of handling, and from severe a t­tacks of leaf-disease : surely these are all m atters for fu rther discussion. We m ust continue to face and overcome our difficulties, if, in the future, we expect to do as well w ith our properties as in the tim es past.

I cannot help being struck w ith the paucity of letters nowadays on the cultivation of our staple, in com­parison w ith the m ultiplicity of correspondence th a t used to be written form erly on every conceivable sub­jec t in connection w ith it. Perhaps th e a ttention of your correspondents is tu rned more to cinchona, tea and lowcountry products ; so th a t even if th is letter promotes in any way plans for fu ture campaigns against evils we are suffering from and ye t may suffer from, i t will bring, I tru st, more hope than the m ourn­ful prognostications of “ Wm. M cK .”

The former idea (which arose I th ink from always wishing to have our estates in tip-top order for sale­able purposes, in the event of any one offering a fancy price for them) we used to have} of keeping up an even appearance all over the estate has somewhat changed, and men are more ready to look to the re ­sults of crops, than th e appearance of the estate. P u tting m anure only into the best and sheltered land (for good land is always grateful), p lanting up [the ridges and poor soil with cinchona is now th e order of the day, and rightly so.

A great deal has been done in lowering the cost of upkeep, b u t I do not th in k men have gone far enough yet, nor have they sufficiently altered their plan of work.

If we examine how i t is men are now working for

about half what they used to do, we shall find the savings have been made more or less on th e following item s: superintendence, contingencies, roads and drains, cleaning up ravines and making composts, crop ex­penses owing to the shortness of production, and la s t of all by stopping m anuring and economizing in all it- lateral branches, such as the keeping of stock, p lant­ing up grass fields &c., and it is on th is head par­ticularly th a t the real results have been obtained.

To recapitulate: as I am of opinion th a t eventually we shall have to a lter somewhat our present system of working our coffee estates, I will m ention the following causes as likely to bring th is about: poss­ible fall in prices, the necessity for judicious eco­nomy, the w ant of credit compared to o ther times, th e urgent need for following Mr. W ard ’s suggestions regarding leaf-disease, and the scarcity of work for a large supply of labour, and the scarcity of labour for a large crop.

By adopting the foregoing plan, we m ight expect to make some headway against leaf-distase, recuper­ate our estates, and dispense w ith some of our labour. W e should certainly be concentrating our manure, our money and our energies, and may be adopting a plan economical and suitable for the new order of things.—I remain, yours faithfully,

JO H N HA M ILTON.

HOW TO GERM INATE AND GROW LED G ERIA N A SEED.

Agrapatana, 29th Nov. 1881.Dear Sir , —Now th a t the valuable pill-boxes of

Ledgeriana seed are being sent to nearly every coffee estate in Ceylon, where the climate is at all suitable to the cultivation of the richest species of the cin­chona family, I th ink it desirable th a t planters, who have already made Ledgeriana nurseries, should pub­lish the results of their experience for the benefit of those now about to form them for the first time.

Those wiio have been successful would do good service by telling us by wha* method th a t success was obtained, while those who have wholly or partially failed m ight help equally by indicating th e causes to which they a ttribute their failure. I venture to set the ball rolling, hoping th a t others will not be wanting to kick it along.

Failure as well as success has not been wanting in my own experience of nurseries, hu t 1 flatter myself that, taught by experience, the next Ledgerian; nursery I a ttem pt will tu rn out a real good one.

I have plauted Ledger seed in pure jungle soil, ju s t as it came from the jungle. I have also used jungle soil after having thoroughly destroyed all the germs of poochie life by heating i t w. 11 on a flat tin over a fierce fire. I have tried surface soil and river sand "in equal proportions. I have used flower­pots, chatties, and wooden boxes to sow tin seed in. I have tried beds made on the flat and on the slope, with roofs over them, of thatch, talipots and shingles, th e la tte r in one case w ith window frames taken bodily out of the bungalow and let into the roof.

My seeds have been sown an inch apart in re­gular rows, and also broadcast and thickly ; they have been watered by absorption through porous chatties, and by spray.

When the small seedlings have refused to come on, b u t seemed inclined to remain for ever in statu quo, w ith their single pair of little leaves, they have been treated w ith tepid water, w ith soap-suds, with a weak solution of liquid cattle manure.

I have also tried placing manure deep down, a foot under the bed, to warm them , and draw the roots down in the same way th a t tb e window-frame above would keep their heads stra ight up.

The result of all th is is that, I th ink , the best site for a nursery is one w ith an eastern aspect.

The land should be gently sloping, the beds should be well raised and should be made of jungle soil, and river sand mixed in equal parts ; the jungle soil having been scraped from the surface, then well sifted and thoroughly baked. No manure of any kind to be added.

The roofs to be thick mana-grass thatch fastened securely on large hurdles which can be attached to the posts of th e nursery by tem porary fastenings, and, when the seed has well germinated, these roofs can be lifted bodily off during the early morning and again in the evening. The seedlings will grow stou t and hardy and will neiiher he sappy nor be leaning all on one. side.

Sow the seed pretty thickly : seedlings seem to grow better a t first close together, and to support one an­other. Perhaps th is may be my fancy, but, if you sow the seed far apart, the nursery will always look thin, wretched and disappointing. I began with Ledgers two inches and more apart, and have been getting closer ever since.

Keep the nursery very dark and moist t ill all the seeds have germinated, and I hen gradually accustom them to much light and little water. If th e w eather is cold and wet, the water used may be ju st warmed.

These simple instructions will do well for a cinchona nursery, bu t a rough nursery i f th is k ind is fit only for ordinary calisaya, succirubra, and olficinalis, of which the seed is plentiful and the seedlings are hardy.

I t is a remarkable fact th a t the young seedlings of officinalis should he so hardy and the m aturer p lant so delicate and difficult to grow.

Ledgeriana is ju s t the reverse. I t requires great care to get real Ledgeriana seed to germinate, and more difficult still to get the small seedlings to come on. But once established, and th e delicate period of in ­fancy once past, no cinchona is more hardy or grows faster. Much disappointed a t some of my Ledger nurseries having taken long to germinate and having stuck fast as seedlings, I wrote to a friend in Boga- wantalawa, who had been among th e very first in Ceylon to raise a quantity of Ledgers successfully, and told him of my anxiety. H e reassured me by telling me th a t I could not have a bette r sign of I he purity of my seed. I therefore took patience, and m any of these seedlings are now turning into tine plants.

The common calisayas grow like weeds from the beginning.

On the largest private p lantation in Java, Soeka- wanua, where more than four hundred acres of young Ledgers of tbe purest strain are growing magnificently, they economize their seed by planting every grain under glass. I f they take these precautions in the Preanger, surely we in Ceylon, where the seed is so scarce and so valuable, may well do likewise. This is what the head inspector or visiting agent ef Soeka- wauna, Mr. Von Wenning, writes to me on the sub­ject, or, to speak more accurately, a free translation of what he writes :—

“ My experience leads me also to th in k th a t the species Lt dgeriana presents a great contrast to the species officinalis.

“ The la tte r germinates easily and grows apace while yet a seedling in the nurseries, bu t no sooner out in the open clearing than the delicacy of its constitution manifes s itself and its growth and development are slower than the growth and developm ent of any other kind of cinchona.

“ A Ledger seed, however, germinates only under favorable circumstances and requires fostering care as a seedling, bu t once over the critical period of its infancy, i t becomes a robust tree of rapid and vigor­ous growth.

“ This difference in the constitution of the two species has been impressed the more strongly on my mind, inasmuch as during th e last three m onths my

officinalis clearings have suffered extrem ely from the drought. Many of the one year old have died for w ant of rain, and still more are in a very critical state . More th an three months w ithout a drop of rain is, of course, quite out of the ordinary course of weather vagaries, and may well account for a considerable m ortality among the plants in young clearings. This makes it the more remarkable th a t th e Ledgers (even those quitn lately planted out) should have borne th is try ing period most bravely, and th a t they should hardly hive suff red a t all, as is the case.

“ But, for the first development, I recommend you to take every possible care. I sow the seed of my fine Ledgers in pots, placed under a two-fold covering of glass ; t .ia t is, I put the pots in glass-covered frames, the frames themselves being in the conservatories. Under this double glass th e \ remain till the seeds have germinated, aud 1 now think th a t 1 have minimized the percentage of seeds which tail, and have given to each individual germ a fair chance of developm ent.”

To sum up, therefore 1 shall now describe the method I should recommend planters here to follow with their Ledger seed. Procure a melon frame : three feet of wood a t the back, eighteen inches in front. Let the w idth be five or six feet, aud the length about nine feet. This will adm it of three slides of glass planes, each of three feet wide, to draw up aud down ; these slides, being almost entirely composed of glass w ith only a slight woodwork to hold the glass together, and for the necessary groove;. As the sun here is so hot, the glass should be painted green and the woodwork white or vice versa. Green, however, I prefer, as green not only is best for the human eye, bu t is na ture’s own favorite colour, aud seedlings in their natural state have the rays of the sun broken for them by a green canopy of sheltering foliage above them .* Place the frame on a gentle slope to the east, level the ground carefully, and make a flooring of well bu rn t bricks closely fitted together; then pu t a covering, about two or th ree inches deep, of well-dried forest leaves, and then till up, w ith a m ixture of washed sand and surface soil from the jungle, to a reasonable distance from the top of the lower side of your frame. Mix your seed well w ith a handful of sand and then sprinkle i t p re tty thickly on the surface.

Have other frames ready to prick out into. This time, however, let the mixture, to be placed on the top of the layer of dead leaves, be composed, half of surface virgin soil, and half of w ell-burnt bricks reduced to a fine powder.

I have ordered some frames from Messrs. Bull of Chelsea, but I should th ink th ey m ight be made to order in Colombo or by Messrs. W alker & Co. in Kandy. T ill they can be procured, one m ight p lant in brandy cast s, being careful to drill nine good holes in the bottom, to cover each hole w ith what gardeners call a croc, aud before the layer of dead leaves to place a layer of pebbles or small stones.

The shingled roof of the bath-room m ight be taken off and a couple of the bungalow window-frames let in instead, the glass, of course, being painted. The seed boxes could then be placed ^on shelves round the room, in company with a few traps, bu t not those cruel contrivances which close their iron teeth on the poor ra t and keep him painfully straining a t a broken leg for many hours, till his to rtu re is ended in the morning by the last coup de grace.—I remain, dear sir, yours, &c., E. H. C.

ANALYSIS OF W YNAAD CINCHONA.Colombo, 24th N ov . 1881.

S ir , —I send you analysis of a sample of hybrid cinchona bark, received on the 31st ultimo., from South E ast W ynaad, and grown at an elevation of 5,000

.feet. On receipt of the analysis, the sender was good * For a correction of this see page 620.—Ed.

153

enough to furnish the following particulars:— ‘‘The tree I sent you the bark from is amongst ottr condamineas (nut manured) and very much resembles the C. pub­escens. or magnifolia in the Governm ent Ne livatam plantations. The analysis also corresponds with th a t of the bark from one of the Government trees of th a t variety. I t is a very free-growing tree, size of suc­cirubra : b u t the leaves are not quite so large and exactly the color of condamiuea leaves.”

The analysis of the bark was as follows .—per cent.

M oisture... ... .. ... 11*76Total alkaloids ... ... ... 8*3*2Crystallized quinine sulphate ... 4*69

M. COCHRAN.

S a l e of J a v a C a l is a y a L e d g e r ia n a S e e d in C o l ­o m b o . —The result of this day’s (29th November) sale of C. Ledgeriana seed, by Mr. Symons, is as follows :—

2 boxes, each containing 2 grammes at R 18 R362 2 „ „ 17 34

14 15 21014 „ 2 ,, ,, 12 16810 2 11 11013 >> 2 10 130

55 boxes. R688C in c h o n a C u l t u r e in C e y l o n : t h e R o b u s t H y ­

b r i d vs. Magnifolia.—A correspondent, writes :—“ I have been reading your cinchona news with much interest lately. I believe O. magnifolia to be qu ite distinct from the robust growing trees we are ac­customed to call hybrids, m any of which approach to the former in appearance of foliage. I hope to ex­perim ent w ith seed this year from what I believe to be the only C. magnifolia I possess. I t would be in ­teresting to know wliafc the experience has been generally with eo-called hybrid seed. Has it come up like its immediate parent or gone back to the original succU rubra ?”

C in c h o n a i n C e y l o n . —Anent Colonel Beddome’s very interesting report, i t would be well, if mortgagees and others a t home interested in our island, would take it to heart, equally with the editor of the Field, who has given the advantage of his world-wide circulation to dissemin­ate gloomy ideas of our industrial prospects. In reference to th is we have been favored w ith the copy of a le tter addressed by Mr. Duncan Skrine to the editor of the above paper in which he states the actual facts connected w ith the “ Frobofts” Cinchona yield, not precisely as given in Colonel Beddome's report, but so as cannot fail to convince any impartial mind of the excellent prospects in Ceylon for th a t new pro­ducts. The le tter iu question says th a t in this year forty acres of F rotofts cinchona estatehavebeen grubbed up and the bark, including th a t from the roots, brought on the London m arket. Tne n e tt proceeds of this consignment were £6,500 or more than £162 per acre. The proprietors have besides this harvested b irk from dead and dying trees on th is property to the n e tt value of £2,000, giving a total yield of £8,500. The estate was four and a half years old when the forty acres were grubbed up, and th is land will now be re­planted w ith cinchona. The w riter of the le tte r in ques­tion goes on to say: — “ Rash speculation on borrowed money, leaf-disease, and seasons out of jo in t have crippled Ceylon for the moment, bu t we are working through our troubles, and I am convinced th a t at this moment there are more good bargains to be had in Ceylon than in any other of our colonies. The gamblers have been crushed out, and th e faint-hearted have gone or are going, bu t those who have the back-bone to stay on will be amply rewarded. Coffee is looking m agni­ficent audour cinchona enterprize is anassured success.” — “ C. Tim es,”

TRANSPLANTING FR U IT TR EES.(Field, 29th October 1881.)

In a general way, the transplanting of fruit trees is left much too late for them to succeed properly, as, un­like evergreens, which may be moved almost at any season, deciduous trees only do really well when taken in hand early in the autumn, or directly the leaves fall, as then, the earth being warm, they emit roots at once, and the buds continue to be well fed, instead of starved, as they are if the trees are disturbed after the turn of the year. This being the case, those who contemplate replanting should order their trees at once ; and, that they may not be out of the ground longer than is absol­utely necessary,. when they arrive, provision should be made for their reception by digging holes and being prepared with soil suitable for them to grow in, as, however good that of a garden may be, there is nothing like having a little fresh soil to place over and about the roots, to give them a fair start, on which so much of their future welfare depends. To use a lot of manure, as some do, is a great mistake, as, instead of being of service, it is a positive injury when brought in immedi­ate conta#t with the roots, which it causes to canker. Used as a mulching, however, the case is different, as then it acts favourably by keeping the frost out and the ground uniform in temperature ; and -when rain falls the juices are washed down by degrees, and gradually enrich the soil over which the manure is spread.

The best kind of soil for young fruit trees is fresh- cut turf from an old pasture that grows good grass and has been closely fed ; and for peaches, nectarines, apri­cots, and plums such as may often be got from waste places by the roadside answers well, on account of having more grit in i t ; but for pears and apples the less sandy it is the better, as they like it rather in­clined to be heavy than light, and, if stiff soil cannot be got, a little fine crumbly clay may be added. This will give the necessary weight and texture to the whole body of turfy loam if properly mixed with it, and when so used is a great aid to the trees during dry summer, as clay buried in that way among lighter soil is very retentive of moisture : and I have seen roots, when trees have been taken up, clinging to it with the greatest tenacity, thus showing how well it agreed with them. In getting the turfy loam, it should simply be chopped up roughly, and, if the clay is added, turned over to m ix; but I would "warn all against using leaf mould, which is most dangerous, as it always has a tendency to breed fungus, a parasite which is most destructive to the roots of all plants, and is often the cause of disease and death by getting 011 and into the bark, where it stops up the pores and poisons the sap. The soil being all prepared, the next thing is to turn attention to the trees, which should be closely examined, and have any injured roots trimmed by cutting away the points with a sharp knife, as they heal over a smooth wound much more readily and quickly than they do over a rough, jogged one.

S h o r t e n i n g t h e B r a n c h e s .—It is the practice with some to prune back the branches, but it is a very rough and barbarous one, as it mutilated the plant so operated on, and thrown it back at least a year, as after a sea­son’s growth the head will be little if any bigger than when purchased ; and the object in planting a tree is, or ought to be, to get it up to a fruit-bearing size as quickly as possible. I t often happens that shoots are mispfaced and require thinning o u t; but that is a very different thing from hacking them back, as some do, thinking to make them break lower. If a tree is pro­perly planted and cared for in the way touched on, all buds will start free enough. The plan of procedure in p lanting . should be to partly fill the holes made for each tree with a barrowr-load or so of the chopped loam, . keeping the same highest in the middle where the tree ! goes, that the points of the roots may slope gently I down; and before covering them with the same kind I

of soil as that placed under, it is important that they be spread well and regularly out, so that they do not cross or interfere with each other. In filling in, the soil should be made firm by gentle tread ing : and when this is done, the next thing is to mulch around the stems with manure, covering a surface of two feet or more. As the wind interferes much with trees rooting if allowed to sway about, the stems should be supported by stakes and ties, or, in the case of those against walls, by the aid of nails and shreds loosely applied, so as to allow the plant liberty to go down a little as the soil settles, instead of being hung up and strained.

J. D.

MR. MORRIS ON CINCHONA CULTURE IN JAMAICA.

H IN T S AND S U G G E S T IO N S FO R R A IS IN G CINCHONA P L A N T S

FRO M S E E D AND E S T A B L IS H IN G CINCHON A PL A N T A T IO N S .*

I .— Rawing Seedlings in Boxes.Boxes.—For raising small quantities of plants—say

from 30 to 80,000—it is desirable to sow the seed in small shallow boxes under cover, where they can be con­veniently attended to.

The boxes may be of any size as regards length and breadth, but should not be more than about 3 or 4 inches deep. Ordinary brandy or wine cases reduced to the above depth answer well.

To promote drainage* holes about § inch in diameter should be made in the bottom of the boxes a t distances of about 6 inches apart. The inside of the boxes should be treated with white wash, or thoroughly dusted with quick lime to prevent mouldiness of the soil and subsequent injury to the young seedlings. Over the holes in the bottom of the boxes place pieces of broken pots or brick, and cover the surface to the depth of one inch with rubble or broken stones.

Soil.—The soil for the boxes should consist of one- third of leaf mould, or that kind of soil of a black peaty character which is often to be found under large trees in the fo rest: one-third of good ordinary garden soil and one-third of sharp sand or fine river gravel. These should be mixed thoroughly together and passed through a quarter inch sieve.

The boxes may then be filled within one quarter inch of the top, with the sifted soil placed over the broken stones, Ac., and slightly pressed so as to present an even unbroken surface.

Sowing the Seed.—After slightly watering the soil in the boxes the cinchona seed, which is very light and small, should be sprinkled rather thickly over the surface, so as to cover nearly every part with a rich brown tint. When this has been done, take a small quantity of the fine sifted soil, mentioned above, and sprinkle it over the seeds, barely covering them.

Watering and Shading.—The boxes should then be placed in the shade, sheltered from sun, wind and rain, and kept regularly watered, daily, with the finest poss­

* W ith the view of promoting the general culture of cinchona in the island, seeds of the, valuable C. Officin­alis, producing the Crown Bark of Commerce, and * suitable for cultivation a t elevations above 4,000 feet, will be supplied, free of postage, at the rate of 5/ per ounce.

Seeds of the Red Bark, C. Succirubra, suitable for cultivation a t elevations between 2,500 and 4,000 feet, will shortly be available and supplied, by post, at the rate of 3/ per ounce.

An ounce of cinchona seed is sufficient to produce20,000 seedlings, which, if carefully raised, will plant up five acres of land.

Applications for seed, accompanied by a remittance in postage stamps, or order 011 the Parochial Treasury, Kingston, should be addressed to the Director of Public Gardens and Plantations, Gordon Town.

ible spray from a watering can. Under the condi­tions above mentioned, the seeds will begin to germinate in about 3 or 4 weeks. They will require regular water­ing, however, till they are 1J or 2 inches high, when they are ready for the surseries.

I I .—Raising Seedlings in Beds.Where seedlings are required to be raised on a large

scale it is advisable to grow them in beds protected By a roof of shingles or good thatch. The roof sloping South and supported on posts 4 feet 6 inches high on the North and 3 feet 3 inches on the South side, should completely cover the beds and keep off both sun and rain. I t is also advisable to shelter the sides of the sheds by grass or wattle fence, so as to keep off the slanting rays of the sun and strong winds.

The beds should run in parallel rows due E ast and W est; be about 3 feet wide and with a path between each bed about 2J feet wide. After the beds are laid out, the surface should be covered to the depth of 2 or 3 inches with the same mixture of soil as recommended above for the boxes. The seeds may then be sown and kept regularly watered night and morning. The following is an approximate representation of the seed sheds :—

III .—Establishing Cinchona Xurseries.Xursery Beds.—WTien seedlings have been raised either

in boxes or beds and are about I j or 2 inches high, the next step is to transplant them into the nurseries. I 11 selecting situations for seed beds and nurseries it should be borne in mind that a sheltered situation, with a

I plentiful supply of water, are no less important considera- ! tions than nearness to the land intended to be planted.

- The beds for the nurseries should be laid out in every j respect as for seed beds, i.e., about 3 feet wide, with j paths 24 feet wide, treated on the surface with a mixt­

ure of good soil, and placed in rows due East and West.Before the seedlings are transferred to these beds it

would be well to prepare, before-hand, the necessary materials for shading them.

These may consist of long straight wattles, supported on forked sticks and covered with grass, ferns or palm leaves. Side shading is also advisaBle especially on the South side. The shading for nurseries would appear

■ somewhat as follows:—

Pricking out seedlings into nurseries is a work requir­ing great care ; but with a little experience it can be done very successfully and expeditiously.*

* At the Cinchona Plantation, pricking out seedlings is done by contract at the rate of 9d. per thousand. A ma»i or woman after a little experience can prick out about 2,000 per diem.

The seedlings being about 1J or 2 inches high may j

be earned in the boxes or raised from the seed beds ; in lots of 200 or 300 and brought into the nursery, j The beds already prepared for them should receive a ! good watering and be pressed evenly by gentle tapping j with a piece of board. The person about to prick out should be provided with a small wooden peg about 4 or 5 inches long and § inch in diameter at one end, taper- j ing to a dull rounded point at the other. Taking up \ a seedling carefully by the leaves, with the left hand, ■ a small hole should be made with the peg in the right i hand, just deep enough to take the tender roots of the seedling without bending or crushing them. When placed in the hole, the soil should be pressed closely to the rootlets by means of the peg and the seedling left firmly fixed with its leaves and stem well above ground. The seedlings should be placed in rows at regular distances apart so as to allow about two inches between each plant.

As soon as an appreciable number of seedlings have been pricked out, the shading, as shewn above, should be imme­diately placed over them to prevent injury from sun or rain.

The nursery beds will require regular watering for some time, but when the plants are about 4 or 5 inches high it would be well to remove the shading, little by little, in order that the plants may become gradually hardened and ultimately fit for transplanting to their per­manent places in the field.

IV.—Establishing Cinchona Plantations.Climate.—It may be generally accepted for Jamaica

(between 17° and 19°* latitude North, and 75° and 79° longitude "West) that, a t all elevations from about 2,500 feet to the Blue Mountain Peak, 7,335 feet, the climatic conditions are all favourable for the suc­cessful cultivation of one or other of the various species of Cinchona. For comparison, it may be men­tioned that Cinchona Succirubra flourishes in the Parish of Manchester, according to information supplied by Mr. Swaby, at an elevation of 2,700 feet, with a rainfall of about 120 inches, and a mean annual temperature of 70° Fahrenheit. This elevation may be taken as nearly the lowest a t which the more valuable Cinchonas may be remuneratively grown in Jamaica.

At the Government Cinchona Plantations Cinchona Succirubra flourishes at 5.000 feet.f The records here show a mean annual rainfall of 130 inches and a mean annual temperature of 60° Fahrenheit. The trees at this elevation do not seed freely, and are apparently so slow in maturing, that this elevation may be taken as the highest, at which it would be advisable to cultivate Red Bark in Jamaica.

For the valuable Crown Bark, Cinchona Officinalis, as it flourishes at 4,500 feet near Whitfield Hall, and a t 4,800 feet at the Cinchona Plantation, possibly it may grow as low as 4,000 feet. Its range of cultivation, so far, in Jamaica is between 4,500 and 6,300 fe e t: a few plants of this species planted by Mr. Nock, on Blue Mountain Peak, in 1878, though they have suffered from their exposed position, would indicate that the conditions, even at this elevation, are not unfavourable to the growth of small leaved and hardy Cinchonas.

Soil.—All species of Cinchonas are most impatient of stagnant moisture at their roots, and therefore require an open subsoil, a sloping exposure, and other conditions of perfect drainage. They naturally prefer a rich soil, and do better in newly cleared forest than in grass lands, Cinchona Officinalis is, however, more tolerant than C. Succirubra of a soil poor in vegetable humus, and grows on grass land, as well as on exhausted coffee soils.

The freer and more friable the surface soil the better, but the ultimate success of the Cinchona plant depends essentially 011 the character of the subsoil. An open well drained subsoil is above all things indispensable to Cinchona cultivation.

* W ith 10° further north I should think succirubras ought to flourish at 1,000 ft. in Jamaica.—E d.

f 5,000 Jamaica equivalent to nearly 6,000 in Ceylon.—E d.

“ As soon as the roots of a Cinchona tree get down into subsoil, in which there is any tendency for moisture to collect,the plant most certainly begins to sicken and die.”

The best trees at the Government Cinchona P lantation s grow in a good friable surface soil, overlying a porous stony subsoil produced by decomposed rock of the metamorphosed series of Jam aica Geology. This sub­soil is found generally distributed throughout the Parishes of St. Andrew, St. Thomas and Portland. In limestone districts of the island eastward the soil generally must he very favourable to Cinchona cultivation, the only qualifying conditions being the elevation and mean annual rainfall.

Sites fo r Plantations.—In selecting sites for Cinchona Plantations, it is important to hear in mind the points above mentioned, as regards climate and soil, and the species of Cinchona naturally adapted for them.

Where Cinchona is cultivated concurrently with Coftee, it is recommended to attempt to grow the valuable Crown Bark, C. Offi:inalis, at all elevations above 4,000 feet. O11 rather bare patches, by road sides and indeed any­where where plants can be placed, this hardy and valu­able plant should be abundantly grown.

O11 Coffee Plantations below 4,000 feet, the most suit­able kinds are the Red Bark, C. Succirubra, and a hybrid variety which has passed here as C. Calisaya. These may be planted on coffee estates as suggested above for C. Officinalis.

In selecting sites for permanent Cinchona Plantations as distinct from Coftee Plantations, the nature of the soil, the direction of prevailing winds, the aspect, the mean annual temperature and annual rainfall, are all m atters for serious consideration. Speaking generally, however, no sheltered situation, with good soil, can be said to he unsuitable for Cinchona anywhere 011 the Blue Mountain range. The northern aspect has a more equable temperature than the southern, but the latter appears to he generally preferred for coftee. As Cinchonas delight in a moist equable temperature, it is very probable that vast tracts of land lying hitherto uncultivated on the northern slopes of the Blue Mountain range will ultimately prove suitable for Cinchona.

Clearing Land.—When it is intended to establish a Cinchona Plantation, on uncleared land, the first considera­tion after the site has been carefully selected, is to establish the seed beds and nurseries. Full particulars respecting tliese are given in the foregoing paragraphs. While the plants are being thus prepared, the land intended for the plantation should be properly cleared as for coffee cultivation.

I t may he well, however, to point out that it is very advisable in Jamaica to leave moderately wide belts of forest standing on the ridges, for the purpose of afford­ing shelter from strong winds. I 11 addition to tins, it is recommended on very steep places, rocky hollows and any patches of land unsuitable for Cinchona, that the original forest l>e left standing in order to ensure ad­equate shelter for the Cinchonas as well as save need­less expense in cutting down, weeding, &c.

In India, the methods pursued for clearing forest for Cinchona cultivation are described as follows:—“ The best time for beginning to clear forest land for Cin­chonas is obviously when the dry season has sufficiently advanced to make a second growth of grass improbable. When the felled forest, whether grass or timber, is sufficiently dry it may be fired. Stumps and logs remain­ing unburnt after the fire may be rolled into spots unsuitable for planting, or heaped together and burnt. A better way is to lay them between the lines of plants, and allow them to rot and thus to profit by the humus formed by their decay. The large fibrous roots of tall grasses and other weeds likely to overpower the young trees about to be planted, should be dug out and killed either by exposure or burning. The land being thus cleared, any necessary roads may be lined oft' and made. The sites in which the plants are to he put must then he marked off. This may conveniently be done by means

of a cord, about 100 feet long, on which marks are tied a t the intervals a t which it is wished to plant the trees. This cord is stretched on the ground, and opposite each of the marks on it, a piece of split bamboo or a peg is struck into the soil. The cord is then moved, another line is staked off at a proper distance from the last, and so on. Coolies follow, whose duty it is to dig pits, about a foot to fifteen inches in depth and eighteen inches wide, of which the stakes already put in should be the centres. The earth (freed from roots and stones) which has been taken out of each hole should be returned to it, so as to form a free mass in which the roots of the plant about to be planted can freely work. A cooly in Sikkim makes 100 to 130 of such pits per day according to the nature of the ground.”

Planting.—When the ground has been prepared, as mentioned above, the plants already established in the nurseries after being gradually hardened will be fit for planting out. The night before the plants are taken out of the nursery beds, they should be well deluged with water, in order that a good ball of soil may a ihere to their roots in the process of transplanting. The plants should be earned from the nurseries to the fields, in shallow boxes or baskets, well shaded from the sun and with a plentiful supply of wet moss, grass or ferns round the roots. The best season for planting in Jam ­aica is evidently after the October rains, and the most favourable conditions are obtained during a prevalence of damp, cloudy, or foggy weather, with only slight rain or occasional showers. I t is unadvisable to plant during heavy rains as most soils get clogged and heavy, and become in this state prejudicial to the tender root­lets of the plants. In placing the plants in the holes it is only necessary to make an opening with the hand or a trowel in the fresh loose soil already prepared for them, sufficiently deep to receive the roots without doubling them. When thus deposited, the soil shouldbe filled in round the plant, and well pressed as it isthrown in to cover the roots. No plant should be buried deeper in the ground than the collar or union of stem and roots. “ When a portion of the stem is buried in transplanting, the growth of the plant is much retarded, and it does not, as some suppose, give a firmer hold of the ground but the reverse.”

Too much attention cannot be given to the modes of putting out cinchona plants. “ I t is too important an operation to be done badly: it is not wise to try to economise on it, and it is always unadvisable to do it by contract.” A good planter should be able to putin from five hundred to a thousand plants per dayaccording to the nature of the soil.

Planting Distances.—In the early days of cinchona planting, the trees were put out a t distances of twelve feet apart, but it was soon found out that, even for the strong and free growing Red Bark, C. Succirubra, this distance was too great for remunerative results. “ I t appears that the Red Bark, even in South America, is never a large t re e : G. Officinalis is but a big shrub, and it is doubtful whether any of the species become much larger.”

In the Government Plantations of India, a t Sikkim, the Nilgiris and Darjeeling, even the large-leaved Cin­chona Succirubra, are now planted a t distances of 4 feet by 4 feet, giving 2,722 trees per acre, whereas when planted a t 12 feet by 12 feet, as hitherto followed in Jamaica, the number of trees is only 303 per acre. Dr. King, in his “ Manual of Cinchona Cultivation in India,” remarks that “ wide-planting is obviously an error.” All the cinchonas have the habit of throwing out a quantity of superficial rootlets, and young cinchona plantations do not thrive until the soil between the trees is sufficiently protected from the sun to allow these superficial rootlets to perform their functions freely. The growth of weeds, which is a very important factor in tropical cultivation, is also checked by shade. By close planting, therefore, two desirable objects are speedily obtained, and, moreover, the trees are encouraged to

154

produce straight clear stems yielding a larger proportion of trunk bark and less branch bark. On this well known habit of forest trees is founded the practice of close planting in forest plantations in Europe, the object being to produce long straight unbranching stems from which to cut timber of long scantling.

As the trees begin to press upon each other, they can be thinned out and a quantity of bark may thus be got a t a comparatively early period, with positive advantage to the plants that are allowed to remain on the ground. I t is true that the cost of close planting is greater than that of sparse planting, but on the other hand the reduction in the cost of cleaning and the manifest greater yield of the plantation will more than compensate for this.

I t may, therefore, be safely assumed that the Red Bark, C. Succirubra, should be planted a t distances not greater than 4 feet by 4 feet, and the Crown Bark, C. Officinalis, at not greater than 3 feet by 3 feet.

The latter may however very conveniently be put out at distances of three feet between the rows and only two feet between each plant.

Shading.—It is very advisable to give the newly planted plants some shade for a short time after they are put out. The best and cheapest mode for any particular locality must of course depend on local conditions. At the Government Cinchona Plantations it is found very convenient to place two or three sprays of the common bracken Pteris Aquilina on the sunny side of the plant with the stalks w-ell fixed in the ground. Should the weather prove wet with high gales of wind the fern leaves should be slightly moved on one side, so as not to touch or rub the plant when moved by the action of the wind.

Staking.—In windy localities, it is often necessary when plants have attained the height of two or three feet, to give them support by stakes. The great danger to be avoided in staking the plants is the chafing caused by the swaying of the plant. If the material used for tying is of a soft nature, and the stakes are placed in a sloping direction so as only to touch the plants a t one point, much of the evils of chafing may be avoided.

Weeding.— Sooner or later a newly planted dealing will begin to show signs of the numerous tropical weeds which everywhere infest the land. I t is hopeless to think of entirely freeing the ground from such unwelcome visitors, and, indeed, in the case of a cinchona plantation, it is quite unnecessary to do so. No special rule can be laid dowrn as to the number of clearings actually required during the first and second years, but it would be advisable to keep down by cutting most weeds till the young plants are sufficiently grown to overtop them. Hoe-weeding as a general treatm ent should never be permitted as thereby the valuable surface soil is loosened and washed away.

“ Where the majority of the weeds are annuals, and the soil is soft and friable, it may be advisable occasion­ally to substitute hand weeding for cutting.

“ The disturbance of the surface of the soil caused in pulling the "weeds up by the roots, affords a rough kind of cultivation which is advantageous; moreover the superficial roots of the cinchonas are less damaged than by hoeing. I t need scarcely be stated that, in pro­portion as the Cinchona trees grow and their leafy heads cover the ground, the undergrowth of weeds becomes less luxuriant. A slight superficial hoeing of the soil immediately round the plants should, however, be given once a year if possible. The space to be cleared need not exceed one and a half to two feet in diameter, having the tree stem as its centre. To young plants especially this is very beneficial, and it is found that the oldest trees in the Sikkim plantation are much benefitted by the operation.

“ I n a ll c u ltu ra l o p e ra tio n s i t o u g h t to be b o rn e in m in d th a t th e ro o ts of c in ch o n as a re c o m p ara tiv e ly su p e r­fic ia l, a n d th a t a n y very deep h o e in g is th e re fo re m ore like ly to do h a rm th a n good .” D . M o r r is .

Director of Public Gardens and Plantations.

USE OF SMALL BIRDS IN DESTROYING INSECTS.A correspondent w rites:—In sending you the accom­

panying cutting from a very old number of the Saturday Magazine, I wish to mention that a magpie (the com­mon Ceylon species)* has made a nest under the caves of my office room, and I observed that in 30 minutes the parent birds have fed the young ones seventeen times, and all the food(grubs and caterpillars I believe)have been got from my flower garden, chiefly from the rose trees.

We would say a word or two respecting the benefits and injuries imputed to Sparrows, Linnets, and other small birds. That they are occasionally mischievous cannot be denied, though its but fair to add, that they also, like the Rooks before mentioned, repay us by a considerable balance of good. That the Bullfinch feeds on the buds and seeds of trees, there can be no doubt, and that the Chaffinch, though by many considered as a pure feeder on insects, does the same, particularly in early Spring, when he inflicts ruinous injury on the sprouting crops of several plants, is equally true. Spar­rows, too, burrow in our stacks, and consume a cert­ain quantity of co rn ; not, indeed, in the same serious quantities that another bird does, called the Snow- Bunting : these birds, in hard Winters, come from the north in prodigious flocks, and, where they take up their quarters, become quite a nuisance; not so much by what they consume, as by what they destroy; which they do thus. In search of grain they frequent the stack, and then seizing the end of a straw, deliberately draw it out. To such a degree has this been done by them, that the base of a rick has been found entirely surrounded by the straw, one end resting on the ground, the other against the stack, as it slid down from the top, and as regularly placed as if by hand, and so completely was the thatching pulled ofl, that it was found necessary to remove the corn.

That some guess may be formed of the possible extent of good or evil occasioned by small birds, we annex the result of our own observations, on the pre­cise quantity of food consumed by certain birds, either for their own support or th a t of their young, remark­ing at the same time, that the difference observed in the instances, may be partly accounted for by the different quantity of food required by young birds, at different periods of their growth.

Sparrows feed their young 36 times in an hour, winch, calculating at the rate of 14 hours a day, in the long days of Spring and Summer, gives 3,500 times per w eek; a number corroborated on the authority of another writer, who calculated the number of Cater­pillars destroyed in a week to be about 3,400.—Red­starts were observed to feed their young with little green grubs from gooseberry-trees, 23 times in an hour, which, a t the same calculation, amounts to 2,254 times in a week ; but more grubs than one were usually im­ported each time.—Chaffinches a t the rate of about 35 times an hour, for five or six times together, when they would pause and not return for intervals of eight or ten m inutes: the food was green Caterpillars.—The Titmouse 16 times in an hour.

The comparative weight consumed was as follows:— a Greenfinch provided with 80 grains, by weight, of wheat, in 24 hours consumed 70, but of a thick paste, made of flour, egg, &c., it consumed upwards of 1 0 0 grains.—A Goldfinch consumed about 90 grains of Canary- seed in 24 hours.—Sixteen Canaries consumed at the average rate of 100 grains each in 24 hours.

The consumption of food by these birds compared with the weights of their bodies, was about one-sixth, which, supposing a man to consume food in the same proportion to his weight, would amount to about 25 pounds for every 24 hours 1_________________________

*"Which is not a magpie at all, but our chief Ceylon song­ster, wilh a voice like that of Annie Lawrie, “low and sweet.” “ Spotted robi i ” seems more appropriate than 14 magpie ” applied by Europeans to this the “ dayal bird ” of the Sinha­lese, tbe Copsychus saularis, Linn., of ornithologists.—Ed.

INCREASING FARM PRODUCTIVENESS BYARTIFICIAL MANURES.[Field, 15th October 1881.)

Probably there is no book of recent publication which deserves more attentive study from British farmers than that of the French chemist, M. Ville, on artificial manures; inasmuch as he attempts to show that by their employ­ment in larger quantities than ordinary farmers have usually applied them, and according to the formulae which he prescribes, the occupiers of high-rented, heavily-taxed lands in Europe would be able to face American com­petition, and, if not securing large profits from their business, a t least escape from being submerged by that wave of ruin, against -which the husbandry of the old world cannot have too many breakwaters. The argu­ment of M. Ville in enforcing his theory is lucid and logical throughout, and no one can deny that he fortifies it very strongly with figures and fa c ts ; still, the ques­tion which he lays open for inquiry is too vast and momentous for a ready solution to be arrived at, capable of satisfying the general public, without experiments being tried over and over again under a variety of circumstances as regards soil and climate especially. For this reason the book cannot be too much read, as it seems peculiarly desirable that practical tests should be extensively applied, to prove how far its teaching can be vindicated.

The point is worthy of profound consideration that we have already in England one of the grandest tests for the system advocated by M. Ville, in the peculiar method of com growing which has been pursued for so many years by Mr. Prout, of Sawbridgeworth. To many also the success of the latter gentleman amounts to the best possible confirmation of the tru th of M. Ville’s principles which they could have. Mr. Prout employs artificial manures on an extensive scale indeed, being to the extent of 50s. an acre on an average per annum for his entire farm of 450 acres. He has written a book, in which he claims that by making this outlay he has been enabled to grow grain crops year after year on the same land, and secure a far better profit in so doing than the best and most fortunate of English faimers are accustomed to realise; so that M. Ville’s case may be considered proved so far, th a t under the circumstances of soil and climate which Mr. Prout has a t Sawbridgeworth com growing may be made remunerat­ive, even against the pressure of American competition, through the employment of artificial manures in larger quantities than they are usually bestowed.

So far as root crops are concerned, they have been habitually increasing these to a turly enormous extent during the past forty years—ever since the importa­tion of Peruvian guano commenced, and the great Liebig made known his discovery which led to the uprise of the superphosphate manufacture. The cheapness of mineral phosphates also has rendered great facilities to be available in raising roots, and especially turnips, more economically and largely for stock-feeding, whereby more and better farmyard manure has been made, to nourish the succeeding corn crops. To such an extent has this been done that it is a very popular belief, entertained by a considerable section of British farmers who occupy light soils, that their lands can be kept in sufficiently high condition without the aid of any other artificial manures than the phosphatic ones employed for roots and green crops. Still, such farmers usually are heavy purchasers of artificial foods for stock, under cover of which a great deal of nitrogen is purchased in the form of oilcakes, <fec., which, after passing through the bodies of the animals, finds its way to the soil.

If by ordinary management and reliance on home made manures the value of the crops be only from £5 to £7 per acre, whereas by the employment of one pound’s worth of artificial manure per acre they can be

raised to £ 1 0 , there must of necessity be a great gain. But, unfortunately, fanners not unfrequently expend the pound without receiving much benefit—no doubt from the injudicious application of manures. Nitrate of soda is a favourite top-dressing for wheat, and, if the growing plant of that crop looks weakly and of a bad colour, nine English farmers out of ten, if they can afford it, rush off to the manure merchant for nitrate of soda. But frequently, after being applied, the results are very far from being commensurate with expectations ; for, although the plant speedily turns to a darker hue, and may tiller out more abundantly, when the ripening period comes it gets blighted, causing the increase of produce to be more in straw than in grain. Hundreds of farmers get disgusted with nitrate of soda in consequence; and I have heard many express the opinion, after being disappointed, that its application to plants is very much akin to dram drinking—the efiect is very powerful a t first, but, so far from being lasting, is afterwards positively injurious. M. Ville will inform such persons that the cause of the evil is, not that the crop did not require the nitrogen contained in the n itrate of soda, but that it wanted something else also. Where lands top-dressed with this fertiliser have within themselves phosphoric acid, potash and lime, in suffici­ent soluble condition for the wants of the crop, the ill results would not be experienced; and it is just here that the French chemist offers material aid to the practical agriculturist in furnishing formuhe for manures, aud rules for their application.

M. Ville affirms that plants are divided into three categories—those in which nitrogenous m atter is the dominant constituent, to which cereals belong; those in which calcic phosphate is the predominating ingredient, such as turnips, maize, the sugar cane, &c. ; and legum­inous plants, comprising clover, sainfoin, lucerne, and potatoes. But he does not, like some of the older chemists, advise persons to act exclusively on the recommendation ‘‘nitrogen for corn, phosphates for turnips,” because this is so, but, 011 the contrary, say s: “ This first point being established, we have next to pick the most suitable quantities both of the dominant and subordinate constituents.” In fact, he divides the manures he recommends into no less than five different kinds, which he terms normal, homologous, stimulating, incomplete manure, and lastly, manure with special functions. Those who desire to study his views thoroughly had better, of course, procure the book and examine into his deductions in minutiae: but perhaps it will be sufficient for others to explain that M. Ville prescribes, as a doctor would, for each case, giving very full formulae in which each plant would have its dominant principle chiefly catered fo r ; the artificial manure recommended for it would also contain the other leading elements which are required to nourish plant life, although in smaller proportions. The “ incomplete m anures” alone have some element absent which, in most cases, would be highly necessary. They do not contain nitrogen, and are used for leguminous crops, which, according to M. Ville, can supply themselves sufficiently with the nitrogen they need from the atmosphere by means of their leaves.

By injudicious application almost every blessing is liable to be converted into ia curse ; and if the work of M. Ville produces no other beneficial result, should it cause more care and dexterity to be employed in the application of artificial manures, farmers will be sure to benefit very considerably. Nitrate of soda mixed with superphosphates, so as to form a nitro-phosphate, would no doubt very often succeed far better as a top- dressing for grain crops than nitrate of soda ; and in not a few other instances the careful study of the wants of the plant and the nature and properties of the soil would be sure to be useful before manures were applied in any form.

A g r i c o l a .

COFFEE PROPAGANDA IN BRAZIL.The following memorial was presented to the minister

of agriculture on the 15th inst. by the commission appointed by the “ Centro da Lavoura e Commercio,” with reference to the projected coffee expositions:—

“ Mr. Minister:—Constituted as a commission of the Centro da Lavoura e Commercio for the purpose of study­ing the project presented at the great meeting of coffee merchants for the improvement of the actual conditions of Brazilian coffee, an object of patriotic solicitude to the government, to the nation and especially to the classes we represent, we now report to your excellency the result of our labors.

Among the numerous economical facts which surround the great question of Brazilian coffee, its production and consumption, it is fit to distinguish those which, in the category of difficulties to overcome, belong, more or less nearly, to the direct action of the interested parties, and those which by their nature depend upon more complicated processes by their connexion with and affinity to the general economical organization.

If the production presents to us, in the complexity of the difficult problems which surround it, the gigantic work of great united efforts, organized and incessantly consecrated to this the best part of the public wealth, it is certain that the question of consumption is not only of essential interest to the economical state of the country, but also dominates the preceding and very grave question of production.

Considering the first fact separately, we find that a progressive agricultural development has considerably increased the Brazilian production, whereas a t the same time the competition of other countries has considerably distanced Brazil from her former proportion in the total production of the world.

Now, if the increase in the production of Brazil, ac­companied by the identical phenomenon on a still larger scale in other producing countries, had constituted an evil, we would have felt it progressively and in pro­portion to its manifestations. But, far from this, a great demand raised the prices, bringing a larger amount into consumption, notwithstanding the grave obstacles result­ing from the fiscal regimen of many consuming countries, f c ln this relation the coffee question offers, therefore, a favorable aspect as long as the demand tends to be maintained, even if not in the indicated progression, at least in proportion to the new and expected increase of production.

To direct in this sense all the forces which our mer­cantile aptitude affords, seems, therefore, the safest means to give firmness, in the present and in the future, to this great source of wealth in our national agri­culture.

Such are, briefly stated, the reasons which determined us to commence our labors upon this point, without prejudice to what may be urgently necessary to be done in the interest of production.

Without enumerating for the present all the causes which are disquieting our great national market (which will form the subject of special considerations which we shall opportunely submit to the wise judgment of the imperial government) we must declare that wre are yet very far from having established the approaches and associations which are so advantageous in the international relations of commerce.

To establish and encourage those communications would be the most direct means to improve and steady our position amidst the universal interests agitated in the great industrial competition, and it is under the influence of this conviction that we submit to your ex­cellency the general outlines of the plan which, under existing circumstances, seem to us to be of the earliest and easiest execution, and of equal interest to the cause of our relations abroad and to that of our studies, ob­servations and improvements at home.

In the month of October or November of each year

there will be held in the city of Bio de Janeiro a general exposition of Brazilian coffee produced in the provinces of Bio, Minas, S. Paulo and Espirito Santo, and also in such other provinces as may wish to take part in it.

This exposition will comprise, as far as practicable, every variety of types of the respective production, so as to give an idea not only of the good but of all the diverse qualities and is to be ceded unconditionally to the “ Centro da Lavouraedo Commercio,” the organizer and director of the said expositions.

The imperial government will concede gratuitous trans­port on its railroads to products destined for the ex­positions, and will provide through its dependencies every assistance which may facilitate this enterprise, such as exemption from duties and others, as well as the pecu­niary subventions which may be necessary.

W ithin the exposition building there will be admitted the designs and models of the machines and agricult­ural implements which the respective manufacturers and their representatives may wish to exhibit.

On days previously designated public conferences will be held on the various questions of rural, agricultural and commercial economy, with reference to Brazilian coffee.

During the time of the expositions the government railroads will issue tickets at reduced prices.

The classification of the exhibited products will remain in charge of the coffee merchants and brokers of this city and the awards will be made by a jury named from among the various classes comprised in the commerce of this article.

The prizes will be offered by the imperial government and the diplomas will be countersigned by the minister of agriculture, commerce and public works. Special prizes will be conferred upon municipalities according to the merit and standing of their respective exhibitors.

After the close of the exposition in Bio de Janeiro it will bo transferred to the various markets of America and Europe, the samples being sub-divided as may be judged most convenient, and preference in choice of markets each year being given according as it may appear most opportune in the judgment of the interested classes.

The “ Centro da Lavoura e do Commercio ” will endea­vour to obtain, with the assistance of the local press, a complete collection of the labors realized, which should form a beginning of the library of the coffee-growers.

The expositions in the foreign markets will be organ­ized according to a special plan which will be opport­unely elaborated under consultation with leading com­mercial men, foreign consuls and the Commercial Asso­ciation of Bio de Janeiro, so as to realize, as fully as possible, the idea of generalizing the knowledge and consumption of Brazilian coffee in its present markets and in those where it is not as yet known.

In the definite organization of these labors the eco­nomical question will be considered so as to render as small as possible the pecuniary contribution by the state, principally and directly interested in this great experi­ment.

The imperial government, besides giving the direct aid in the terms already specified, will recommend to all its diplomatic and consular agents to consider it their first and most patriotic duty to help and co-oper­ate in these labours of the agricultural industry of Brazil, not only by then- personal action and influence, but also by means of their prestige with the press and any other corporations of the countries where they may reside.

Such is, in its principal outlines, the plan which seems to us at once practicable and safe in its results, if the comprehension of their own interests will lead our planters, as it is to be hoped it will, to make the necessary effort.

We might offer to your excellency still other develop­

ments of the question submitted to our examination, chiefly with reference to the indispensable knowledge of the actual state of coffee culture in all producing coun­tries ; we lack, however, the necessary certainty in order to propose the best means to obtain the desired infor­mation, and this will yet form the subject of our parti­cular attention.

We rely on the awakening of the many interests already now represented in our agriculture, menaced in its actual constitution and economy; and we are con­vinced that the commercial class will not withhold its assistance and support of the attempts toward improve­ment and progress which we so much and so urgently need.

The imperial government in its wisdom will not fail to consecrate the most constant solicitude to these great subjects of public w ealth ; and so many united pledges will certainly result in restoring confidence and tran ­quility to labor, and to the country the abundance and prosperity which we all cordially and sincerely desire.” — Jornal do Commercio.

HOBJE HOBTULANJE ON SOILS.( Gardeners' Chronicle, 8 th October 1881.1

( Continued from page 561-1Beverting to the chemical changes in the soil, ad­

verted to a t the close of my liist article, I may say that in the first place, if I have at all carried my readers with me thus far, they will be prepared to admit that when we venture on questions connected with the chemistry of the soil, we have to deal not only—indeed, not so much—with the mere presence of this or that chemical substance, as with the existence and prevalence of chemical activities. As I said before, the elements which the plant builds up into its tissues are not quietly stored up in the earth like drugs in a chemist’s shop, and the plant does not simply pick out the particles it needs from their quiet resting-places just as the drug­gist takes from bottle and drawer the materials which he compounds into a healing draught. On the contrary, if there be any truth in what I have urged, the soil is crammed with hidden laboratories, and all the earth around and even far away from the recipient rootlets of the plants is, through the ceaseless action and re ­action of the compounds which make it up, engaged in continual slow but potent molecular tumult. But if this be admitted, there follows as a deduction an important truth, not always, I imagine, borne in mind, that when we add any substance to the soil, what we have to con­sider is, not the mere addition to the composition of the ground, but the influence which the new substance will exert on the activities which were previously at work. The substances, it is true, which I mentioned a little while back as being the constituent elements of all living tilings must be present in the soil at the dis­posal of the p la n t; hence, when they are absent or scanty, they must be supplied. So far the rule of mere addition holds good: but when we attempt to pass be­yond this simple instruction, we are a t once plunged into uncertainties. When chemistry was first applied to vegetable life, the path seemed easy enough. Since plants differ in composition, the right way appeared to be to analyse each plant, and to add to the soil the elements which predominate in the plant, giving here potash, there phosphates, according as one or the other abounded in the ashes. But a little experience showed that this lead­ing was fallacious. Just as the potash-gathering kelp thrives in the salt-laden sea, so many a plant does best amid an abundance of substances of which it takes but a scant quantity into itself.

Nor is that guide much more trustworthy which bids us add to the ground the constituents predominant in the native soil in which the plant delights to grow— which tells us, for instance, to add lime or chalk to the bed or nook in which we wish to grow plants

gathered from limestone rocks or calcareous hills, for in such native soils the nature and proportion of the elements present determine many other conditions besides mere chemical composition. Chalk, for instance, and limestone are, broadly speaking, both calcic carbonate ; they are identical in the chemist's eye, and yet to the tender touch of the living rootlet they are all the world nnlike. The detritus which fills the crannies and cor­ners of a limestone rock—and it is in such places that the so-called limestone flowers love to dwell—differs from the detritus which fills similar crannies in granitic rocks, not in chemical composition only, but in physical feat­ures as well; the bare surface of the one rock has a wholly different touch from that of the other, the differ­ence being perceptible even to our gross sense, much more so to the exquisitely tender filaments of the young spreading roots ; and these things influence the vegeta­tion as much, or probably even more than the mere abundance or scantiness of this or that special chemical element. And every grower of alpines has been in turn disappointed and surprised at finding that often his favourites refused to grow in soil prepared in careful imitation of their native beds, but flourished grandly in quite other stuff.

There is apparently sufficient evidence that some plants, as, for instance, Rhododendrons, will not grow in soil containing an excess of lim e ; but we are in the pre­sent quite in the dark as to the exact nature of this antipathy. I t has been suggested that the cause lies in the fact that a calcareous soil always is or always tends to be alkaline to an extent no other soil can be, since no other alkali exists in cultivated soils in such abundance as does lime. And I have heard of an in­genious gardener, who affirmed that he had made Rhodo­dendrons flourish in a chalky soil, by continually ad­ministering adequate doses of acids; I mention this, not because I think the case fairly made out, but because it illustrates what I said just now about the complexity of questions relating to the chemistry of the soil. And in the same connection, I may call attention to the statements which have been made more than once, to the efiect that sulphate of ammonia is by far the best nitro­gen manure for these same calcareous soils. The explana­tion given is that the ammonia becomes dissociated from the sulphuric acid (the two being previously combined in the sulphate of ammonia) and oxidised into nitric acid ; thus the manure added to the soil provides at once two acids to work upon and neutralise the alkaline con­stituents already present, whereas if instead of sulphate of ammonia the other common nitrogenous manure, nitrate of soda, be given, more alkali in the form of the soda is thrust upon the already alkaline ground. I might quote many other illustrations, showing that in all these matters we have to consider first of all the effects of the substances which we add as manure on the manifold changes which are continually going on in cultivated so il; but I think I have said enough.

So far I may seem to have been arguing against the use of adding special elements or particular substances to the soil; but in reality I have simply been striving to guard against too rash expectations and the incon­siderate use of chemical means. For that special chemical bodies added to the soil, whether by acting on the soil wholly outside the plant, or being absorbed into the plant, and working changes in its tissues, do affect the growth and vigour of particular plants, is a fact which cannot be denied. In proof of this we have over and above the rough experience of the farmer, which has taught him to use one manure for one crop and another for another, the valuable elaborate experiments of Lawes and Gilbert a t Rothamsted. In their experimental farm is to be seen a portion of old pasture land divided into a number of plots. For some twenty years or more each plot has been, with some change, manured with a part­icular manure—this with ammonia, th a t with phosphates, and so on—and each year in each plot the proportion of plants forming the crop of hay is accurately determ-

155

incd. The result shows beyond question that particular substances favour, on the same basis of soil, under the same general conditions, particular plants. In this plot the leguminous plants, common in ordinary pasture, have been driven out of existence ; in that they have flourished and almost driven away the proper grass, and so on. Every gardener who studies the record of these experi­mental plots can see in it the beginning of the garden­ing of the future. He can see that hereafter, by diligent study, he will acquire the power of giving to the soil of his favourites just the things they need in their struggle for existence. But it is only the beginning he sees, and long years of diligent study must intervene between present ignorance and future fruition.

The plots of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert are all either of pasture land or bearing ordinary agricultural crops. W hat from a gardening point of view is wanted, is a similar series of experiments with our garden p la n ts ; put the experiments, to be of real use, must be care­fully and systematically carried out, and, that lurking fallacies may be escaped, must be continued through a long series of years. Hasty and slovenly hap-hazard trials lead chiefly to mistakes. Until some such system­atic researches are undertaken, I fear that a knowledge of chemistry cannot be of very great use to the gard­ener. He must continue to do what he does now—to dig into or pour into the soil a mixed manure contain­ing in abundance all that his favourites need, but con­taining also in abundance things which they do not need, or which even do them actually harm. The waste­fulness of such a plan is clear to every one who thinks for a minute over the m atter ; and the drains and sub­soil of our gardens could tell many a tale of the raan- urial waste going on wherever flowers are grown. I have been into gardens where for many years past heavy dressings of farmyard manure have been dug into the ground year after year, and th a t for the growth, not of coarse vegetables, but of delicate flowering plants. The result has, I am free to confess, often been good; but I have almost held my breath when I have thought of the awful waste which in such cases must be always going on. And sometimes the result has not been good; rampant disease has made its appearance, and played havoc with the beauty before it bloomed. Nor is this to be wondered- at. Every one knowrs that in the early stages of the comparatively simple fermentation of an ordinary compost heap, the material is a deadly poison to the plants, for which, when thoroughly ripened and rotten, its violent effervescences all over, it will serve as most nutritious invigorating food. So it is also with the slowrer quieter fermentations going on beneath the surface of the so il; of the multitudinous changes going on there, while many, especially the final ones, are beneficial, some, especially the initial and grosser ones, are directly harmful to the p la n t; and if these latter* as in heavy frequent manuring is likely to occur, he in excess, they may poison the organism which it was in­tended simply to feed. Happily, as in the human race— though many if not most people eat more than they need—starvation works more harm, on the w’hole. than does over-eating, so among plants, far more blooms fail through wrant of adequate food than are cut oft by a too liberal d ie t; but the waste, both in the one case and the other, is an evil which the stern demands of economy must sooner or later make us take firmly in hand. There can, I think, be no doubt that, did we possess the requisite knowledge, both the waste and the attendant disease might be avoided. D ie t e s .

(To be continued.)

T he R oyal Gardens in S iam.—We learn from Mr. H. J . Murton, late Superintendent of the Botanic Gardens a t Sin­gapore, that by the time these lines are in print, he will have left Singapore, and taken charge of the Royal Gardens in Siam. Letters and Catalogues should therefore now be ad­dressed to him at Bangkok.—Gardeners' Chronicle.

TEA CULTURE IN MINAS (BRAZIL).(Rio News, 24th August 1881.)

In travelling over the central line of the Dom Pedro I I railway and along its prolongation through the in ­terior of the province of Minas Geraes to the Rio das Velhas, the thoughtful traveller has constantly suggested to his mind the question : W hat can this region, which is still almost virgin as regards regular agriculture, pro­duce that can bear the high price of transportation to the sea board and leave a reasonable profit to the pro­ducer ? Beyond Juis de Fora the country is considered to be sterile and almost unfit for cultivation, because the climate, or soil, or both, are not well adapted to the cultivation of the great Brazilian staple, coffee. This idea that the campo lands are only fit for grazing is so deeply rooted that a long time will be required to eradicate it, notwithstanding that the people have constant­ly before their eyes proofs to the contrary in the beautiful chaearns and gardens of Barbacena and other places, established on typical campo lands, in which a little caie and attention in the cultivation have given results which, if not as brilliant as in the wooded regions, are a t least very satisfactory. I t is the old idea of the Mexican population of the Pacific slope of the United States whose immense and so-called sterile cattle ranches now constitute the celebrated wheat and fruit-growing districts of California. I t is certain that the campo lands of Brazil are inferior to the wooded lands, and that in many places the soil is poor and thin, but for the most part those of the centre of Minas Geraes would be con­sidered very desirable by many fanners of the eastern United States and of many other prosperous agricultural regions. The fact is, as will be proved whenever a thorough and rational system of agriculture is put in practice, that nearly all of Central Minas is capable of sustaining a large and active agricultural population. The principal question at present is that of the kinds of cultivation which, with the actual high rates of trans­portation, can be followed with advantage until such time as the increase in population and wealth shall make the traffic sufficiently important as to permit such a reduction in the freight rates as will render possible the cultivation and exportation of all the products that the region is capable of producing, including even the bulky products of least value.

I t is hardly necessary to speak of coffee and tobacco, as these are already cultivated on a greater or less scale throughout the region, and it is evident that their cultiva­tion might be indefinitely extended. Except in the highest and coldest parts, coffee produces well, though it is only seen in gardens and not in regular planta­tions. There is a general complaint that it ripens ir­regularly, though this perhaps is not so great an obstacle to its general cultivation as it is often represented to be. As an article of export, however, for a great part of Central Minas, coffee is out of the question on ac­count of the high freight rates, which will probably limit its cultivation to the zone below the Serra da Mantaqueira. Further in the interior it can only be produced for local consumption, or for the supply of more remote districts.

Many other products might be mentioned for which the climate and soil of Central Minas arc fitted, and which present the all essential requisite, in the present condition of the province, of combining a high value in a small bulk, but these remarks have.perhaps already extended too far for the purpose for which they were intended, viz., an introduction to some observations on the cultivation of tea. As is well known, tea culture was introduced into Brazil many years ago as an ex­periment, and tea plants are now found in many gardens as objects of curiosity, and tea even comes to the market from a few localities in the provinces of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and Minas Geraes. This species of cultiva­tion, however, seems to have attracted but little a tten­tion, and the question as to whether or not the culti­

vation might not with advantage be greatly extended, a t least, to the point of supplying the home market, seems never to have been seriously considered. Among the many new or nascent industries that merit careful attention and study, that of tea culture deserves to take a prominent place not only on account of its adapt­ability to the conditions of the country, but also on account of the fact that the product is always certain to find a good market at a high price. This opinion is based on observations made on a small plantation of tea on a fazenda near Ouro Preto, belonging to the family of the late Barao de Camargos, and on informa­tion kindly furnished by the son of the late Barao, Dr. Antonio Teixeira de Souza Magalhaes.

The Fazenda do Tliesonreiro is situated on the road from Ouro Preto to Diamantina, at a distance of four leagues from the former place, and about half a league distant from the eastern base of the Serra da Cara?a. The fazenda, which in its appointments is one of the best in this part of the province, owes its importance primarily to a rich series of auriferous rocks that tra ­verse the property and gave origin to very extensive and lucrative gold washings, and, secondly, to a small tea plantation made some forty years ago and care­fully preserved to the present time. The tea is planted on a hill-side with an eastern exposure, occupying an area of about five English acres. The plants are about four feet apart, and are kept pruned to a height of about two feet. The soil is a red sandy clay result­ing from the decomposition of the greasy alkaline schists so abundant in Central Minas, and is full of quartz and ironstone pebbles and rich in iron. The ground is full of that Brazilian pest, the Sauva ant, but this is far from being so great a disadvantage as in other branches of agriculture, because, although the ants cut off some of the new leaves fit for tea-making, if they arc not promptly gathered, their ravages are mainly confined to the older and tougher leaves, so that by a natural pro­cess of pruning the formation of new leaves is increased. A marked increase in growth and vigour is also noticed in those plants situated over the ant hills, due to the loosening of the soil about their roots.

The process of manufacture is briefly this. Through­out the rainy season of five or six months, the new and tender leaves that appear shortly after each rain are picked and carried to the drying-house. This con­sists of a large room with several tables and a low furnace of masonry fed from the outside and support­ing shallow iron pans about 2 | feet in diameter set in holes in the top of the furnace directly over the fire. Each panman fills his pan with green leaves and stirs them rapidly for about half an hour over a hot fire with a peculiar motion to wilt them. In this process he has to remove the leaves every few minutes and scour the pan to remove the gummy m atter which exudes from the hot leaves, and which if left adhering to the pan would cause scorching. When properly wilted the leaves are taken to the rolling table on which is a movable screen of coarse wicker-work made of bamboo, on wliich the leaves are nibbed with a strong pressure of the hand, which extracts from them a considerable quantity of vegetable extracts rich in tannin which oozes through the screen, and, a t the same tune, the leaves curl or roll up into various forms according to their degree of tenderness. They are then ready for the final drying which requires several hours in the pan. This is the most delicate part of the process, great practice and skill being required to produce the best tea by a proper management of the fire and of the stirring. After this drying the tea is assorted either immediately, or after q. delay of weeks or months, according to the urgency of other work. The assorting is done by fanning the dried leaves in bamboo sieves with holes of various sizes and shapes, the number of varieties being dependent on the number of sieves employed and the care and patience expended on this somewhat tedious process. Some of the

finer varieties must be separated by picking out by hand, i but this is seldom worth while, and they are left mixed 1 with the others. After the sorting, the tea is again thoroughly dried and stored in tin-lined boxes, or sent to market in tin canisters. The varieties usually separ­ated, with their prices, are as follows:—

Familia (unrolled leaves) . . 38200 per kiloHyson (cartouche-shaped, coarse) 5 200 ,,Ochin (do. do. fine . . 8 000 „Aljofar (round, fine) . . . . 8 000 „Perola (round, coarse) . . . . 8 0 0 0 „

I t will be seen that the process of manufacture is very simple, requiring only inexpensive apparatus and no great amount of skill in the workmen, since this work has been done by the ordinary slaves of the fazenda, producing teas that even at the high prices given above, have almost excluded the foreign teas from the Ouro Preto market. The best evidence of their superior quali­ty is the fact that it has been found of advantage to imitate the mark of the Thesoureiro factory in the market of Rio de Janeiro, and that the proprietors have first-class medals not only from all the national exposi­tions, but also from the international expositions of London, Vienna, and Philadelphia.

Let us now examine the question of the cost of pro­duction. The leaves lose in drying about 75° / 0 of their weight. A good panman will wilt, roll and dry half an aroba of tea per day, and an active picker will gather the same quantity of green leaves. Four pickers and one panman can therefore prepare half an aroba per day a t an expense (counting wages at 28000 per day, a very liberal estimate) of 108000. An equal sum should cover the expenses of weeding and cultivating the ground (veiy light work) and those of sorting and of the final pre­paration for the market, which is work that can be done when other work is slack. This gives a total ex­pense of 208000 per each half aroba (71 kilos) which a t the lowest price is worth 248000. The mean price is, however, much greater (owing to the mixture of varieties), and practice has demonstrated that i t is about 458000. Supposing even that by the eventualities of bad weather or bad management the expenses were doubled, there would still be left a handsome profit of about 1 2 4 per cent on the cost of production.

I t is not pretended that so favourable results have been attained a t Thesoureiro where the unsystematic employment of slave labour makes it impossible to arrive a t any reliable estimate of the actual cost of produc­tion. The fazenda has about fifty slaves, including many women, children, and old men, who have been employed in tea-making, mining, and general work. The animal production has varied from fifty to eighty arobas.

The advantages of this species of cultivation, aside from that already mentioned of combining a high value with a small volume, so that the product can bear a high rate of transportation, are intuitive from the above description, and only need to be enumerated. They are :

1st. The adaptability of this cultivation to lands of difficult cultivation, on which the planting of annual plants would be very expensive or impossible.

2nd. The long life of the plantation which after the first planting only requires a slight amount of work in cleaning the ground of weeds and loosening the soil. The Thesoureiro plantation is, as already stated, forty years old and is still good.

3rd. The freedom from injury from ants.4th. The small cost of the buildings and appliances

for the manufacture, making this a very desirable branch of industry for small proprietors, especially as the most pressing work of the harvest, that of gathering the leaves, is such light work that it may be done by wo­men and children. Even this small expense may be avoided by the establishment of central factories since, as the leaves may be kept for twenty-four hours or more before going to the fire, a factory could draw its supply of green leaves from an area of several miles.

5th. The absence of risk of loss from bad weather because the new and tender leaves fit for tea-making only appear after rains which do not prevent the picking, and, when once gathered, all the rest of the process is

, under cover. Coffee planters who pass anxious weeks i during the drying season will appreciate this advantage.

In view of the favourable results obtained in this one experimental establishment, the farmers of Minas and other parts of Brazil will do well to carefully examine this question of tea culture, and many will doubtless find it to their advantage to embark in it. I t seems particularly well adapted for the pequena lavoura, and the grande lavoura with free labour since the harvest is very light woik which can be done by hands too weak for other work, and being extended over a con­siderable season requires a less number of hands than those crops that must be gathered in a few days or a few weeks. The empire itself offers a very extensive and ever-increasing market for the product, which even if produced on a very large scale would for many years a t least be almost absolutely independent of the fluctua­tions of foreign markets. Orville A. Derby.

FR U IT JO TTING S FROM SINGAPORE.(Gardeners’ Chronicle, 8 th October 1881.)

We have just got through our fruit season in Singa­pore, only a few scattered fruits of Rambutan (Nephe­lium lappaceum), Pulasan (Nephelium mutabile), Mata kuching (Nephelium eriopetalum), Rambeh (Pierardia dulcis), and Mangosteens, now remaining on the trees. The crop in Singapore of nearly all kinds has been a very heavy one ; in fact “ everybody ” says the heaviest ever known here. The regal Durian, as Mr. Burbidge justly styles it (Gardeners’ Chronicle, May 31, 1879), has been particularly plentiful; and as Mr. Burbidge has sounded its praises so loudly and ably, he may be pleased to know that they have been selling here a t the rate of twenty for a dollar, and fine fruit too.

The quantity of imported fruit has also been very great, especially of such kinds as do not succeed well in Singapore; notable among these being the Langsat (Lansium domesticum), and the Mango. The Langsat does well in Malacca, whence the fruits are exported to Singapore and other places; but, strangely enough it has not, so far as I am aware, ever done well in Singa­pore. Mangoes come to us from Siam, and delicious fruits they a r e ; but those grown in Singapore have mostly an intensely terebinthine flavour, and the trees are very subject to the attacks of boring lam e which tunnel their way for long distances through the central pith of the medium-sized branches before emerging, and it is not uncommon to see almost the whole heads of large trees killed by this pest. A close ally, the Been- jai (Mangifera cccsia), does well in Singapore, but its

! fruits are only used for making a sort of “ sumball,” a I name applied to numerous kinds of preparations eaten j with curry and rice. To appreciate it, however, even in [ this style, one has to be educated to it, as with the I Durian, but when once a taste for it is acquired, the | pleasant sub-acid and peculiar flavour is missed with | regret when it goes out of season.I The Rnmaniyalis (Bonea microphylla and B. macro- ! phylla) are professedly relished by some Europeans, but j I must confess that my taste has not yet been educated I enough to appreciate them, which is also the case with j Jack-fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia), although it is much 1 relished by many people. By-the-bye, while staying with j some friends in Singapore last week, I was treated to j some very delicious home-made Sour Sop (Anona muri-

cata) jam and jelly, which obliges me to acknowledge that they were simply perfection. W hat a pity it is we

, cannot grow enough Sour Sops to render us independent of Crosse & Black veil’s and Morton’s preparations in this line.—H. F. Murton, August 30.

TH E EDIBLE FUNGUS OF NEW ZEALAND.(Gardeners' Chronicle, 8 th October 1881.)

A fungus, the export value of which has reached to over £ 6 , 0 0 0 in one year and over £ 1 1 , 0 0 0 in another, must be deemed a m atter of sufficient importance to be worthy a note. A New Zealand correspondent kindly furnishes us with samples of the fungus, Hirneola poly- tricha, a near relative of the common Jew’s-ear fungus of this country, together with some notes of Mr. Griffin, the American Consul at Auckland, from which we ex­tract the following:—

“ The New Zealand fungus known to commerce is found upon various kinds of decayed timber in the North Island, in what are called new bush settlements. I t favours damp localities, and is very plentiful on the East Coast, south of the East Cape. I t exists, however, in the greatest abundance in the province of Taranaki. This province is about 80 miles long and 70 broad. I t is bounded on the north by the river Mokau, 011 the west and south by the sea, and on the east by a straight line from the mouth of the Patea river to a bend in the Wanganui river, and by another straight line con­necting the latter liver with the source of the Mokau liver. Within this region are the vast forests: indeed, not more than one-tenth of the entire province is com­posed of open land. The process of dealing the ground is very slow. The settlers often find their task so diffi­cult that they abandon their work in one place and begin again in another. They lop off the branches of the trees and burn them, leaving the logs upon the ground, and as they are not removed soon begin to decay. The trees are well supplied with spurs, and fall in such a way as to partially rest upon them within a few feet of the ground. Sometimes the workmen erect scaffolds for the trees to fall upon. I t is supposed that the growth of fungus is favoured by the trees being left in this way ; it is more probable, however, that some pecu­liarity of the climate has more to do with its growth than anything else. I t requires very little trouble and no expense to prepare this valuable article of commerce for the m arket; indeed, the only thing necessary to do is to gather it, and spread it out on the ground in the open air, or under sheds to dry. I know a number of children who keep themselves in pocket-money by col­lecting it, and they have no difficulty in telling it from obnoxious and poisonous plants of similar growth. Very few men except those of idle and dissipated habits engage in the employment of collecting fungus, unless I except the Maoris (or native inhabitants), who do not consider that occupation beneath their dignity. The fungus col­lected by the natives is generally dried in smoky huts, and is, on that account, nothing like as valuable as that prepared by the children of Europeans. As soon as it is dried it is put in flax baskets or jute bags, and sold to the dealer for what it will bring. I t is then packed in bales and shipped to China by way of Sydney or San Francisco. Some of it goes direct to San Francisco, where it is either transhipped to Hongkong, or consumed by the Chinese population of our Pacific coast. At one time the profit upon fungus was something enormous, and it could be bought from the collectors at little more than 1 cent per pound, and sold in San Fran­cisco at 15 cents per pound, and 23 cents in Hongkong ; the prices, however, are fluctuating. Now that its market value has become better known, it is difficult to pur­chase it here, even in small lots, from the collectors for less than 8 to 10 cents per pound. I t loses rapidly in weight by shrinkage.

“ T he U ses in China.“ In 1873 the Government of New Zealand caused an

inquiry to be made as to the purpose for which fungus is used in China, and some correspondence was had between the Colonial Secretary of New Zealand and the Colonial Secretary at Hongkong. The latter stated in one of his communications that the article was much

prized by the Chinese community as a medicine, admin­istered in the shape of a decoction to purify the blood, and was also used on fast days with a mixture of vermi­celli and bean curd, instead of animal food. I t is also said to be used in China and Japan for making a valu­able dye for silks. Since this correspondence it has been discovered that it is used by the Chinese principally as an article of food. I t forms the chief ingredient of their favourite soup, for which dish it is much prized on account of its gelatinous properties and its rich and delici­ous flavour. I send by this mail to the Department of State a small package of samples of fungus markedH., kindly furnished me by H. B. Morton, Esq., of this city, for examination and experiment. Mr. T. F . Cheese- man, the curator of the Auckland Museum, is of the opinion that the fragments of wood attached to one of the specimens is from a tree known to the Maories as Whau-whau-paku, 01* to botanists as Panax arboreum. The other specimens were doubtless found on the Karaka tree (Corynocarpus lfevigatus), or the Malioe (Melicytus ramiflorus), Kaiwhiria (Hedycarya dentata), Pubapuka (Brackyglottis repanda), and the Panax arboreum already mentioned, as well as 011 several other soft-wooded trees. Fungus appears to me to have a slightly pungent taste, although it is generally said to be tasteless. A few days ago I made soup out of some of the samples furnished me, but did not partake of it in sufficient quantities to be able to judge of its excellence as an article of food for civilised people; but one of my Chinese neigh­bours, who happened to be passing my door while the soup vras boiling, caught the aroma of it, and very kindly relieved me of any further trouble in trying to cultivate a taste for one of his favourite national dishes.

The following table shows the quantity and value of fungus exported from New Zealand for each year since1872 :— Year. Tons. Value. Year. Tons. Value.1872 . 58 £1,927 1877 . 2 2 0 £11,3181873 . 95 1,195 1878 . . 173 8,6521874 . 118 6 , 2 2 0 1879 . . 59 2,1421875 . 1 1 2 5,740 1880 165 6,2271876 . 132 6,224

T h e P r iz e Cacao P od of t h e Ceylon S eason is certainly the magnificent specimen sent to us by Mr. John Drummond of Gang-W arily, W estern Dolosbage. I t measures 10 inches in length, 14 inches in circumference, and weighs 21b. 5 ounces exactly. Mr. Drummond writes about i t as follows :—By th is post, I send you a large cacao pod to shew you w hat we can do in th is corner of the world. You see we are improving. The pod which I sent you last year, and a ttrac ted attention, was under 2 lb. weight. I make out this one to be 2 £ lb., bu t you had be tte r tes t it.

L ed g erian a Se e d : M a sk eliy a , C ey lo n : 30t h N ov .— Very hot mornings and cloudy, showery evenings are the order of the day. The consequence is a general ripen­ing up of crop, and m ost of the estates in the centre valley have got in more than half their es­tim ates. Surely your correspondent “ E. H. C.” is a little “ out of i t ” in advising green, of all colours, as the one to be applied to the glasi on seed frames to moderate the heat. I thought i t was the very colour to avoid, as, while i t keeps ou t th e desirable ligh t rays, i t freely transm its all the heat rays. I th in k a common bamboo ta t, on a ligh t fram e work a foot or two abovo the glass, is th-. best, as i t can be removed during the many monsoon days, when one is not troubled w ith too much heat or light. I do not th in k slowness in germinating any sign of purity in Ledger seed. I would in te rp ret it as a sign of age—not desirabD—equally w ith succirubra or officinalis, slowness in growth m ight mean freedom from any cross-fertilization.

CH ERRY V E R SU S PA RCHM ENT COFFEE.A coffee p lan ter in Southern Ind ia w rites to us

th a t he is very anxious to obtain answers to the following questions :—

“ Does a box, in which picking" is brought home of cherries, equal 1 | bushel ? And will th ree such boxes yield 2 bushels of parchm ent ? This would be 3$ bushels cherries equal to 2 bushels parchm ent.”

Everything depends on th e size of the box : in Ceylon, estate boxes for picking have been known to vary from the capacity of 1£ to 2 bushels ! We know th a t from65.000 to 70,000 parchm ent beans of Arabian coffee go to the bushel, and th a t 166,000 cherries are equal to about 1 cwt, of clean coffee. F u rth e r, one cherry is supposed to occupy as m uch space as five parch­ment beans. Consequently, we should say, i t would take 2 j bushels of cherries to tu rn out one bushel of cleau parchm ent. The ratio between Arabian cofloe cherries and parchm ent is 100 to 40, th a t is 40 per cent of parchm ent in quantity results from a bushel of cherry. T hat would mean 2-̂ bushels of cherry to one of parchm ent, and, say, 1 2 4 bushels cherry to 1 cwt. clean coffee. From this, again, we infer, th a t about 13,000 cherries go to a bushel against 65,000 parchm ent beans. The resu lt we get differs widely from th a t mentioned by our correspondent, and we should like to know if the proportion between boxes and bushels of cherry and parchm ent has ever been clearly established in Ceylon ? In the case of Liberian coffee the ou ttu rn of parchm ent in proportion to cherry is considerably smaller, so great is the quantity of mucilaginous m atter, bu t i t is not so small as some people th ink ; 123,000 Liberian coffee cherries (against166.000 Arabian) give 1 cwt. clean coffee ; 45,000 parchm ent beans fill a bushel, and th e clean parch­m ent is equal to from 22 to 24 per cent of the cherry. Consequently, between 4 and 6 bushels of cherry are required to give one of parchment, so th a t from 5,000 to 6,000 cherries of Liberian coffee should fill a bushel.

AG RICULTU RE ON T H E CON TIN EN T OF E U R O PE.

(Special letter.)P a r is , November 5th .

Among the most prom inent events to record is the Phylloxera Congress at Bordeaux. I t did not lead to the revelation of anything new, so m uch as to the official ratification of certain remedies. The origin of the disease was left in abeyance. The habits of th e bug were relegated to the entomologists, and the la tte r declared that, were the w inter egg of the bug discovered and extirpated, the enemy would be con­quered. Three remedies or preventives were discussed iu committee, and by th e most competent authorities. Take the plan of autum nal irrigations known as the Faucon process, so named after th a t distinguished proprietor of Graveson, near Marseilles. After the vintage, he floods his vines for two months, and, in spring, literally doses the land w ith farm yard manure. He thus saved his vines, while his neighbours, who declined to follow his example, were ruined. In the Medoc districts, th is process is a t present general. I t implies, however, the command of a supply of water, either natural or artificial : hence the Go- vernm ent is doing all in its power to extend anals aud arterial drains, &c. Insecticides, or chem-

156

ical preparations, follow next in order : they are lim ited to two : sulphocarbonate, and sulphuret ofcarbon. Both have drawbacks, and have not given uniform results. The first is very expensive to p re­pare, and, in addition, necessitates a large supply of w ater to be d istributed in the state of solution. I ts use is hence lim ited to vines, either very prolific, or possessing qualities of known reputation ; in any case, of a nature calculated to pay the great outlay. Tbe second, sulphuret of carbon, is cheap, bu t i t requires much caution in being applied, or the remedy may be worse than the disease. I ts effects vary with the depth and porosity of the soil, to pernv.t of the diffusion of the salt. The tem perature also influences the action. Exces­sive cold or excessive moisture can do more harm th an good, if these follow the use of the sulphuret. As France is estim ated to have lost five m illiards by the invasion of the phylloxera, and th e ravages still continue, besides preventing th e march of the enemy, it is a necessity to replant where the devastation has been effected. H ere there is really less room for dispute : the grafting of French vines on American stocks is th e sole plan known. The roots of the American vine resist the a ttacks of the bug. Am eri­can vines flourish side by side where French vines perish : ten years of successful grafting confirm the remedy. The Riparia is the variety of American vine which is in general favor. In Portugal, sulphuret of carbon and irrigation are the measures adopted : in Sw itzerland and I ta ly , extirpating the sick vines finds most advocates. In Sicily, the peasants rose against th e decree for eradicating infected vines, and th e inspector fortunately escaped from being blown up, w ith his house, by dynamite.

A t the present moment, when the relations be­tween landlord and tenant are the order of the day, the practice of the mitayage system, which is m aking such rapid strides in France, m erits to be discussed. In the fewest words, and freed from com­plications sometimes introduced, mitayage farming means the landlord supplying th e capital in live and dead stock, the metayeur and his family the labor, and the two contracting parties divide the produce. In th e most successful working of this plan, no money transactions take place, save what goes to th e sta te to pay taxes. M any farmers, who cannot pay a fixed rent, adopt mitayage, and prosper : m any laborers rind in the system the road to comfort and inde­pendence. There is nothing new in the plan. P liny th e youuger adopted it on his estates and w ith suc­cess, when his tenan ts were five j ears iu arrears of ren t, and became reckless. As a general remark, landed proprietors in the east of France cultiva'e their own estates ; iu the north and north-west, there are ten ants ; in the centre and south, the m itayage exists.

The plan ameliorates not only the tenan t bu t the soil, and secures a dividend certain for the owner. One-half of the population of France live by agri­culture, the one-third, of both sexes, by the actual tillage of the so i l : one-fourt i of the cultivated land is worked on the metayage principle, and every de­partm ent of the country has farms so managed. In many cases, the partners, for the contract is practically that, divide 7J to 2 0 per cent net profits in a good year : the mean is 44, and proprietors are ever con­ten t, if they only [realize 3J on th e ir capitals : these comprised th a t locked up in buildings, machinery, and improvements. The metayeur and his family are well-fed. They have a like stake with the proprietor in the results, and, a t the end of a year, a labourer who would have remained a labourer still, has in addition to comforts, a cash dividend of 2 , 0 0 0 frs. The principal item of expense in farm management is wages under the mitayage plan, where the whole family labours, i t becomes a minimum. I t is evid­

ent, therefore, th a t the move farm wages rise, the more the metayage solution imposes itself.

Salicylic acid, as a disinfectant and a preservative, still excites attention. No hygienic reasons exist, according to Pasteur, why. in certain quantities, the acid ought not to be tolerated in food and drink : th e French Government has prohibited its use in beer and wine, as th a t use was abused. In the case of cattle disease —foot and m outh, lung, and charbon— salicylic acid is employed by vets with great ad ­vantage : if i t does not prevent the virus to produce in the organism of the animal, i t undoubtedly stops its march : one-tenth of an ounce dissolved in aq uart of warm water, and sprinkled over the litte will immediately sweeten a s ta b le ; half a q uart of th e solution mixed with the ordinary drink sufficesfor an diseased animal : th e acid, too, can be dustedover the sore feet, or the mouth and nostrils washed with a solution. If poultry be ^attacked w ith cholera, add a little in their drinking vessels, and mix some up in bread pills and honey.

A gentleman, alluding to the prevalence of typhus fever in horses, says his have completely escaped, and this exemption he a ttribu tes to adding a little sa lt and chopped garlic—the la tte r in small quanti­ties a t first—to their oats : further, above their backs he places movable boards, which receive a fresh coat of tar weekly. In the case of severe bronchitis, French doctors prescribe th e spreading of Norwegianta r 011 a plate in the sick chamber, the balsamicodour effecting good.

Some prizes were awarded to agricultural industries a t the E lectricity Exhibition. The subject, however, is no t yet ripe for practical consideration. The problem to solve is : not the application of electricity as a motive power, bu t of th e cheap production of elec- tiic ity as th a t power.

Owing to th e destruction of the vines, and the great damage done to orchards by th e severe frost of 1879-80, the production of alcohol has diminished : to remedy this sta te of things, farmers are being actively urged to em bark in the distillation of b ee t—why not potatoes, as in Germ any, by the ordinary alembics ? Prizes are offered to encourage th e new industry.

There was a m ilk or dairy show held a t G hent last Ju ly , when the milk of cows nf the Durham, Dutch, and Flemish breeds was exhaustively examined as to density and quality : i t has been dem onstratedth a t the difference in richness can vary as 1 to 3, th a t is, from 4J to 15 per cent ; th e yield of milk per day can vary as 1 to 5: in the great m ajority of cases, the first milkings are superior in density to the others in a day, and th a t density oscillates between 1026 and 1038. Upon 168 samples of milk, 29 were inferior in density to 1029; hence, after the expertists, they ought to be suspected of being dosed w ith water. In addition to density as a tes t for the purity of mdk, m ust be included the percentage of c ream : now atGhent, m ilk unquestionably 'p u re yielded 5 per cent of cream. Practical conclusion—difficult to decide when milk is pure.

INDIA : SEASO i FOR W E E K EN D IN G 15TH NOVEMBER.

Pain has again fallen copiously throughout the Mysore S tate and in Coorg, and crops are now every­where in good condition ; the harvesting of ragi and other minor crops has commenced in Mysore, and rice and coffee will now ripen better in Coorg. In the Madras Presidency th ere has been fu rther ra in ­fall, more or less heavy, in all d istricts except one ; and general prospects are good, although a few dis­tric ts still need more rain. In B ritish Burm a and Assam crop prospects are favourable everywhere ;

the harvesting of rice has commenced in the la tte r province.

On the whole, it may be said that recent rains have m aterially improved crop prospects in Southern and W estern India ; th a t in the C entral tracts of the country the weather is seasonable, and agricultural condition sa tisfac to ry ; and th a t in the greater part of N orthern India, general showers would be beneficial.

Madras.—N oraiu in Ganjam ; general prospects good.Bombay.—Good rain in Southern M aharatta Country;

rain also in K anara, Ratuagiri, Satara, Sholapur, and parts of Ahmednagar ; urgently w anted in parts of last-nam ed d istric t and of Nasik ; locusts in Nasik and parts of Broach and Surat ; fever and cattle- disease continue in a few districts ; prices falling in Dharwar ; elsewhere generally steady.

Bengal.—Slight rain in parts of C entral and E astern Bengal during the week. — M adras M ail.

C O FFEE LEA F DISEASE.W ith reference to Mr. G. A. T albo t’s le tter, i t is

righ t th a t planters should fully and freely discuss Mr. M arshall W ard ’s Report, aud no one has a be tte r righ t to be heard than Mr. Talbot who took such an active pa rt with Mr. M orris in the early investigations into the life history of the fnngus and experim ents directed against th e existence of the pest. I t seems to us, however, th a t the Mycologist an d the p lan ter are quite a t one in the belief th a t certain conditions of vigorous and m ature foliage or th e reverse enable coffee trees to resist a ttack or render them specially liable to it. W hat we understand M r. M arshall W ard to contend for is, th a t no coffee trees possess inherently any qualities enabling them to resist or rendering them specially liable to attack.

MR. K A R SL A K E ’S MODE OF S T R IPP IN G CINCHONA BARK AND “ E. H . C .” ON

CINCHONA N U R SE R IES.Supposing cinchona trees can be saved from th a t

prem ature decay which has necessitated the uprooting of so many thousands, the importance of Mr. Karslake’s mode of bark-stripping, if finally successful, can scarcely be exaggerated. The heavy—in a large proportion of cases, the prohibitory—expense of collecting moss or o ther substance, and tying it round the trees, is saved. So is much of th e risk which a ttends the stripping and shaving process. To righ tly understand Mr. K arslake’s process, an obvious m isprin t in his letter ought to be corrected. Paragraph th ird of his le tter (the in troductory m atter) should re a d :— “ I t i s , I find, necessary to make only th e tw o vertical cuts a t first. There is no fear of the bark adhering a fte r i t has once been loosened, and th e top and bottom cuts will be made when it is intended to remove th e old b a rk .’’ How does Mr. K a rs la k e / ' remove" (properly loosen) the strip of bark so as no t to in ju re th e cambium—an essential condition ? By M clvor’s m ethod each strip , when cut across, a t the top, was drawn down, and, the process being conducted when th e trees were full of sap, came easily away, w ithout th e necessity of inserting any instrum ent between th e bark and tb e tree. But, as by Mr. K arslake’s m ethod the bark is left adhering to the tree a t th e bottom , as well as the top, we should be t glad to lear nor

to be reminded of the mode in which the bark is ‘‘ removed,” w ithout injury to the cambium, and yet so thoroughly as to justify such language as “ Replace the strip of bark thus removed in its original position w ithout delay .” “ Thus loosened” would surely be a better description, and we should be glad to know what is the “ suitable in s tru m en t” which M r. K ars­lake’s experience has led him to decide on ? A tortoiseshell paper-cutter suggests itself to our minds ; or a bone or ivory spatula ? An ordinary knife used by an ordinary cooly would, we fear, result in injury to the cambium ? W ith the bark sim ply loosened and a t once replaced—kept in position by string aud the edges filled up with cowdung or clay—we should have feared a process of readherence bu t for the result of Mr. K arslake’s experience. The nex t great question is the effect of the atmosphere, and, especially, of battering rain on the loosened bark and its alkal­oids? Has Mr. Karslake satisfied himself th a t bad consequences will not ensue during the period (con­siderably lunger than Mr. K arslake’s minimum of ten days in most cases, we suspect) during which the loosened bark remains on the tree ? No doubt, the adhesion of the strip a t bottom and top is a safe­guard, bu t does th is entirely prevent deleterious changes in the alkaloid# ? Mr. K arslake recommends the re ­moval of the loosened strips only “ after the renewed bark has appeared over the whole surface and is of aufficient v itality to be able to w ithstand the heat ” &c. To ascertain the sta te of the renewed bark will necessitate probably several movements of the old bark from its position, and each such process would, appar­ently, increase the risk of chemical change in the alkaloid cells of the bark ? Mr. Karslake, having given the public the benefit of the main principles of his discovery, will not, we feel certain, object to an­swer our queries as far his experience enabhs him.

A correspondent w riting from Maskeliya has pointed out the one objection we fe lt and m eant to express in regard to “ E. H. C .’” s valuable le tter on cinchona nurseries. How he, otherw ise so well informed, came to recommend the painting green of conservatory glass, we cannot conceive. Sure we are, from recent personal observation, th a t he could not have seen green glass, or glass painted green, used in Java. N ot certainly in the conservatories of the property in which Mr. Von W inning is interested any more than in those under Mr. Moens’ charge on the Government cin­chona plantation. The best conservatory glass is treated like the “ moon glasses” of lamps, and w hite paint or whitewash can produce m uch the same effect with plain transparent glass. We took special note of the fact th a t in th e case of the conservatories where Mr. Moens’ grafted Ledgerianas are grown, the very device of shading with bamboo ta ts suggested by our Mas- keliy:. correspondent was resorted to. W hen the sun shone fiercely on either side of the conservatory, the effects were modified by coverings of plaited bamboos being pu t over the sloping glazed roof. Indeed, much can be done for th e protection of plants by the use of plaited bamboo, w ithout glass. W e may also say a t once th a t while Mr. Moens used the porous chatties for germinating seed and growing seedlings, he had also large and flourishing nurseries of Ledgerianas in

long beds of mould, protected sim ply by grass-covered roofs facing each other, bu t w ith an open space be­tween to adm it ligh t and a ir. R igh t beneath the open space was the path between the two beds. The w ater­ing was performed by means of a syringe, which, in ­clined upwards, produced a spray th a t fell gently on the plants.

COFFEE IN SOUTHERN IN D IA W e give prominence to the following

To the Editor o f the “ Ceylon ObserverTellicherry, 19th Nov. 1881,

D ea r S i r .—We have the pleasure to enclose s ta te ­m ent of exports of Coffee and Pepper from th e M alabar coast for the year ending 30th June 1881,

The present Coffee crop promises to be considerably larger than last. There seems to be considerable uncertain ty as to the Pepper crop, bu t so far as our inform ation goes, i t points to only a m oderate one.— We are, dear sir, yours faithfully,

ALSTONS & Co.

.gy 0 0 03 o

CONNNHO Ole i c a a ^ d s o* : <qCO NICK CO

-̂ -ft'-iOOiOi-lCCO* o> h o n n o n u m ! : 000> 01 03 1-1 1-̂ O 0010 -h of of of

-© 10 OJ t— Oo f o f CO CO

II 1 9. 9 5 £ J1 4

3 iJ EH p< :© g M ‘'ZJ?5 _

| i

P 6

This table is of considerable interest as shewing, among other things, th e relative importance of the coast ports. On the whole Tellicherry seems to have the largest share of coffee shipments, although in respect of plantation coffee especially Mangalore is a close rival. In fact the trade of the W ynaad and Mysore d istricts seems p re tty equally divided between Mangalore, Tellicherry, Calicut and Bey pore. F arther South, Cochin has the shipping of th e produce from the Peermade Hills, which during the past season shewed a falling-off for coffee of nearly one-half on the previous year, while th e Pepper crop had largely increased. Travancore, through its port Colachel, was steady for the two seasons with a crop of a little over1 1 , 0 0 0 cw t., a poor ou ttu rn for so large an acreage— in fact not much more than 1 cwt. per acre. A lto ­gether the shipments of coffee (plantation and native), which equalled 392,583 cwt. in season June 30th, 1879 to June 30th, 1880, fell off to 257,745 cwt. for the year ending June 30th last ; while the crop of pepper showed more th an a corresponding increase.

Messrs. Alstons & Co. would greatly oblige us by sending th e export re tu rn for a series of years : for as m any indeed as reliable records are available.

CEYLON TEA IN T H E LONDON M A R K ET.Undoubtedly, there is a great difference in this

preparation and value of different Ceylon teas as evid­enced by the infallible index, the resu lt of open sales in Mincing Lane. An experienced tea-broker, who had been consulted iu October last by a Ceylon m erchant as to the value of our teas, gave a very unfavourable report, rem arking on the need for special improvement before much a tten tion could be paid to them by the trade. He pointed to the miserable prices paid for some lots sold a few weeks previously.

A few days after, the following note reached the m erchant from the same broker, an entirely d isin ter­ested party

D e a b S i b ,— As an exception to what I said the other day regarding Ceylon teas, a capital little invoice, some 99i hf-ch. were sold yesterday ex “ Hankow ” from the “ Loolecondura” tea plantation. The teas were really good and I should say fetched remunerative prices. I enclose you three samples.

Prices realized fo r Loolecondura tea on Oct. 25th:—39 half-chests Souchong at 1/6}

6 „ Pekoe dust „ /92 „ Dust ... „ /6 §

15 „ Broken Pekoe ., 2/29 „ Fine Broken Tea „ 1/8}2 „ Pekoe Souchong „ 1/76 „ Red Leaf ... „ /I I

99 ex “ Hankow. ”By way of contrast we have the result of a sale

on the 2nd November of a quantity of Ceylon tea which was described by the same broker :—“ Value as Javas ; b u rn t and sour ; very badly cured.” The sale was as follows :—

CEYLON TEA .A t Cutler S tree t warehouse. P er “ Compta,” a t Colombo, reported

October 1881.BU LK ED .

W ES Season 1881.—16 half-chests broken tea 255 a t 270 Av. gross 2 qr. 9 lb. 91d.

37 chests broken tea 271 a t 307. 9M .37 half-chests broken Pekoe 308 a t 344 Av. gross 2 qr.

12 lb. Is Od.

30 half-chest broken Pekoe 345 a t 374, 30 do. do,375 a t 404 Av. gross 2 qr. 11 lb. H id .

29 chest Souchong 405 a t 433. l l j d .23 chests Pekoe Souchong 434 a t 456. -Is o |d .

S. R . & Co., November 2nd, 1881 Ceylon te a , per “ Compta” (C S) w ithou t reserve, on account of

th e im porters.W ES Season 1881.—12 chests Congou 457 a t 468. lOd.15 half-chests Pekoe dust 469 a t 483. 6M .15 lialf-chests Pekoe dust 481 a t 498. o[d.24 half-chests broken Pekoe 499 a t 522 Av. gross 2 qr.

15 lb. 11M.

PLANTING) IN N E T H E R L A N DS IN D IA .(From the Straits Times, 16th November.)

In the official report on th e Government Cinchona culture in Java for the 3rd quarter of 1881, i t is sta ted th a t on the 30th September last, the number of cinchona plants in th e nurseries was 635,400 and th a t in prepared ground 2,072,070. D uring the said quarter the collection of bark was vigorously p ro­ceeded with, th is year’s crop being estim ated a t150,000 Amsterdam pounds. The crop for 1880 was sold a t Amsterdam on the 12th Ju ly a t an average of 136 cents per half kilo, the highest ra te being 586 cents per half kilo for Ledgeriana bark. Owing to a decline in the Cinchona m arket a t the tim e of the auc­tion, the amount realized was less than a t the sale in 1 8 8 0 , when th e average brought was 216 cents per half kilo In August last, th e cinchona plants on elevated and exposed situations suffered greatly from frost a t night, tbe tem perature having fallen to very near freezing point sometimes.

The Java Bode, in a scries of articles calls a ttention to the Bacban or Batchian islands in the Moluccas as a more promising field for commercial enterprise than Java, the condition of which is th u s set fo r th :_

“ In Java, which was formerly term ed both by Netherlanders and foreigners the “ p e a r l” of our possessions, and which, very untairly, as dem onstrated by experienced men, had for a long tim e a ttrac ted to itself almost exclusively the a ttention of Government and capitalists, the prosperity of form er tim es has greatly diminished. The supply of European labour is overabundant bu t the demand for i t is email. Wages are falling. G reat numbers of overseers, managers, and m ercantile employes are rambling about w ithout employment. Tobacco cultivation, which formerly gave work to so m any hands and yielded such profits, is dying out. The tobacco growing provinces of K edirie and K adu are bu t ruins of vanished greatness. W hole estates have been abandoned or sold for an old song. Trade also has seen its best days. Though a t present there is noticeable a welcome and unusual manifesta­tion of enterprising spirit in tram w ay construction, and though many banks have increased their capital greatly, and a new bank has even been established, this does not do away w ith th e fact th a t the im ­pression made by Java when viewed from an indus­tria l point of view, is anything bu t encouraging.”

The consequence of th e foregoing sta te of affairs is increasing attention to th e o ther long neglected islands of N etherlands India. One result is, the formation of a company in Holland by Messrs E lout, G iebert, and Hope w ith a capital of 2,400,000 guilders, to tu rn to account the vegetable, mineral, and m aritim e re ­sources of the Bachan islands, on along lease granted them by the Sultan of the same and sanctioned by the N. I. Government. Bachan, the main island of the group, is iu O '13 to O' 55. S ., and from 127° 22" to 128° E ., and is extremely productive. Immense areas are covered with sago trees, and nutm egs superior to the Banda variety grow wild. Dammar also abounds, its collection being inexpensive. The land has b en found extremely suitable for coffee, cocoa, pepper, and cloves. Immense trac ts of level land w atered by un­

failing streams afford facilities for rice culture by the Company for the benefit of Indian and Chinese coolies. The forests in Bach an abound in good tim ber of different descriptions I ts minerals are of importance. Copper exists, and gold has long been profitably worked. Coal, too, lias been found of a quality equivalent to first class Welsh. O ther products are pearl shell. The Company intend to set to work gradually, and commence operations by sago manufacture at the rate of 200 to 400 piculs of flour per day, their estim ate of its value at Singapore being 3 to 4 dollars per picul. Dammar will then be collected and g< ods imported from Europe for sale or barter, and cattle raising undertaken. Coffee, cocoa, pepper, and'clove cultivation, m ining for gold and coal, and pearl fishing, will be taken in hand a fte r­wards. The Bachauners, owing to their few wants being readily supplied by bountiful Nature, being unavail­able as labourers, the Company propose to rely mainly on imported Chinese labour. The trade of Bacban is at present insignificant, but is expected to increase by better management and the exertions of the Company. The islands are favourably situated for trade, and have, moreover, the advantage of being exempt from import and export duties, lying as they do beyond the custom’s line of Netherlands India. The Company in ­tend to send their produce to Singapore for sale and also shipm ent by the numerous steam lines converging from and on that port. Several capitalists in France have agreed to take up large areas of land in Bachannas soon as the Company have fairly commenced operations.

T H E TRADE OF W ESTERN IN D IA IN C OFFEE AN D PE PPE R .

On the fair assumption th a t during the year ende d 30th June 1881 there was no special diversion of produce from shipment at the ports of W estern India, the figures furnished by Messrs. A lstons & Co., and which we published on Monday, represent deficiencies in the staple of M alabar (the W ynaad), Travan-

core and Cochin comparable to th a t shewn in our own great staple for the season ended 30th Septem ­ber. Only 2-57,745 cwts. of coffee exported from W estern India ports in 1880-81 against 392,588 in 1879-80. The decrease on the previous season is no less than 135,000 cwts., or over 33 per cent. Of course leaf disease, and probably grub and abnormal weather, affected the coffee of the W ynaad and Tra- vancore as adversely as like causes operated to re­duce our Ceylon out-turn. B ut pepper has risen from 36,955 to 60,634 cwts., the. increase being 23,679 cwts., or equal to 65 per cent. There has evidently been no diminution of demand for the fin e pepper of W estern India, and Achin certainly has no t yet recovered from the effects of the war wh ich, while i t desolated th e best cultivated portion of Sumatra, has exhausted the resources of Java and embarassed the finances of H olland .

T h e M adras T ea T r a d e .—The tea trade in M adras continues steady and the shipments made to Great Britain M elbourne and other parts show th a t great attention continues to be given to the m anufacture of tea on the Nilgiris. From the published returns of the Sea Custom House we learn th a t 11,568 lb., of tea were shipped from this port last m onth valued a t R12,316. The steamer “ Duke of Devonshire,” which left th is port on th e 5th instant, took away 211 cases of tea , the produce of th e Prospect and Seaforth estates, lthe property, we believe, of Mr. W , It. A rbuthnot, ate of the firm of A rbuthnot and Co, — Madras Atherueum.

157

M u lb er r ie s . —We seldom see fruit in the m arket and it is not often th a t anything new is exposed. Last m arket day, however, some mulberries were for sale for th e fiist tim e. We believe the fru it was brought from the Billicul farm. I t was in good form and color', bu t entirely wanting in flavour, being in ­sipid and sickly. Cultivation will doubtless supply this defect.— South o f India Obserrer.

H aim and L ea f D isease in th e D u m b a r i V a l l e y .— For a couple of years a t lerst, there has not been such rain in this “ happy valley ” as during the present w e ek : inches fell in one day. There are goodprospects thereto :e for p roprie to rs; and the resu lt of a visit by some planting authorities to the scene of Mr. Schrottky’s operations on Gangapitia is reported to be very satisfactory.

Cardamom Cu ltivation in C eylon .—A planter w rites:—“ T hat Indian information about cardamoms the o ther day was misleading. I t spoke of one picking of ripe fruit, and then cutting off the racemes ! W hy, one has 12 or 15 pickings a t the very leas: each crop, which lasts for 8 to 9 m o n th s ! '’ The fact is th a t Ceylon planters of cardamoms will be able to ins rnct their Indian brethren how properly and system atically to deal with the plants.

T h e “ R o b u st ' ’ C in c h o n a —A cultivator of cin­chona on the Nilgiris, w riting on the 9th instant, reports :— “ Pubescens seems likely to tu rn up a trum p card, although Col. Beddome has condemned it. The last analysis of natural bark gives nearly 13 °/„ alkaloids, of which 7 70 per cent is sul. of quinine. Mr. Cross is still here with his new pets, Calisaya de Santa F 6 ; I do not hear very promising accouHts of them.

S u l p h a t e o f Q u i n i n e is reported to have fallen from 8 s to 7 s per ounce and there is even a report current th a t the price is now quoted a t 6 s. T hat will send the supply of “ C uprea” and o ther South Ameri­can bark out of tb e m arket, for a tim e a t least, and will also we tru s t tend !o the opening of new means and channels for consumption— £ 0 th a t although Cey­lon bark may fall in price for a time, in the end there may be a distinct gain to our planters.

A C u re for P hylloxera. —Messrs. W. & A. Gilbey w riting to the London Times on the subject of the French vintage, say with regard to P h y llo x era :— “ W e may add here, in conclusion, th a t the latest remedy suggested is sulpho-carbonate, which is applied to the roots of th e vines, which a considerable quantity of water, and which i t is sta ted has not only the effect of killing the insect, bu t as a manure serves to fertilize and strengthen the vine. Suffice i t to say th a t during a visit this morning to a very beautiful and well-managed estate a t S t. Estephe, we were shown vines which, only 1 2 m onths ago, had all th e appear­ance of being shortly dead now fresh and verdant, anp apparently in a fair way to recover all their vig­our and fertility .”

P loughs a nd H arrows for t h e C iiila w D istr ic t . —A correspondent w rites:— “ W hat did you do when you were a member of the A gricultural Society in respect to the introduction of ploughs and harrow s for such plots as those near Kaduwella, and especially for the thousands of acres of tobacco and oth t land a t Chilaw and o ther places? I am convinced th a t ploughs and harrows of a k ind suitable for th e country bullocks would be a great success. The land could b eridged and fallowed—a th ing never done apparently in Ceylon,” The “ A gricultural Society" discussed the subject of improved implements, over a paper sontributed by us, bu t never got further. The ploughs and harrows that came out for the Alfred Model Farm

could be utilized. They have been lying idle long nough.

To the Editor of the Ceylon Observer.LIMESTONE AND GEMS IN T H E RAKXVANA

D IS T R IC T : Mr . A. C, DIXON’S VISIT.D ear S ir,—A paragraph in your valuable book on

“ Gold, Gems, and Pearls,” on p. 72, refers to the Rangwelletenne limestone and gem district around. I t states what I could have seen, had circumstances been favourable. I beg to state that I did find limestone of similar quality to th a t analyzed by Mr. Hughes, but when I stated th a t the Rangwelletenne limestone was poor, I referred to the limestone in general, and not to selected boulders in particular. I got off a t the girder bridge on the main road near the estate and went up the ravine. I found the bed which is referred to on native property, specimens from which I took as well as from boulders in the stream. Lastly, it states, that had my visit to the district been known, my attention would have been directed to the rich gemming district 011 Everton and Batakanda. These I also visited, taking note of the pits and collecting rough and cut gems as well as their associated minerals. I saw other districts not far away yet uriworked, which, I have reason to believe, will prove richer than the Everton deposit.— Yours sincerely.

A. C. DIXON.

COTTON SEED : AN INQUIRY.Kandy, 14th November 1881.

D e a r S i r ,—Can you or one of your correspondents say whether any experiments have ever been made w ith the seed of the Ceylon cotton, to ascertain whether i t has anything in common with the cotton­seed of commerce, so highly spoken of as food for cattle, and the meal of which is said to be a fer'ilizer equal to guano? The seed of the cotton tree, I refer to, with bright green stem and branches in threes a t right angles to it, is black, with a white kernel full of a milky juice.—Yours tru ly , IGNORAMUS.

[Our correspondent will find a full description of the tree, and the uses to which it is pu t in Ceylon, in our issue of 7th March ; we shall republish this in the T. Agriculturist. The tree has various names and synonyms, viz. Eriodei'dron anfractuos- um and E. Urientale, Bombax pintandrum and B. orientate, and Ctiba pentandra. ‘ W. P .” sa y s :— “ I th ink cotton seed oil is extracted in some parts of India, bu t I have never heard of its oil-cahe nor of its being used as a majiure. Your correspondent refers to the real cotton S'-ed, gossypium, and to that of the silk cotton tree. Tbe seed of the former is a universal food for milch cows in India and Ceylon, and is no doubt th e cotton seed of commerce referred to by your correspondent. In talking or writing about I he cotton and silk cotton care should be taken no t to confound them .”—Ed.]

CLEARING LANTANA LAND.Kadugannawa, 25th Nov. 1881.

D ear 8 i r ,—Your correspondent, “ Never Too Old to Learn,” wishes to know the cost and mode of clearing lantana. The usual wav is to fell, as in forest land, and, after a week, set fire to it. Then dig out the roots, heap,*and set fire. In getting cu t the roots, great care must be taken th a t large sized roots are not left underground, as these grow up again.

I have tried felling by estate labor, bu t have found i t cost a good deal. If given out on contract, the land could be felled, burned, and cleared of all roots for betvvei n RIO and 1112. The land I cleared was in lantana for between 12 and 15 y< ars.—Yours truly,

PLA N TER .

COCOA PODS IN T H E PA N W ILA D ISTR IC T.Gonambil E state , November 26th.

D ea r S ir ,—I am not so far behind Mr. Drum ­mond as to the weight of cocoa pods. Last W ednes­day 1 cu t two pods off one tree (imported plants from Trinidad, and their maiden crop). The largest was 2 lb. exactly and the o ther 1 lb. 1 0 ounces, and, when opened, contained 43 and 41 seeds respectively. —Yours faithfully, H. A. G ILLIA T.

[The num ber of seeds reported is extraordinary and quite unprecedented, we believe. 24 is the normal number, and Mr. Drummond’s “ champion” con­tained 28 large seeds weighing over 3 ounces.—E d.]

HO W TO TRA N SM IT COCOA PODS OR SEEDS TO A N O TH ER C O U N T R Y ?

Nov. 29th, 1881.D ea r S ir ,—Can you, or any of your readers, inform

me of the best m ethod for sending cocoa seed to a distance, say for instance Borneo, so as to insure its arriving in good condition. Should the seeds be ex­tracted from the pod, and, if so, how should they be packed ? If not, how should the pods be treated? Any information as regards the above will greatly oblige.—Yours, CACAO.

INDIGO IN CEYLON.Colombo, 29th November 1831.

S i r ,—A correspondent of yours wishes to know where he could get indigo seeds. Having read it history th a t one of the Kandian Kings—I forgen which—contracted to give indigo to th e Dutch, I made inquiries if this p lan t was growing in the island . I understand it is growing wild in M atale. I en­close a few seeds which were sen t to me from Matale. 1 tried to grow them at Colombo, bu t they do not germinate a t a ll.—I remain, sir, yours faithfully,

W. P. RA N A SIN H A .[The seeds shall be sent on. As sta ted in our A gri­

cultural Review :— “ The cultivation of Indigo in the Seven Korales, begun by the Dutch in 1646, was unsuccessful, and Governor Barnes, in 1826, lost money over this article. Mr. Henley, a Bengal planter, tried indigo also in th e Southern Province, bu t failed in his a ttem pt to grow i t properly.”—E d.]

MR. MARSHALL W A R D ’S R E PO R T ON LEA F-DISEA SE.

W allaha, 29th Novem ber 1881.D ea r S i r ,—I have read Mr. M arshall W ard’s th ird

report on leaf-disease, and, though I agree w ith him in what he says about the seasons of infection and the effect th a t rain and moisture in the atm os­phere have on the grow th of the disease, I m ust

' say th a t I th ink some of his inferences are erroneous, i and, wilh a view to pointing out w hat I th in k are i errors, I w rite th is le tter which I hope you will be

able to find room for in your columns. I tru s t also that, by raising a discussion on the subject, practical planters, who have given the “ disease” thought and attention, may be induced to give their opinions on th e report.

The inferences th a t I take exception to are those expressed in paragraph 5 of the “ summary and con­clusions,” in these words : “ No special predisposition on the p a rt of coffee is required for its infection,” and in paragraph 8 : “ Manure can in no sense be properly looked upon as a cure for the disease.” These inferences are quite opposed to my experience of coffee generally.

Before going further, i t will be as well to say what I take the meaning of “ predisposition” to b e : it means th a t all coffee, whatever its age, condition, or vigour, if exposed to infection, is liable to take i t

in the same degree. W ith th is I cannot agree. I consider, on the other hand, th a t the condition of the tree, and consequently of the leaves, at the time of infection, has a great deal to do with the degree in which it is affected by Hemileia.

In support of this view, I will try and describe three fields on th is estate and leave it to my readers to judge if my inference is correct or not :—

(1.) A field facing th e north-east—it is not there­fore much blown—was not pruned th is year, and, though it looked well in June, the disease attacked it in a virulent form in Ju ly and has not left i t since.

(2.) A field of 4 year old coffee th a t has a crop of about 5 cwt. an acre on it, was pruned in June : up to the 15th November there was no disease appar­ent on it.

(3.) A field of 3 year old coffee, which was planted with coffee raised from seed selected from strong and healthy trees : th is is a very tinefield for its age. I t had a particularly good crop last year and is hearing 9 cwt. to 6 | cwt. an acre this year, and un til October th is year there has been 110 disease a t all on it.

In th e case of No. 1, there was too much “ w ood” on the tree. The individual branches, therefore, were no t vigorous and the leaves were not strong enough to w ithstand the disease. In the case of No. 2 on the other hand, none bu t the strong branches were left on when th e trees were pruned before the attack ; the vigor of these branches was increased in the pruning off of others : so when leaf-disease came, the leaves were hard and strong, and the disease passed from them w ithout being able to injure them. C a e No. 3 shows, I think that, ifthe coffee is sufficiently strong, i t can w ithstand hemileia for two years and more : this field certainly has leaf-disease now b u t this is accounted for by the fact th a t in some parts it is bearing a crop of 1 0 cwt. an acre and the effort of ripening this crop has weakened the trees, and thus rendered it possible for leaf-disease to injure it.

The conclusion th a t I draw from these instances is that, if the leaves are dark and shiny and stiff to the touch, the infection does not tak e place, or, if it does, it is powerless to do harm. I t may be th a t from the shiny leaves the spores slip off, or th a t the strong tissue of the leaf is able to stop the tubes th a t Mr. W ard describes from entering the stomata.

B ut to re tu rn to Mr. W ard’s report, I th ink I can show, by quoting from this, th a t there is “ something in w hat 1 say,” and th a t all coffee is not affected alike by hemileia. On the first page of the report and near the bottom we find this expression:— “ Careful cultivation and natural advantages of soil, climafe &c. enable certain estates tostaud forth prom inently as though leaf-dUease did not affect them or only to a slight extent, while poor nutrition ; the ravages of ineecls, &c,, have in other cases th a t effect as well as leaf-disease.”I read this as going far to prove th a t there are certain conditions of coffee which render i t easy for and liable to attacks, and th a t there are others which enable it to w ithstand these attacks. On page six, i t is said :— “ a succulent young leaf with tliiu cellules sometimes developes a spot more rapidly, proba*bly because the cells are more closely emptied by the mycelium than are those of au adulfc leathery leaf.” Now it is adm itted th a t the disease is developed in different degrees on leaves of different textures.

On page 13 we f in d :— “ High and exposed ridges and places are commonly badly diseased.” This is not on account of moisture ; it m ust be, therefore, because the trees are weak and more prone to disease.

O11 page 15 :— “ The reasons why th is d istric t suffered from such a bad a ttack of leaf-disease in Ju ly have already been detailed, and it will be noticed th a t when tbe winds commenced, a large surface of young d succulent leaves was ready to receive the spores

of Hemileia.” Again, on the same page :— “ I t is clear th a t leaves are formed more slowly from Ja n u ­ary to M arch than from April to June, for instance (in the d istricts referred to), bu t the advantage gained by either having fewer leaves on th e trees in M ay and June, or many hardened ones would prob­ably be a decided one.”

These phrases seem to me to say clearly th a t young and succulent leaves take the disease more readily than hardened ones, and, if th is is the case, as I m aintain i t is, I do not th in k i t can be said th a t there is “ no special predisposition for infection,” or, in other words, th a t all coffee, w hatever its condi­tion, takes the disease in the same degree.

In conclusion, I will say th a t I consider, on the whole, Mr. W ard’s report an exhaustive and able treatm ent of the subject, and capable of rendering p lanters much assistance. W e have now, however, all th a t can be taught us by scientific men about Hemileia, and it is for practical planters, in working their coffee, to study the disease. I m ust say, . 1th in k there is a good deal to be found out y e t asto the best tim e to prune and manure w ith a viewto dodging the disease in Ju ly and August, andhaving healthy wood ready to blossom in January. —I remain, dear sir, yours faithfully,

G. A. TALBOT.

CINCHONA COOCINEA.Badulla, 30th November 1881.

D e a r Sir ,—In Doctor Trim en’s rem arks on Colonel Beddome’s Report, he tells us th a t Dr. Spruce w ith Mr. J. E. How ard has long .ago determ ined his “ Pata de Gallinazo ’" to be Coccinea Pav. Having some tim e ago come across some large trees which answer exactly to the drawing of th is species in th e “ Illust. Nuev. Quinol.,” I should very much like to learn if this Coccinea bark is of much value. The trees grow quite as large as succirubra, bu t th e leaves are smaller and round with pink veins. The fru it is very much shorter th an th a t of succirubra and almost round.— Yours truly, B. G-.

[Perhaps Dr. Trimen will answer th is question. Personally we have no knowledge of the species re­ferred to. The im portant question, however, is w hat is the quality of the bark of our correspondent’s tree; and th is analysis will a t once decide. The only reference to the red bark, “ P a ta de Galliuazo,” we can find in M arkham ’s book, is as follows :—

Dr. Spruce, from his observations in the Pumachaca forest, came to the conclusion th a t th e “ red b a rk ” trees grow best on stony declivities, where there is, however, a good depth of humus, a t an elevation of from 3000 to 5000 feet above the sea. Tbe tem perat­u r e ‘was very like th a t of a summer day in London, bu t with cold mists towards evening, and from Jan u ary to May unceasing rain. He found the cin­chona trees, iu th is p a rt of the country, almost entirely extirpated, and. after a short stay a t Lucmas, he p ro­ceeded to examine the region of the “ hill b a rks,” or cascarillas serranas, which is a t an elevation of 8,500 to9,000 feet, on both sides of the river Chanchan. In the forest of Llalla, a t the foot of the m ountain of Asuay, he found two kinds, called by the natives cuchi-cara (pig skin) and pata de gallinazo ; * and on a stony bill side there were tw enty large trees of the former, from 40 to 50 feet high.Dr. Trimen has said that C. coccinea as illustrated from authentic specimens, is quite unlike our Ceylon “ ro b u sta” (hybrid). If our correspondent would send specimens of th e leaves (and flower) of his trees to Peradeniya, we have no doubt they would be examined w ith interest. Can lie trace the history of his trees ?— E d .]

T H E SACK CURE FOR GRUB.Mornington, Nov. 30th, 1881.

D ea r Sir , —I have tried Mr. Parsons’ plan of using sacking on two estates, on a small scale, and have found it succeed perfectly in bringing all grub to the surface.—Yours tru ly , C. B. LUTYRNS.

MR. SCHROTTKY’S EX PER IM EN TS ON AN ESTATE IN MATALE.

Colombo, 30th November 1881,D ear S i r ,— M r. Borron invites me to come to

M atale and study some facts connected w ith my experiments. There is one th ing Mr. B. can make quite sure of, v iz , th a t while I am in th e Island I do not fail to keep myself acquainted w ith the results of my experiments as they, from time to time, become apparent. I am cognisant of all M r. B. says regarding the estate he refers to and o f more, for while he (Mr. B.) has, as far I can judge from his letter, seen i nly 5 to 10 acres of the estate. 1 have during the last three weeks gone twice over and through th e whole of i t (20 acres). The time has not come vet for closing the results there. — Yours faithfully' EUGENE C. SCBROTTKY.

TO B EIN G OUT T H E COLOUR OF TEA K WOOD ?

D e a r S i r , —W ould any of your readers kindly, mention w hat is the best plan for treating teak wood, so as to bring out the colour, and graining more clearly, after the varnish has been laid on? Would i t be necessary to apply a wood stain, and of w hat k ind ?—Faithfully yours, Q.

COST OF CLEARING LANTAN A LAND.Maria, 3rd December 1881.

D e a r S ip ., — “ Never T oo Old to Learn” should pay fifteen rupees for felling and clearing and ten rupees for tak ing out roots and burning same per acre. He should road, drain, hole, and p lant up the landas soon as possible afte r the burn, say fell in Feb­ruary, burn, clear and hole in March and p lant in April, Do not heap lantana roots for burning except on roads, as no plants will come on on the spot where lantana roots were heaped and b u rn t.—Yours faithfully, J • HOLLOWAY.

P. S .—I am glad to be able to send some indigoseed herewith. W ill you forward same to your cor­respondent. I f they can export croton seed and indigo j

from India why not from Ceylon, I shall try to do so. !Your Kadngannawa correspondent certainly could

not have had lantana as we have it here oftwelve years’ growth. 1 had lantana cleared where a man had to creep underneath and first cut it with a knife or cattie a foot above ground, thenothers had to beat i t down and cu t down the sides, and ten men could not do more than a quarter acre properly. I t took three weeks after i t was cu t down before I could burn it. I t is necessary you should have a good burn throughout, as i t is less expei s- ive and be tte r for the plants with the ashes nicely over the whole ground than to be obliged to roll or heap it and burn. There is some lantana which could be done for R12 per a c re ; but if i t is of twelveyears’ growth the soil m ust be poor to be able to geta contractor to fell, clear, take out and burn theroots of lantana at th a t price. J . H.

D amaged T ea in M elb o u r n e .—One of the best an­swers to Mr. Everard’s b luster indefence of China tea is to be found in paragraphs like th a t which follows, extracted from the Age of October 2 5 th :—“ The Customs officers were engaged yesterday in destroying a large quantity of damaged tea recently imported in to this colony.”

T ea in A u stra lia .—A great deal of excitem ent has lately been caused in Adelaide by th e announcement th a t tea had been discovered in the N orthern T er­ritory. I t is said th a t during th e Adelaide Parlia ­m entary receess, the M inister for the Northern T er­ritory will visit th a t p a rt of the Province, in order to satisfy himself as to the character of these discoveries ‘ —Pioneer.

P la n t in g I nform ation : T iie “ T ropical Ag r i­cu ltu r ist .”— We had a request the other day from a m ercantile Firm to procure for them copies of the Mr. M oens’ Java Reports on Cinchona Culture. Our reply was th a t all these Reports, which are in Dutch, are transla ted and re-published in our columns, more especially in the Tropical Agriculturist, in which also are given the Indian Reports by Dr. K ing, Colonel Beddome, Mr. Gammie, kc., as well as Dr. Trim en’s and Mr. How ard's papers. There can be no doubt th a t all proprietors, cultivating cinchona or other “ new products,” should direct a file of the Tropical Agriculturist to be kept on their plantations (and bound up once a year) for reference. The proper value of the publication will probably no t be realized until i t is too late to get back copies. Mercantile agents for estates and for absent proprie­tors should not overlook th e hint.

Co ffee P la n tin g near Ma u r it iu s .—A gentleman living upon an island near M auritius wrote to a Ceylon friend and fellow-passenger to Aden as follows :—

Pomong Johannd, Comoro Islands, Oct. 17th, 1881.Ju s t a line. How did you reach and find things on

your re tu rn ? We stayed 14 days a t M auritius aud I got here on lfith August. I th in k I shall star t coffee here. I t grows well, bu t does nut last more than 9 years. If I start, I shall p lant a t an elevation of 1,000 or 800 feet. I have some 27 plants of Liberian coffee—young plants. How does i t do in Ceylon ? W ill you in a le tter send me some cardamom seed to p lant here. Also tell me bow i t is cultivated, and if it pays you to grow it in Ceylon ? I th in k next year I shall pay Ceylon a visit also, for in ­formation. W ill you write as soon as you can and give the information about cardamom and its cu lti­vation ? Does it yield in a year, and what is the produce worth ? Also let me know about Liberian coffee and give me any news, like a good fellow. The four engineers, our fellow-passengers in th e steamer, did not like M auritius.

H ome A pprecia tio n of I nd ia n T eas. —The Cal­cutta Englishman, w riting of a late tea sale there, and the prices realized, says :— “ W e have no hesitation in pronouncing the sale a remarkable one, as i t m arks the beginning of an era of prosperity for those en­gaged in the in d u stry .” Our contem porary further adds :—“ In the face of one of the cheapest China crops on record and a m arket for Indian tea ranging fully 3d over 1880, the consumption of our tea has increased by over 7 million lb ., th e deliveries in London will certainly reach 50 million lb. th is year, while the to ta l ou tturn cannot approach th a t figure, and the increasing Colonial and American demand will appreciably reduce the supply available for the London m arket. The fact th a t the grocer a t home has th is year paid 3d per lb. over last year for Indian tea a t a tim e when China teas were available a t unusually low prices, and th a t the consumption a t the enhanced price has increased to such an extent, proves th a t the demand for Indian teas is established, and th a t they will be bought whatever may be the price of the in ­ferior China article .” Now the Ceylon teas are not a w hit behind the Indian, and th e “ era of pro­sperity ,” which the home demand is opening up for the Assam tea-planters, will w ithout doubt also reach ourselves.

FORESTRY, AND HOW IT PAYS IN BRITAIN.(Gardeners’ Chronicle, 8 th October 1881.)

Growing our own T im ber .— I t is at all times desir­able, but specially so at present, to grow sufficient wood upon every extensive estate for all its requirements. From a report by the Board of Trade for the year end­ing December 31, 1873, I find the following statement, amongst others, of great significance and interest to pro­prietors of woodlands, namely, £18,651,982, the money paid by this country to foreign countries for the article wood alone. That was probably an exceptional re tu rn ; but even with ample allowance there is still a broad margin worthy of the attention of those interested in the growing and disposal of wood. We cannot grow all kinds of wood and timber in this country more than we can all kinds of grain, but there are some kinds which can be grown at home vastly superior in many respects to what are grown abroad, such, for example, as the Scots Pine, Larch, and some kinds of hard woods. If any one is at all sceptical in regard of this, I would advise them to visit the Pine forests of Deeside, Strath­spey, and some of the woody districts in. Ross-shire and Inverness-shire, such as Novar, Balnagowan, Beaufort, and many others, where both natural and planted tim­ber trees can be seen in all their splendour and magni­ficence. Or where the Larch is wished to be seen in perfection, a visit to the woods and forests of Blair, in Athole, on the T av ; on the banks of the Don, at Mony- m usk; a t Ballingdalloch, on the Spey ; and Novar, Balna­gowan, &c., in Ross-shire. If at these favoured places the trees, as such, are pleasant to the eye and gladden­ing to the heart of any admirer of sylvan grandeur and magnificence, it is equally certain that in point of quality and utility they will be found unsurpassable, if not un­equalled in the known world. The justly celebrated Scots Pine of the Dee and Spey side districts have proved their durability again and again by endurance as fence and gate-posts, in which positions—the most trying possible—they have been and are still known as stand­ing from forty to fifty years. Of Larch, again, I have in my possession some simples in excellent condition after having stood as fenffposts over thirty-five years.

There are, no doubt, well-defined and limited conditions under which any species of tree grows to perfection, and the Larch and Scots Pine are no exceptions. The first condition is to plant the trees only upon such ground as is suitable to them. The second condition is to thin them, so that a t any stage of growth the trees may grow with a freedom and vigour adapted to their nature, constitution, and habit; and the third condition is to cut them at the proper stage of ripeness, and at the proper season of the year. Beyond proper planting, which includes selection of the soil, situation, &c., the next most important thing to attend to is the thinning of the trees. I t is much to be deplored that vast areas of plantations are rendered less than half as valuable as they would otherwise be for want of timely thinning. In a large plantation of Scots Pine (over 1,500 acres, and fifty years old) I had once an excellent opportunity of observing the effects of thinning in all its forms, and may state the value of the trees thus :—Part not thinned a t all, trees valued at 3d. each. Part thinned when something over twenty years old, worth 6 d. each. Part thinned once and sparingly when young, say twelve to fifteen years old, worth Is. each. And part thinned once a t proper age, say twelve years planted and a t proper distances, 4s. each. Now if we look at the value of the acre a t fifty years old, a t the above rates, we find it stands th u s:—1,500 small trees, drawn up like poles, at 3d. each £18 15 01,000 small and branchless trees, at 6 d. each .. 25 0 0

800 fine clean pole-like trees, at Is. each . . 40 0 0300 fine clean and fair-sized trees, a t 4s. each. . 60 0 0

I t is not to lie inferred that all the plantation would have been worth £60 a t fifty years old, even if properly thinned, but it may be concluded that it world have

158

been worth £80 per acre at 1 0 0 years growth, or even more, including the whole area, which implies that some of it would have been probably over one-third more money value than above represented. The soil was thin and poor, but such as produces fine quality of wood when a t maturity at, say, 100 to 120 years.—C. Y. M ic h ie , Cullen House, Cullen, Banffshire, October 3.

THE COFFEE AND SUGAR PRODUCING COUNTRIES.

VENEZUELA.Venezuela is, after Brazil, the country in South America

producing most coffee; at the same time the best cocoa is grown there, and a variety of other tropical produce, prominent among which tonqua beans, a substitute for vanilla for making essence and a flavoring substance for tobacco, and furthermore, balsam copaiva. Venezuela is lavisHy favored by nature. Toward the south it is watered by the Orinoco, the largest river in South America next to the Amazon, thence immense plains or “ llanos ” stretch across the country, and on them innumerable herds of cattle are grazing. Toward the north these plains are limited by the Cordillera and the fine mountain plateaus on which the coffee grows. Coffee planting is the all absorbing interest, and the actual President, General Guzman Blanco, is himself an owner of extensive coffee estates. President Blanco is a dictator, and his enemies blame him for the egotistical manner in which he rules the country—they say, with a rod of iron—making money out of everything and thus becoming prodigiously rich. His admirers, on the contrary, insist that he is probably the only Venezuelan living who can develop the resources of the country while preserving peace, and that his dictatorial proceedings and even his vanities are redeemed by his many excellent qualities. However this may be, it is certain that for the past thirty years Venezuela has been most of the time in a semi-anarchical state, one revolution succeeding another, and that the republic requires peace above everything else, even at the expense of some of its liberties.

Venezuela covers an area of 438,130 square miles, and has a native population of 1,784,197 souls and some24,000 foreigners. The chief cities are Caracas, the capital, with 48,897 inhabitants; Valencia, 28,594 ; Bar- quisiraento, 25,664; Maracaibo, 21,954 ; Maturin, 12,914 ; San Carlos, 10,420 ; Merida, 9,727; Cumana, 9,427; Ciudad Bolivar, 8,486; Coro, 8,172; Barcelona, 7,674; and La Guayra, 6,763.

The income of the republic is $-4,680,000, and the expenditure $4,448,000. The internal debt is $12,962,172, and the foreign one $54,347,818. The import is $15,043,000, and the export $16,113,000, the latter including gold dust, thcre#being valuable gold mines in the state of Guayana, not far from the Orinoco. The country also possesses copper mines. , The leading ports are La Guayra, being the port of Caracas, Puerto Cabello and Maracaibo. The maritime movement i s :—arrivals, 8,862 vessels, with 615,806 tons, and sailings, 9,028, with a tonnage of 627,128. Thirteen steamship lines keep iq> communica­tion with Europe and America, and there are 340 miles of telegraph, but only 70 miles of railway. Venezuela stands very much in need of railroads. They.* possession would impart a great impulse to coffee production, as has been the case in all coffee growing countries. Un­fortunately, the unsettled condition of the qountry hitherto has frightened away European and American capitalists. Some of the latter have during the past few years again come forward, but so far without*any tangible results. Should President Guzman Blanco during coining years succeed in weaning the country from revolution, capitalists may take courage and endow the republic with better means of communication in the interior.

In 1839 Venezuela produced 13,000 tons of coffee, in 1869, 17,500, and a t present it turns out 30,000 tons.

This includes all coffee received from the interior a t Maracaibo, although much of it comes from Colombia. Although the species of Venezuelan coffee coming to us from La Guayra and Puerto Cabello are quite popular in the United States, Maracaibo is still more so, in­asmuch as in point of outward appearance, size of beau and flavor it approaches Java, and is extensively consumed by the well-to-do middle classes in the United States in the place of the latter and Padang.

The best cocoa is the celebrated Caracas, which is in such demand in the country of its growth, in Spanish America an 1 France, that it commands a veiy high price compared with all other sorts produced anywhere, and this is the reason why so little of it gets to this country. The cocoa from Carupano and other points on the coast is considerably cheaper, and goes to Mexico, Spain, France, etc.

From what precedes it will be seen that there are few American countries producing coffee and cocoa so admirably fitted to expand the production thereof almost indefinitely. That crops hardly ever fail there in Either product, the trees being less exposed and less subject to di-rase of any kind than elsewhere. But for the curse of revolution which has rendered capital shy, Venezuela would at the present day probably produce three times as much coffee and cocoa as it does a t present. I t shows that in some of the countries south of us the less respectable portion of the ruling classes, in whose hands the mass of the people are mere tools, are the worst enemies of the commonwealth.— American Grocer.

NILGIRI CINCHONA BARK.TO T H E E D IT O R OF T H E “ SO U TH OF IN D IA O B S E R V E R .”

S ir ,— Cinchona planters on the Nilgiris must, I think, have read with much interest Mr. Howard’s analysis made in May last, of thirty samples of bark sent home a t the close of last year from the Dodabetta and Neddiwuttum Government Plantations by Mr. Cross, the Botanist employed by the Secretary of State for India to bring out to this country from Santa Fee, at great labour and expense, the single plant now to be seen in the first mentioned plantation—a tiny little plant about a foot and a half high,' and as carefully guarded and tended as the future progenitor of a higher race, Israelites of the family, deserves to be. I t is a pity, however, that a more careful description of the samples was not attempted when so important a measure was under­taken, as there is no question more momentous to the private planter of this medicinal exotic, than the difference or advantages, commercially considered, between what is known as Mclvor’s mossing system and coppicing, for while the words 11 renewed bark under m oss” points unmistakeably to the former, the description “ original bark ” may not, in all the instances mean what jvould be the yield of bark harvested under the latter. The “ original bark ” cut and exported from the two Govern­ment Plantations annually for the home market is mostly, if not all, that which has had the benefit (?) of the covering of moss during the years it was applied for promoting the renewal of bark on trees from which two or three or four strips had been cut—the “ mossing ” thus serving the double purpose, as it is believed, of protecting the cambium on the parts cut on its formative efforts, against the effects of atmospheric exposure, and of promoting in the bark left untouched on the stem of the same tree a more favourable development as to thickness and alkaloid formation, the moss carrying the stem nil round, from the ground, to five or six feet above, or where the* tree branches out. I t would be a difficult and hazardous feat to go all over the Dodabetta plantation, but there are few trees to be seen in the accessible parts which are not swathed in moss. “ Original bark” may therefore mean that nursed under moss as above described, or that stripped from trees whose stems, as in Nature, have been exposed to the ill effects (?) of

the atmosphere. Applied to bark from South America, from where Mr. Cross had just arrived, the term would involve no doubt of this kind, as cut in the forests the bark would be just that which would be harvested in an organized plan of coppicing. Mclvor’s system of mossing is, it must be remembered, a very expensive one, amounting ta about one-fourth the total annual expenditure of the plantation, and while botanically admit­tedly effectual, it is of vital importance to the future of Cinchona cultivation on these Hills, that it should be proved to be commercially equally so ; and the position it would stand in compared with a well considered plan of coppicing. Mr. Cross’s description in a few places may, however, be taken to refer to unprotected trees as in Nature, as in the samples marked Nos. 1, 6 , 9 and 27, and the yield of Quinine and Quinidine in these may perhaps safely be compared with the yield from renewed bark in ' the samples of the same species, viz., Crown Condaminea, marked Nos. 10, 11, 1 2 , 13, 14, as contributing somewhat to the solution of the vexata quastio above referred t o :—

Quinine °/Unmossed bark.

Quinine % TotalNo. 1 4-51 0-67 5-18

„ 6 4-63 1-19 5-82„ 9 4-04 0-35 4-39„ 27 4-78 1 - 1 2 5-90

Average 4-49 0-83 5-32

Quinine °/Mossed bark. Quinidine °/ Total

No.10 4-79 0-48 5-27„ 1 1 7-69 0-16 7-85„ 1 2 6-60 0 - 2 2 6-82„ 13 401 0-76 4 . 7 7

„ 14 4-69 0-38 5-07

Average 5-55 0-40 5-95The difference in favor of the much vaunted and

expensive mossing system is, by this comparison, not so great as one might s u p p o s e , f o u r samples of natural bark yielding say, in roun™ numbers, 5J per cent of the two most valuable alkaloids, against 6 per cent in the five samples of mossed bark. The Department now in charge of the Government plantations might be able to calculate whether the extra expenditure incurred in the mossing system of propagation and harvesting the bark is compensated for by this 0'63 per cent of extra yield in the useful alkaloids. I have, perhaps not been altogether fair to the despised natural or unmossed bark in omitting the analysis of tlqe sample marked No. 4 in that category, and should enquiry show that the tree had not enjoyed any advantage from mossing, the comparison would stand th e n :—

Quinine °/„ Quinidine °j0 Total.Mossed baik average of

five samples S'oo 0'40 5 95Original bark average

of five samples 5'50 1 1 1 6 61or something rather in favor of the latter. Quinidine, Mr. Howard says, sells a t more than half the price of Quinine so that to the chemist the one description of bark is on an average as good as the other. Is it the same to the planter ? The talented head of the Forest Department has his attention directed to the solution of the problem, 110 doubt; but it is a pity that no systematic attempt in this direction was made by the officers in charge of the plantations during the last twenty years of their existence.—G. B.

COCOPALMS AND T H E . INSECTPEST IN F IJ I . (Gardeners' Chronicle, 8 th October 1881.)

I regret to state that the insect pest has made the greatest havoc among my coconut tree s ; J am led to infer that they must have suffered peculiarly from the

fact that the many Europeans, old residents in the Colony and coconut planters, and also natives, who have seen my trees have one and all expressed the greatest astonish­ment and declared they never saw anything like it before. I have seen no coconut trees on neighbouring estates attacked in the same way as unfortunately mine are. The insect is a Phasma, the Lopaplius cocopliagus, or coconut-eating Lopaplius, called by the natives Mi mi mata ; when touched it ejects a foul smelling white fluid, which the. natives have assured me will, when ejected into the eyes, produce blindness: is is essentially a sur­face (foliage) feeder; it feeds only upon the leaves of the coconut tree ; it does not attack the roots in any s tag e ; is not a borer, and does not penetrate the wood or the soft head-pith.

During the day the insects lie dormant, generally in couples, shaded from the sun, stretched out a t full length under the rib of the coconut leaf, the male 011 the back of the female. The female is much larger than the male, she varies in colour, being sometimes a bright green, sometimes a reddish-brown; the male invariably I have found to be of a reddish-brown colour.

They do not feed a t all during the day, they seem to dislike the glare of the sun, for upon being shifted to the upper side of the leaf they get back as quickly as they can to the under side. Soon after sunset, when it becomes cool, the couples separate and commence to crawl about and feed, eating the leaf in the same way as a caterpillar does, in the form of a semi-circle. Both male and female are furnished with small semi-circular pink wings about the size of a sixpence, which are of little use except to steady their flight downwards. The eggs are to be found in two rows, one on each side the intestines of the female. I have counted as many as twenty in one female in various stages of development. On examining the tail part of the female, I have no­ticed extending between the two tail points a piece of sk in ; 011 lifting this, and underneath a t the upper and broader end of this flap you will see the ovary passage, and immediately below it a small flexible bag-like recept­acle protected by two pieces of skin or scales which meet but do not overlap A liese the insect can open or shut at will. In this flexible bag .you will invariably find an egg encased in a hard rough brown skin with a cap-like, point at one end, which comes off at a touch and discloses the eg g ; you can, if you wish, without difficulty remove the whole of this skin. The idea I formed is that the female retains the egg in .this bag until it hatches the young in sect; upon this being done another egg drops down into this receptacle to be hatched, and so 0 1 1 ; the young insect is almost as fine as a hair. The destruction of a coconut tree by these insects is wonderfully rapid. Towards the end of last January six of my trees first showed signs of being attacked; to- ward< the end of May two were killed outright. The trees that have been attacked by the insects are all young trees in their very prime, and before this insect plague appeared were all of them magnificently healthy trees in full bearing.

The lower leaves are attacked first; these are quickly eaten bare, nothing but the stalks and ribs being left, which soon drop off whilst still green ; the other leaves rapidly follow, the nuts, failing to receive proper nourish­ment, drop off unripe, and the tree which three or four weeks before was a fine healthy tree, loaded .with nuts in different stages, is now left with nothing but a central spike with three or four bare leaves hanging on to it. After a while the centre spike splits into a leaf, but the insects eat it bare at once; the tree makes several struggles to put out fresh leaves, but these are all eaten directly they appear, and very shortly the tree die*.

I have natundly viewed the ravages of this insect with considerable anxiety; I fully realise the grave necessi­ty of arresting, if possible, the progress of such a pest at the o u tse t; I will, therefore mention the various remedies I have tried. On a still day I selected a small

tree (trunk from 12 feet to 15 feet in height) which I noticed was covered with the insects; immediately be­neath the tree I caused several large smoky fires to be made, and for an hour kept the tree enveloped in dense smoke, so dense that standing close to it I could not see it. I then allowed the smoke to clear away. On the ground I searched diligently for the insects; I could not find one. I looked up to the tre e ; there they were as numerous as ever, and apparently none the worse, the only difference being that they were crawling about instead of remaining in their usual dormant condition. Not satisfied with this attempt I determined to make another. This time I selected a very young tree, only eighteen months old, standing with its leaves about 1 2 feet high. Before doing anything I carefully counted the insects upon the tree—seven couples in all. I then for fully half an hour kept the tree enveloped in dense smoke ; at the end of that time I counted fourteen in­sects upon the tree ; the couples had separated and were crawling about, not one had been destroyed. I then tried the effect of burning sulphur. I put half a pound of sulphur into a tin, and, setting it 011 fire, held it immediately beneath a couple of insects, only 2 inches below' them. After a while they crawled away together. I followed them with the burning sulphur, keeping it well under them, so that they should get the full benefit of the fumes. I kept this up for some time, but with no success, for it did not destroy the insects.

I then adopted the plan of one man climbing the trees and knocking the insects off; there is no use in merely shaking the leaf, the insects cling too tenaciously; but by striking, the leaf suddenly half-a-dozen sharp blows with a short heavy stick the insects are taken by surprise and drop off. I commenced with first strik­ing the heart leaves, then the leaves below them, and so on until the insects had fallen on to thv lowest leaves, when a few blows brought them to the ground

•literally in showrers, where ten other men chopped them to pieces with their knives; they do not drop, but ex­tending their pink wings float to the ground. Some, however, I noticed were able to swerve suddenly to one side, and alight upon the trunks of the nearest coconut trees, up which they crawled, or rather ran with great rapidity. I thought I had a t last discovered an effectual remedy, and for a while the trees showed signs of im­provement, but it was only for a short w'hile, for the insects soon returned, wrorse than ever, and although I have repeated the operation of . knocking them off the trees, I cannot conquer the pest*

I have thought of cutting down all the trees that have been severely attacked, but feel convinced this would do no good, for the insects, w'hen they have eaten a tree perfectly bare, leave it until it puts out fresh leaves, when they return to it. ’

I have tried the experiment of passing a lighted torch along under the midribs of the infested leaves, witlr the result that both insects and leaves are destroyed. Thfe coconut leaf is very sensitive—a strong heat will wither i t ; but nearly the same damage is done by ray method of striking the leaves, for it bruises the midrib, which soon breaks, one portion dropping to the ground, the other withering on the tree. A tree that has been oper­ated upon in this manner presents a most forlorn ap­pearance, and its growth, of course, is materially checked.

Towards the end of January two of my trees showed signs that they were attacked ; before the end of the same month four adjacent trees were in the same s ta te ; within four weeks not a vestige of a green leaf was to be seen upon these six trees, and the trees immediately adjoining showed that they also w’ere attacked. Those who sawr them assured me that a good “ blow ” would free me of the p e s t; when the hurricane months had passed I was tohl that the steady trade winds would have the desired effect, and so 011. I regret to state I have now 113 trees attacked, many of w'hicli I am much afraid will not recover. I do not think any of them

are more than fifteen or sixteen years o ld ; they are all exceptionally fine trees, and until attacked were in full bearing, loaded with fruit—one tree dropped more than 1 0 0 nuts in six months.

The insects exhibit no preference for any particular variety of coconut tree, they attack them indiscrimin­ately—the ones nearest those eaten bare becoming vict­ims without distinction, for the trees attacked by them here are of many very different varieties.—D . R. S m i t h .

B R A Z IL : INDUSTRIAL CONFERENCE.(Rio Cmzeiro, 17th July 1881.)

Invited by the minister of agriculture to state his ideas and to give information to the members of the Centro da Ijavoura e Conunercio, merchants and import­ant coffee planters with reference to our principal pro­duct in its principal consuming market, Sr. Salvador de Mendon^a expressed himself as follows at the conference held on the 15th. in s t :—

He believes that so serious a competition is being developed to Brazilian coffee in the North American market that, if we do not at one proride against it, we will in the near future see ourselves vanquished by similar products, if not entirely excluded by them from that market.

Beginning with a recapitulation of the history of the movement of American capital for the enterprises in Mexico, he said that this movement dates from five years back. Even before the international exposition at Philadelphia, the North Americans said that the continuous and large balances which they paid to Brazil, of whom they bought so much and to whom they sold so little, induced them to seek other countries wiiich would export products similar to our own in exchange for products of the United States.

He added that the existing triangular commerce, by. the regimen of which the English steamers carry the i Brazilian coffee to the United States ports and there receive bills of Brazil, aggravated the situation still more, for Brazil went to supply herself in Europe with the manufactured goods which she could buy in the United States.

I t was calculated that for the service alone of trans­port and liquidation of the commerce between the twro American nations England was receiving annually 12£ ° / 0 on about 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 $, the total amount of that commerce.

Looking around, the country which the capitalists of the Union first fancied as capable to substitute us, was Mexico. On her they fixed their views; they spoke of incorporating companies for the culture of coffee, under the superintendence of General Escobedo, in a zone of Mexico which the North American capitalists, interestedin the enterprise, insisted should lie annexed to theUnion. The difficulty in realizing this latter condition, the substitution of the Grant administration by that of Hayes, more rational and less adventurous caused the promoters of the movement to stop.

Studying the conditions of orn* economical relations with the United States, and endeavoring to remove the causes of discontent which had been manifested and which endangered, the possession of the best marketfor our coffee, the Brazilian consul general in the UnitedStates saw that the remedy was in the development of those relations and in the facilities wiiich should be granted in order to put the commerce of the two countries on a footing of exchange of then* products as far as practicable. But as it is not given to human intelligence and human power to direct or change at will the laws of economy. Sr. Salvador de Mendonca repeated to the men in the United States who were capable of influencing the opinion of those interested, that, as soon as the North Americans would bring to Brazil better and cheaper manufactures than the similar European ones, they would exclude the latter from our

markets. They objected that without direct steamer communication such competition was impossible; that there were goods which required to be delivered to the consumer in a fixed time, and others which required rapid transport; that neither the transport by sailing vessels nor that by English triangular steamship line could satisfy these necessities; that the result of the existing conditions was that the English continued as forced intermediaries in the sale of many North American products. As an example they pointed out what occurred in the commerce in butter and cheese ; Brazil was im­porting those articles on a large scab, England was supplying them on a large scale to B razil; but as England was not producing them in sufficient quantity for her own home consumption, she bought them in the Uuited States. A pound of superior butter was costing in New York 20 cents or about 400 reis, and as it was worth 1$200 in Rio de Janeiro, the difference of 800 reis remained in the hands of the intermediaries for freight, packing, salt and duty (the whole of which cost about 200 reis), England gaining 100 per cent which the consumer paid and the producer did not receive.

As soon, however, as the project of a direct line of American steamers appeared, the Brazilian consul gen­eral called to this enterprise the attention of the imperial government who very rightly subventioned it. When this act of the imperial government was known, the Americans, to whom those interested in the estrange­ment of the two countries were continually talking of the ill will on the part of the empire towards the republic, seeing how promptly we here complied with the wishes for direct communication expressed in the presenta­tion speech of their minister, Mr. Hilliard, not only stopped the import duty of 2 cents per lb. on coffee, proposed in the message of the President to Congress in the autumn of 1877, but promoted a special message of the same President, accompanied by an able report of Mr. Evarts, recommending a subvention to the es­tablished line. Only the special circumstances in which the administration was placed, in the face of a demo­cratic opposition majority m both houses of Congress, caused until now the non-suecfts of that recommendation.

Two years passed without modification of this state of things, though already better for us, when the return of General Grant from his voyage round the world, coinciding with the superabundace of United States manufactures seeking markets, and with the abundance of capittil in Wall street seeking employment, cause) the plan of enterprises in Mexico to be taken up again. Then, almost by intuition, there sprang up companies for railroads, coffee culture aud immigration to the neighbouring republic with North American capital.

Continuing on this point Sr. Salvador de Mendonca showed the systematic organization of this undertaking and manifested his opinion that its results will be fatal to us if we do not prepare ourselves for this serious competition. W ith abundance of capital and labor, which we lack ; with the perfected machinery which the invent­ive North American genius will supply them, and which we do not generally possess; with the proximity of the consuming market from which we are comparatively distant, we have already sufficient against us in order to see in Mexico a very serious competitor.

If we add to this that, in the near future, when the requiremefits of consumption are supplied and the front­ier between the two countries is abolished, a duty on all coffee entering the United States by water may well be imposed; then it is clear that our product will be­come virtually excluded from that market.

I The two advantages on wiiich, under these circum- ! staifces, we can still rely in this struggle, are the ] following: 1 st, our soil has the privilege, which nobody ! can take from us, of producing coffee with double the I fertility of the Mexican soil and of producing coffee ot I strong qualities which it will be difficult to substitute ! by others in the present principal consuming cen tre ;

2nd, whereas Mexico is only just initiating the culture of coft'ce, we are already the producers of almost half the total production of the world, and we have, there­fore. precedence and time in our favor, the only thing which neither Yankee energy nor activity can suppress.

Oiven, therefore, the necessity of maintaining the possession of the principal market for our coflee, the means of satisfying it consist in a settled plan of com­plex and coimected measures. Sr. Salvador de MendonQa does not think that each of those measures is infallible, hut believes that the eonjucture of the same will bring a powerful remedy against the evil.

He divides those measures into external and internal om.s.Treating of the first, he says that the remedy to

oppose to the greater distance from the consuming centre with which we have to struggle in regard to Mexico is rapid, direct and cheap transport and direct telegraphic communication. And having said four years ago, when recommending the establishment of the line of North American steamers, that their first voyage would be the cheapening of the coffee transport, lie begs per­mission to show how practice has justified his saying. Up to the present the North American steamers have made 37 round voyages: the freight on coffee which before the establishment of this line was on the average 70 cents per bag, went down to an average of 40 cents 1))* these steamers, which means a diminution of $360,000, or about 800,000$, in the freight on the 1 ,2 0 0 . 0 0 0 bags until now carried by them. And if wc add to this that the North American line did not cany 50 \ 0 of the Brazilian coflee imported in the United States during the last three years, and that the other 50°/,, thanks to the competition yf the North Americans, must have enjoyed a similar reduction, for it is not credible that the patriotism of the English would go so far as to pay to their steamers the former freight when it could he had for little more than half, then it is evident that the benefit obtained, in the diminution of the freight alone on our coffee to the United States, amounted during the last three years to at least 1,600,000$; and as the contributors, 'who pay the yearly subvention of 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 $ to the North American liim, have disbursed 600.000$ during that period, there still remains a balance of 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 $ to the coffee producers, who after all are the same contributors.

Putting aside, therefore, the benefit which other ports of the empire derive from the line, Para for instance whose increment alone would justify this service, the cheapening of the freight and the demonstrated balance alone place this expenditure in the list of reproductive expenditures, and counsel the immediate improvement of this service. *

The monthly voyages are not enough and the ports of call are few.

The reason why the English steamers of the t r i­angular line continue to take more coffee to the United States than the North American steamers is principally the following:—They go two or three times a month and. without swamping the distributing maiket with a large stock, they cany the product in proportion as it is wanted. The arrival of 40,000, to 50,000 hags of coffee in a single steamer, when the market is already supplied, causes a fall in p r ic e s ... .

(Sr. Rnmallio Ortigao: There should he set againstthis the rise of prices occasioned here hv the fact thata large steamer is in port loading, and that it is knownshe will not leave empty.)

Steamers, therefore, which are smaller and moie rapid than those at present employed on this line, and with other ports of call, will augment the benefit which the actual ones already render. An intermediary line, or a branch of the actual one from St. Thomas to New Orleans and other ports in the South of the Union, would give to our export to those destinations the bene­fit of reduction in freight which the export to New York already enjovs. Bv the excellent commercial retro-

159

speet of the first semester of this year, published in the Jornal do Commercio of the 14th inst., it is seen that the freight on coflee to New Orleans by the English steamers of the traingular line continues, from want of competition, at 70 cents per bag.

As to the direct telegraphic coimnunications, they are the forced complement of the anterior measure. The trans-oceanic cables a t present constructed a few years ago, permit of reductions in the tariff which are astonish­ing. The merchant .who sends today one word from Rio de Janeiro to New York, via Europe, for 7$55 * and 1 0 °f0 additional, will quadruple his telegraphic correspondence when a direct line will charge him only the fourth part of what he is being charged today. In view of the importance which this agent of com­merce has assumed in all international transactions, we cannot remain subjected to that monopoly: on this ground also competition will be salutary.

The producers and consumers being thus brought nearer through those powerful ties, the steamer and the cable, Sr. Salvador de Mendon<?a suggested another measure which, being prexcntive, would be wrongly inter­preted if it were published.

Passing to a consideration of the establishment of hanks and direct exchange between the Brazilian and North American cities, he considered these measures premature because only the laws of economy and the necessities of commerce determine them. Nevertheless, it were to be wished that the Northx American capital, and the European capital which seeks in North America more remunerative employment than it can find in the markets of the old world, would here" find facility and good acceptance, for only thus could we lead in our direction a part of the current which is overflowing Mexico.

; Passing from the exposition of the external measures to the internal ones, Sr. Salvador de Mcndon^a presented

, three tables with statistical data, obtained from the I bureau of statistics in Washington, and partially verified I in the Brazilian consulate general a t New York.I The first table, comparing the commerce of Brazil | with the United States, England and France in 21 years,| from 1859 to 1879, shows that in that period Brazil ] had constant annual balances in her transactions with I the United States, ’"'which balances amounted in the 21

years to $443,267,846, the total of the reciprocal imports and exports amounting to $707,775,714; that during the same period, in her commerce with England, Brazil had a balance in her favour in 11 years and England in 10, the balance in favour of England during the 21 year's being $15,104,579, and the total transactions between the two countries amounting to $1,218,502,853; and that finally in her commerce with France, Brazil had a balance in her favour during 8 years and France during 13, the balance in favour of France during the 21 years being $38.,099,300, and the total transactions between the two countries amounting to $668,428,500.

After some observations with reference to these figures, Sr. Salvador de Mendonya proceeded to the reading and analyzing of the other two tables, one showing the production and the other the consumption of coffee in the whole world, indicating the position of eacli country both in reference to the quantity imported and the consumption per capita. In the observations which he made on the subject of the figures of those tables, he drew attention to the considerable increase in the coffee production of Central America (Nicaragua and Guate­mala) and Mexico, noting that even before the effects of the North American capital the natural conditions already favoured that increase.

Finally he explained his views as to the measures which he called internal and which may be re>umed in the measures to improve and cheapen the production of our coffee.

For the elevation of the reputation of the product in the markets of the world, he insisted upon the

necessity of discrimination in the qualities of the coftee, which should he exported with the brands of the pro­ducers. Nothing will give an easier victory to our competitors than their finding our product badly quoted, discredited and charged not only with its real faults but also with underserved ones.

To conclude, Sr. Salvador de Mendoiuja dwelt upon the diminution of the consumption of our coftee in the * United States during the last few years.

He attributed this diminution to three causes, fort­unately transitory ones.

Firstly, to the augmentation of our production and the unexpected abundance of our crops, always difficult to foresee and creating embarrassment to the distributor of the product; secondly, to the failure of important firms which imported the article, a fact which pro­duced a certain caution and restriction amongst the other importers ; and, finally, to the removal of population from the principal consuming centre.

To this latter reason Sr. Salvador de Mendon^a attaches more importance than is generally done when he sees that, whereas the consumption in the United States of coffee in general has increased, only that of our coffee has diminished. I t is because our coffee, of strong qualities, is chiefly consumed in the Mississippi valley ; and as the agricultural population of that valley, from New Orleans to St. Paul in Minnesota, is gradually moving to the Far West, to open up new plantations, and those who take their place and prefer,- though at a higher cost, the lands already cultivated, are the new European emigrants, principally Irish, who drink little coffee as is demonstrated by the table of consumption per capita, there does not a t present exist an equal demand for the article in that valley. The former con­sumers, who have moved away, have not yet at their disposal the same facilities of transport which they had before, and, besides, they arc occupied in opening new industries and without complete relations with the markets whence they formerly supplied themselves. The new* ones require yet to he acclimatized before using the same aliment. But as the climate of the Mississippi valley does not change . and the population of the United States is increasing in prodigious progression, it is to he believed that the consumption of coffee of the strong qualities will, within a very few years, increase instead of diminishing.

D rie d Banxxas from Jam aica.—An attempt is being made to find a market for this product, and there is no doubt, from a sample submitted to us through the courtesy of Sir J . D. Hooker, that they will form an acceptable addition to the dessert-table, as they have the sweetness of the dried fig without the inconvenience of the numerous seed-like fruits. We have no doubt also that they have a considerable nutritive value.— Gardeners' Chronicle. [Since the days of Mr. Thurstan, no one in Ceylon seems to have taken up the work of 1 preparing dried plantains, which, packed in tins, were very : acceptable to friends a t “ Home,” and especially to j Ceylon children sent to England for euiication.—E d. T. A .] I

E x te rm in a tin g C ockroaches.— I put 2 quarts of beer ' into a large vessel, and in one night I caught 500 full j grown cockroaches," and how many young ones I cannot | tell. If I could have gone on for a few* weeks in that fashion,- I should soon have lessened their number, hut after .a few nights I could only catch about half a dozen, although the stokehole and plant-stove is swarming with them, i have often killed numbers of these pests when j the floor has been nearly black with them in the even- | ing, hut in the morning there has been very little sign I of those I killed left, so I conclude they eat each other. , I shall he glad if some one can tell how* to get rid of j

them wholesale.—0. O rp e t, Cirencester.—Gardeners' , Chronicle.

T h e R ed P ixano P alm.—We extract the following from the Siraits Times of August 25tli:—“ We learn that upon Mr. Murton’s recently paying a visit to the habitat, in the Sirangoon district, of tlic Red Pinang Palm, described by him in the Gardejier*1 Chronicle for December 18 last, he found that nearly all the finest specimens had been cut down by, as he was informed, the Parsee Theatrical Company. Mr. Murton has very properly called the attention of Government to this piece of Vandalism, and we are informed that steps will be at once taken for the preservation of this rare and beautiful palm. During his recent exploration of the Sirangoon district, Mr. Murton, we further learn, dis­covered another undescribed species of Willughbeia, which affords a firstvate quality of indiarubber, and specimens are being prepared for transmission to Kew and the museum of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.”— Gardeners Chronicle.

E ffects of L ight on Vegetation.—Hen* Stebler has been making experiments lately on this subject, and finds that the germination of certain agricultural grasses, such as meadow grass (poa) is much more favoured by light than by heat. An experiment made with tw*o groups, of 400 seeds each, of Poa nemoralis, showed that there germinated 0 2 per .cent in light, and 3 per cent in dark­ness. Similar results were made with Poa pratensis, showing 59 per cent germinating in light, and 7 per cent in darkness. Sun light being a very variable force, ex­periments were further made with gas light, and with the same result—viz., that light favours the germination of certain seeds, especially grass, and that these germ­inate either not at all, or very scantily, in darkness. The fact was verified by Herr Stebler in a whole series of seeds, such as Festuca, Cynosttrus, Alopecurm, &c. In the case of seeds that germinate quickly and early, sucli as clover, beans, or peas^ Herr Stebler thinks that light is probably not advantageous.—Journal of the Society o f Arts.

Sawdust as Manure.—In your answer to correspond­ents, you say, “ Decomposed sawdust is a good manure, but useless when in a green state.” I have a small farm in my own hands, and this does not agree with my experience. The sawdu* of fine fir or any resinous wood is not only useless, it is positively injurious. Some years ago a fresh gardener came to a place near here. He found an old sawpit in the wood, where there were tons and tons of sawdust lying, and had been for more than fifty y ears; everything looked thoroughly rotten. He thought it was a grand find for the garden, and said nothing to anyone (probably afraid of being forestalled), or he wouid have been told it was worse than useless; but had a lot driven down, and dressed some plots in the garden. He utterly ruined these plots fo r .a time. I t was years and years before he could get rid of the sawdust and bring back the ground to its former fertility. This was the sawdust of f i r ; the actual fibres of the wood had decomposed and gone into something like mould, leaving only the resin and the turpentine. (Would you like a sack of it ?) I won't condemn the sawdust of hard wood, because I know nothing about it, hut I should doubt of u s being of any value. Referring to the gardener and his find, do you think the canny Scotch farmers would have left the decayed sawdust lying in the wood if it had been worth the cartage ? There is a good deal of sawdust now used instead of straw for bedding horses and p ig s ; it is mostly fir sawdust. I would not put such stuff on my land, though I could get it for nothing. No doubt the sawdust is saturated with sewage and ammo­nia, but, when that is evaporated, it only leaves a resinous fibre behind. I t is just like a dram of whisky to the land—gives it a start for a moment, but leaves it in a worse condition. Under the proposed new bill for unexhausted manures, no doubt some one '.voubl bo found to put a value on it, but I don’t think U would he the gardener.—J. D unbar B raxdeu (Pitgaveny, Elgin, N .B.).— Field.

C IN C H O N A C U L T IV A T IO N .

COLONEL BEDDOME and Mit. R. CROSS ox the NILGIRI PLANTATIONS of the Madras Government.

From Colonel R. H. Beddome, Conservator of Forests, Madras, to the Secretary to Government, Revenue De­partment, Madias, dated Ootaeamund, 4th June 1881:—

Adverting to the G. ()., No. 1,670. dated 8 th Decem­ber 1880, I have the honor to inform yon that I have lately thoroughly inspected all the Government Chinchona Plantations at Naduvatam, Pykara, and Ootacnmund, and I herewith submit my report on the same. I have given my field notes on each plot in the different plantations as taken when going over them with the officers in charge; to these I have added general remarks on the condition of the three different plantations; notes on the coppicing, scraping and stripping systems of harvesting the bark : remarks on the different species grown, con­dition of buildings, nurseries, Ac., together with other remarks i*nd suggestions.

Naduvatam Chinchona P lantation.2. Xo. I Plot, 1862, A .—14T‘2 acres, east exposure,

shola soil, steeper, stonier and not so rich as in the next plot of the same year’s p lan ting ; growth good though not equal to plot B : planted originally with three-fifths succirubra and two-fifths officinalis, all of which have now been barked seven tim es; one block of about 6 acres of Officinalis is of poor growth, chiefly owing to wide planting.

In one spot 57 trees, succirubra, were coppiced rather roughly in October 1878; no suckers xvere left when the- trees were cut, and 22 out of the 57 stools have since died.

The following are measurements of ten of the living coppice:—

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 . 7. 8 . 9. 10.Height -.24 ' 22' 23£' 28' 24$' 17£' 18§' 194' 16' 18£'Girth ..17" 15" 15" 12" 13" 12" 13" HU 11" 12"Number of

Shoots . . 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 1 2 2in the same place and standing in eight rows with the above, 58 trees were also coppiced in May 1873, the suckers being left when the trees were c u t ; only one stool is dead.

The following are measurements of t e n :—1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 . 7. 8 . 9 10.

Height ..304 ' 24*-' 26£' 24*' 23' 26' 23' 24}' 24}' 234'Girth ..20" 20" 16" 15" 15" 17" 16" 16" 20" 19"Number of

Shoots.. 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 1In another spot 200 succirubra were coppiced in May

1871, when nine years o ld ; suckers were left and only one stool died, the yield of the hark being 1,350 lb. green, drying to 453 lb.

These 199 were again coppiced in March 1881, when ten years old (all cut flush with the ground; no suckers left), the yield of the bark being 3,365 lb. green, dry­ing to 1,312 lo .; none of these had commenced again to grow' when I saw them on 1st of May, but there had not of course been time for this.

3. Xo. I I Plot, 1862, B.— 17‘06 acres, shola soil, west exposure, but sheltered by a h i l l ; nearly all succi­rubra, hut some Officinalis and Pubescens,

The following are measurements of six selected succi­rubra :—

Height . . . .35' 38£' 32' 33' 364' 37'Gii ih . . ..31" 34" 29" 26" 33" 32"

.Vll ilie Succirubra and Officinalis have been barked eight times.

Only about eight trees are left but of a quantity of Micrantba trees planted in one place. This species is reported always to die off, the blanks have been filled up with about 600 Pubescens trees (entered in Major Walker’s report as supposed to be Anglica), which are-

growing well and luxuriantly. In this plot 115 trees of poor growth, unbarked, were coppiced in May 1875, yielding only 248 lb. of green bark. Thirty-three stools died ; the surviving 82 average 9 feet in height and 5£ inches in girth, and the stools have from three to six shoots now growing (not harked).

4. Xo. I l l Plot, 1863.—5*41 acres, shola soil, tlie portion above the road sub-soil indifferent, growth fair* the portion below the rood poor from wide planting and exposure to wind, nearly all succirubra barked seven times.

5. Xo, I V Plot, 1864, A.—8 * 8 6 acres, above tlie road chiefly succirubra with a few’ officinalis, fair growth where the soil was shola, poor in places where it was originally grass ; below the road succirubra and officin­alis mixed, very poor growth from wide planting and exposure to the wind, the soil is also rather poor, all sized trees, harked seven times.

6 . Xo. V Plot, 1864, B.—4*46 acres, shola soil, chiefly succirubra with a few officinalis, all barked seven times, poor growth owing to wide planting, a few trees dying out owing to a combination of poor soil and exposure to wind.

7. Xo. IT Plot, 1864, C.—7*87 acres, shola soil, planted with succirubra and officinalis in nearly equal proportions quite intermixed, growth good but thin in portions owing to the original wide planting, all harked five times. In this plot £ acre (adjoining coppice in next block) coppiced in May and June 1879, 56 four times harked trees cut, 43 stools have grown wTell and 13 died.

8 . No. V II , 1864, D.—1704 acres, shola soil, succi­rubra and officinalis in equal proportions, growth very good, trees barked five times. In this plot a block of

acres of trees four times previously balked was cop­piced in 1879 (from 31st of May to end of June), 2,263 trees were cut and 2,091 are now growing. The trees were sawn through about 3 inches above the ground and adzed over with a convex surface to nearly flush with the ground; they bled excessively owing to the lateness of the season; hence I think the failures. The present growth of the remainder is most healthy and all that could he desired; each stool has from 1 to 3 steins, 4 to 6 feet h ig h ; there is also a late growth of smaller stems, which, I think, should be pruned off, but Mr. Rowson states that the Duke of Buckingham re­quested that these should be left.

9. No. V I I I Plot, 1864, JV.—11*58 acres, shola soil, succirubra and officinalis, the former in a greater pro­portion ; growth of both very good and healthy ; succi­rubra barked twice, officinalis barked five times.

10. No. IX Plot, 1864, V.—8*58 acres, shola soil, planted with succirubra and officinalis in nearly equal proportions; growth of both very good, trees barked tlu*ee times.

11. No. X Plot, 1865; A.—18*32 acres, in two plots, waste land intervening ; first about two acres grass land planted with officinalis and a very few’ succirubra, very much exposed to tlie South-west monsoon ; growth poor, trees barked five times. Second portion sliola soil (ex­cept a small corner of grass land with about 150 trees very poor growth) planted with succirubra, wind-blown and growth poor except in a low* protected portion where the growth is fair.

12. ATo. X I Plot, 1865, B.—12*95 acres, shola soil, about nine-tenth succirubra, fair growth in portions, poor where wind-blown, one corner very exposed, trees very poor and dying o u t; about one-tenth officinalis, very good grow th; all th e trees of both species barked four times. There are some Pubescens trees.

13. No. X I I Plot, 1865, C.—12*43 acres, shola soil, succirubra chiefly, officinalis about 3 acres, all splendid growth, all harked six times. The plantation is too crowded in parts, tlie trees not being three feet a p a r t; the tliin girthed trees not reaching the light should bo uprooted.

>

14. Xo. X I I I Plot, 1866, A.—410 acres, shola soil, j nearly all officinalis, growth good hut planted originally j too far apart, harked three times. 'j

15. No. X IV Plot, 1866, R —14*34 acres, shola soil, all succirubra of very line growth, harked six tim es; | there was a good deal of calisaya in this plot, hut it | all died out some years ago.

16. No. AT Plot, 1866, C.—12*45 acres, sliola soil, ! succirubra except a small quantity of very tine old officin­alis and some young Calisaya and Pubescens, growth of succirubra very tine, harked six times. About one acre ' formerly planted with calisaya, all dying or dead, was uprooted, yield of hark 730 lb., sale proceeds unknown. This block has been replanted with 2,000 young Calisaya and 600 young Pu1 escens.

17. No. X V I Plot, 1868, ,4.—3*71 acres, all shola, planted chiefly with suceiruhra, has been burnt over more than once, now poor and very thin, only about 300 trees remaining, soil poor and scarcely worth replanting.

18. Xo. X V I I Plot, 1868, II.—8*13 acres, all shola, about one-third facing west very much blown, planted with succirubra, condition bad ; about two-thirds facing east, succirubra and officinalis, about alternate trees very fair growth, all barked twice.

10. Xo. X V I I I Plot, 1860, A .—0*96 acres, grass land, nearly all succirubra, growth fair, particularly in lower portion, trees not barked; 400 officinalis barked twice.

20. Xo. X IX Plot, 1860, B .—11*83 acres, grass land, all succirubra, upper portion exposed and growth very poor and thin, and should be uprooted and replaced by officinalis, lower portion fair growth of Red barks for grass land, trees not barked.

21. Xo. XX Plot, 1*60, —13*69 acres, grass land,2 acres officinalis, good growth, all barked, balance sueei- rubra not barked, fair growth for the soil, but should all be uprooted and replaced by officinalis which may be said of nil grass land planted with succirubra in these plantations.

22. No. X X I Plot, 1869, 7).—13*26 acres, grass land, except a small patch of shola lanc^ all succirubra ex­cept a few supplies of officinalis, not barked, except the small bit of shola soil, all poor growth and very thin in the upper portions, should be uprooted and planted with Officinalis.

23. No. X X I I Ph>t, 1869, E .—12*18 acres, all shola land except a small corner of grass land (about 50 trees), all succirubra except supplies of officinalis, growth very good, not barked.

24. No. XXI I I Plot, 1869, TV.—11*54 acres, two-thirds shola, one-third grass land, all succirubra except sup­plies of officinalis, growth very good on the shola soil, fair on the grass land, trees not harked, 5 acres cop­piced in 1879, balance scraped in 1880, 5 acres succi­rubra coppiced in July 1879 (in the same manner as in Plot No. VII), 2,628 unharked trees cut, all stools hied terribly, 973 dead and uprooted, 1,655 growth healthy, shoots 1 to 3 to each stool, 3 to 4 feet high, blanks from the uprootals to he planted with Pubescens. Six acres, 4,723 succirubra trees scraped in September 1880 on the new Java principle. None were mossed or covered iu any way as it was not supposed to he necessary. 1,978 trees have failed to renew their bark, and the bark and cambium being apparently all dead, it is sup­posed the trees must die, and some have already died ; the remainder arc renewing their hark satisfactorily, and might prolwihly he scraped again in 1882, hut not before.

25. No. X X I V Plot, 1869, (I.—20*19 acres, all shola land, all Suceiruhra and Pubescens except supplies of officinalis, not harked, splendid growth, Pubescens about 2 0 per cent.

26. No. X X V P hi, 1869, II.-- 9*20 acres, all shola except a small hit of grass lan d ; shola soil planted ! with succirubra, not harked, growth very good; grass j land planted with officinalis, all harked. J

27. Xo. XX F / Plot, 1869, I .—2*25 acres, sliola land, j all succirubra of very good growth, harked four times. I

28. ATo. X X V I I Plot, 1870, .4.-11*52 acres, grass land, now two-thirds officinalis and one-third succirubra, originally planted entirely with succirubra which mostly died out and was replanted in 1872-73. The remainder of the succirubra should be uprooted and replaced by Officinalis or Pubescens. The officinalis growth is not good owing to exposure and poverty of soil, hut it will pay, not harked.

29. No. X X V aI I Plot, 1870, II.— 16*37 acres, grass land, an entire failure, uprooted and abandoned, and now pitted for planting Australian acacias for fuel.

30. Xo. X X I X Plot, 1870, C.—4*30 acres in three separate blocks:—

First block.—Grass land, officinalis, growth good, hut too widely planted, harked twice.

Second block.—-All shola land, mixture of Succirubra, Officinalis, Calisaya, Javanica and Angliea, not barked, growth good, except the calisaya. The Angliea and shrubby Javanica of no value.

Third block.—All sliola, chiefly succirubra with a few * officinalis, growth good, not harked.

32. State of Naduyatam P lantations.The Naduvatam plantations certainly show very line

growth, and though I inspected them at the beginning of May, after an unusually dry April, and at the end of a long season of drought when all the grass hills were as brown as the roads, they were in splendid condition and healthy foliage. Taking into consideration the mis­take of too wide planting, I think they are all that could possibly be expected and in every way satisfactory.In planting up a large area like this site, it is of course impossible always to avoid too great exposure to wind, had soil, had drainage, &c., and there are here and there failures from these causes ; hut this could not bo otherwise, and even in many places where the growth is poor it pays well at the prices hark is now renlizing.

33. Fencing.—A considerable expenditure is necessary in fencing in several of the plots, if they are to bo properly kept up, as the samlmr are most troublesome ; it will well pay.

34. Wide planting.—-The great mistake here as else­where has been the wide planting. I t was probably supposed that the trees would grow to a far larger size than they now* promise ; but even supposing that this had occurred, there was the established fact that such large trees as Teak and Eucalyptus had to be planted6 ' x 6 ' and afterwards gradually thinned out, otherwise * good growth could not he secured : wide planting causes crooked growth and often no fair hull and gives the wind an unfair advantage. The planting was originally 1 2 ' x 1 2 ', hut reduced gradually afterwards down to 8 ' x 8 and 7' x 7'. I am of opinion that the planting of “ Sue- cirubra ” should always he 5' x 5' or certainly not more than 6 ' x 6 ', and that the first thinning (alternate lines leaving the trees 10' x 5' or 12' x 6 ') need not take place till there would he some yield from the hark, and that at the final thinning the trees may stand 1 0 ' x 1 0 ' or 12' x 12'. “ Oflicinalis ” should he planted 4' x 4' orperhaps even closer; intermediate planting is always very precarious owing to the shade and drip of existing trees, and 25 or even 50 per cent very often appear to fail. Throughout the plantations one sees evidence of the great mistake wide planting has been.

35. I* barking injurious or not to the trees?—There is certainly 110 proof that harking in any way affects the health of the trees. I was formerly of opinion that it did, and fancied I detected it in the appearance of the trees, so I was prejudiced in a way, but I made most careful inspection of both harked and unbaiked trees both from a distance and close, and could detect no difference in foliage or any way else, and it is a fact that the trees barked seven to eight times are some of the healthiest and finest in growth, foliage and every wa}*, in the plantation, and that they are now flowering and seeding less prolitically, and that the harked trees have grown quite as well, if not better

from coppice, which shows that their root system must be quite as healthy ; this is also Mr. Rowson’s opinion. Mr Rowson thinks tliat the trees appear to suffer some­what for a month or six weeks after being stripped, getting somewhat yellowish in leaf, but that they rapid­ly recover, so that if inspected just after the bark­ing a prejudice might easily be entertained against the system. Trees that have been barked several times often bear fewer branches, but this is .owing to the pruning and to branches having been broken off; the foliage is just as thick as in unbarked trees. Some trees do fail to renew then* bark after being stripped, but i t is very uncommon, and it is very rare to find a really healthy tree die out from its effects. The bark renews just as rapidly in the subsequent strippings as it does in the first, and there is 110 perceptible differ­ence in its thickness, the renewal is always more rapid on rich soil than on poor. Carelessness in barking prevents immediate renewal and may cause the death of a tree.

36. Elevation fo r “ Succirubra. ”—The “ Succirubra ” does not attain the same size a t Naduvatam as it dqes in Wynaad and elsewhere at lower elevations ; it grows to about 50 feet in Ecuador, and on the Tinnevelly ghats, at 3,000 feet, it has been measured 52 feet in heigh t; at Naduvatam no trees are quite 40 fe e t : 5,000 to 6 ^ 0 0 0 feet is probably too high an elevation for large growth, but it is said (I do not know how far correctly) that the bark at these higher elevations is more valuable; in any case “ Succirubra” pays well on shola soil at Naduvatam.

37. Longevity o f “ Succirubra.”—“ Succirubra ” is probably not a long-lived tree, but we cannot state the age it will attain when left unbarked, or when barked until we have actual data, and a good quantity of un- barked trees'm ust be left for this purpose.

38. Method o f harvesting.—W ith the established facts that the eight times barked trees are still perfectly healthy and that the renewed bark is far more valuable than the natural bark, it would not be advisable to adopt any other system than the present one, the credit of which entirely belongs to Mr. M clvor; ' and it should, I certainly think, he pursued as long as the trees appear healthy, but trees showing signs of decay should be either coppiced or uprooted.

39. Coppicing.—Certains paragraphs show the results of the coppicing at Naduvatam in 1879. The. coppicing process was very well carried out, the stools being sawn through about 3 inches above the ground and adzed over with a convex surface to nearly flush with the ground ; the growth is very healthy and promising wherever the coppice has succeeded,

In the 1861 planting, 2,319 “ Succirubra ” trees; all previously barked four times, were carefully coppiced early in June 1879; 185 stools have died, 2,131 aregrowing luxuriantly. In the 1869 planting, 2,628 un-barked “ Succirubra ” trees coppiced in the same man­ner in July 1879 ; 973 stools died, 1,655 growing lux­uriantly.

Here wc have a great anom aly: trees fifteen years old have succeeded from coppice with a far better per­centage than trees only ten years o ld ; this is quite ;opposed to my experience in the coppice any other'trees, the growth being generally far more successful in the younger trees ; old or even mature trees often failing altogether to make coppice growth beyond a few twigs which die o£f, when saplings or young trees of the same species grow most readily ; this is always the case with “ T eak ” aud “ Babul.” Again, it is note­worthy that the four-times barked trees have succeeded from coppice with a better percentage than the unbarked trees.

Both these data, however, are more or less valueless, as the 1869 planting was coppiced nearly a month later than that of 1861 the sap was therefore more up and the trees bled much more which may account for the extra failures. The coppicing of both years was carried

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out too late, and I am inclined to attribute the failures to this cause as the stools bled terribly : if the coppice had been in April or early in May, it is probable there would have been no failures a t least of healthy trees.

Of the old coppicing experiments carried out more roughly, where fifty-seven unbarked “ Succirubra ” trees of "1862 planting were clean coppiced in October 1873, all suckers removed, twenty-two have diel, thirty-five have grown well and are about twenty feet high, and of fifty-eight trees of the same year coppiced iu May 1873, but the suckers left standing, only one stool is dead ; and of 2 0 0 “ Succirubra” of the same year in another block coppiced in May 1871 (when nine years old) suckers left standing, only one stool died ; the 199 again coppiced in March 1881 (when 10 years old) no regrowth yet, but sufficient time has not elapsed, The yield of green bark in 1871 was 1,350 lb., but in 1881 it was 3,365 lb., which is notew orthy; and of 115 “ Succirubra” of the same year but of poor growth and unbarked, coppiced in May 1875, thirty-three stools died, the surviving eighty-two about 9 feet high and 5£ inches in girth.

I do not think we should carry out any fur her cop­picing in blocks, but only coppice trees showing signs of decay. I observed here and there dead trees in the diderent plantations. A tree should never he allowed* to die, as its bark then yields no alkaloids ; they should be coppiced or uprooted when signs of decav are evident. I t is an established fact that if a sucker or shoot is left when the tree is coppiced it never dies, and when trees have no shoots one can easily be produced by slightly injuring the hark close to the ground. I t is also an established fact, that if trees are coppiced in June or July, when the sap is well up, there must be many failures owing probably to the excessive bleeding that takes place. We have not sufficient data to say whether trees coppiced iu April or early in May will all grow again without any failures.

40. Uprooting.— I do not think that this is to be thought of as a harvesting system, but I would uproot all “ Succirubra” 011 grrass land at Naduvatam and elsewhere, where it is advisable to replace it with “ Officin­alis ” or “ Pubescens.” I t is doubtful how far seed­lings will succeed on land immediately after it is up­rooted ; it will probably be found necessary that it should remain fallow for a certain period.

41. Scraping.—As to the new Java method of scrap­ing, we want, I think, more experience. This first a t­tempt (vide paragraph 24) has, it will he seen, proved a failure with “ Succirubra,” and caused the loss of a great number of trees ; it would probably not fail if the trees were mossed 01* grassed over after the scraping, but one of its advantages was the supposition that the expense of this would be unnecessary. I am inclined to think that the trees are much more likely to suffer from the complete scraping than from the partial bark­ing in alternate s tr ip s ; we have yet to learn if the scraped bark is more valuable in the market than the stripped bark.

42. Grass, a substitute fo r Moss.—For the last two years Mr. Rowson has employed the coarse Lemon grass of the hills (Andropogon M artini and SrJuenanthus) as a substitute for moss for covering the trees after strip­ping off the bark ; i t appears to answer iu every way as well as moss, the bark never failing to renew ; the grass of course lacks the hyilrometric properties of moss, and it is possible that bark renewed under it may not be so replete with alkaloids, but I- see 110 reason to fear th is ; the grass costs only about one-third what moss does, and moss might in time be exterm inated; the moss must act like a sponge round the tree in wet weather when the bark is growing most rapidly, and considering how replete the bark itself is with moisture, this is, I think, more likely to be injurious than bene­ficial ; all that is probably required being protection from solar influences and from wind. The first report on bark renewed under grass, however, will be of great interest.

43. Med Barks (Succirubra).—Although this tree is not adapted to grass land 011 the Nilgiris, it grows very well in shola soil a t Naduvatam, and at lower eleva­tions ; Ootacainund is of course too high for it. The bark is not nearly so rich in quinine as the “ Officin­alis,” “ Calisaya,” and some o thers; but it is perhaps tire richest of all the species in the total yield of alkaloids, and 011 account of its easy culture, robust growth, and great yield of bark will probably always be the one most cultivated in the Wynaad, Coorg, &c., a t elevations of ‘2,500 feet and upwards. I t will grow almost every­where on our western mountains between *2,000 or 2,500 up to about 6 , 0 0 0 feet, if forest soil be selected and a sloping situation ; it is however apt to die out 011 flats as it did in Travancore, unless the subsoil drainage is carefully attended t o ; and it has been proved that it is useless to attempt its cultivation in the drier climates in the eastern or central parts of this Presidency. ‘‘Succi­rubra ” should never again be planted on grass land at Naduvatam, and wliat there now is on this soil should be gradually uprooted and replaced by “ Officinalis” or by “ Pubescens.”

[See page 593 for part here omitted, referring to Pubescens.—E d . T. A."}

Narrainsawmy of Dodabetta informs me that he sent i t home to market for the first time in December 1880, and that two bales were forwarded, viz., I l l lb. of mossed “ Pubescens ” (not renewed) and 138 lb. of natural “ Pubescens” ; the report on this is not yet to hand, and will be of the greatest interest. There is not a tree of “ Succirubra” in Dodabetta fit to be barked, so it is doubtlessly all from the true “ Pubescens ” or “ Pata de Gallinazo ” of .Mr. C ross; it is besides nearly all from the glabrous variety as very few trees of the pub­escent form exist in this plantation. No bark of these sorts has as yet gone to market from Naduwatam, so I think that some, both of the pubescent and glabrous varieties (from grass land and from forest soil separ­ately), should be forwarded without further delay. If this species is really far more valuable in its yield than “ Succirubra,” Government have been losing enormously by the extensive propagation of the. latter to the ex­clusion of the former. Mr. Cross states that it grows a t a much higher elevation in its native country, and this is borne out by the fact that it is growing vigor­ously 011 Dodabetta above 7,000 feet elevation (where “ Succirubra” is a complete failure), and by its more vigorous growth at Naduvatam in exposed situations.

The questions, however; first, whether it is to oust “ Succirubra” from the forest soil at Naduvatam, and second, to what extent it is to be planted on grass land to the exclusion of “ Officinalis” must entirely depend 011 the report on the analysis of a sufficient quantity of its bark.

Mr. Rowson informs me that he has 5,000 “ Magni­folia ” 011' the Hooker plantation and 2,000 at Nadu­vatam, 5,000 “ Pubescens” 011 the Hooker and 4,000 at Naduvatam, and there are about 1,000 a t Dodabetta, chiefly " Magnifolia.”

In the 1869 planting at Naduvatam ‘20 per cent of the trees are of this, species.

45. Unknown Species .*—I found five trees of a curious

* Since this report has hem copied I got Mr. Cross to examine these trees. He w rites: “ great discovery! incredible fa c t! ! the. celebrated ‘ Chinchona Crispa ’ of the Loxa mountains, a packet of the seed of which we collected when collecting the Officinalis.” He also tells me that it is a very valuable bark, that the plant is probably almost unknown and was only collected by himself, and that the seeds which were sent to the Nilgiris were said never to have germinated.

I can find no description of C. “ Crispa,” and the nomenclature and synonym of the genus seems in a most confused state at p resent; it can, however, scarcely be the “ Crispa” of Tafella mentioned in Triana’s work

species in the 1865 plantation on Dodabetta. I t has most curious rough bark like that of the Cork tree (Millingtonia) quite unlike any other Chinchona, and its leaves are exceedingly, hairy on both sides, and it has hairy capsules; nothing is known of its origin except that it was received with the original seeds or plants. Mr. Cross thinks from the character of its bark that it may be of great value. Dried specimens of this species and fragments of the bark (to show its character) accompany this report with other specimens. “ Asperi- folia ” Weddell is the only species I can find described a t all like it in botanical works, but I have only De Candolle and Walpers for reference, not all the later works, such as Weddell’s. There are very few species known with the leaves hairy on the upper surface. The bark of this has never been analyzed.

46. Crown Barks.— Officinalis (L inn .) (of wiiich Conda- minea (Lamb) is only a synonym) flourishes exceedingly well on grass land at Naduvatam, Pykara and Ootaca- mund, as well as on shola land. I t is a small tree of no great girth, but this is, I believe, also its character­istic in the Crown bark region in Loxa.

Uritusinga.—The tree known by this name in the Dodabetta and Naduvatam plantations, and also called “ strong-growing Condaminca ” and “ broad-leaved Con- daminea ” is evidently only a variety* of “ Officinalis.” I t is of much stronger growth with broader leaves* and promises to be a much larger tree ; but twigs can often be gathered from ordinary “ Officinalis,” particularly from suckers or young growth, in which the, leaves are quite indistinguishable from this “ Uritusinga.” Mr. Cross believes our tree to be the same as the “ Uritusinga ” of Pavon, which takes its name from a hill near Loxa, where he himself collected it, and which is now quoted in botanical works as a synonym of “ Officinalis but it should certainly be considered as a variety, and its bark should be kept distinct from that of “ Officinalis.” Our plant is exceedingly strong growing and healthy, and I think it should be largely grown and receive more a tten tio n ; a t present there are about 1 , 0 0 0 of it in Dodabetta, but only about a dozen at Naduvatam. “Uritu- singa ” is a lofty tree in its "native habitat.

August(folia.—Evidently only a variety of “ Officin­alis ” ; it sometimes looks very distinct, the leaves being narrower and deeper coloured, but it is not always true to its characteristics, and broader leaves in no way distinguishable from “ Officinalis ” can often be gathered on it. There is none of this on the Naduwatam side; some 700 rooted plants sent out from Ooty to Pykara as this variety have turned out to be ordinary “ Officin­alis.” There are a few planted out in the Dodabetta plantations, but they do not show good growth, or pro­mise* to be a success; it is supposed to yield a very large percentage of quinine, and there are now 1 0 , 0 0 0 rooted cuttings in the Dodabetta nurseries propagated in the glass houses from the few stock plants. Considering its poor growth I cannot recommend its extended plant­ing irntil its treatm ent is better understood 01* a more favourable habitat is found for it. Mr. Jamieson informg

■without description, as that is said scarcely to differ from “ Officinalis,” and is made a variety of it by most authors which this very distinct species' could never be. If Mr. Cross is correct, the plants lately supposed to be “ Crispa” are spurious, but I do not know where “ Crispa ” is originally described or by whom.. Whatever this may be its bark should be analyzed at once; it lias been in these plantations since 15 or 16 years without ever hav­ing been noticed; it is in flower and seed now, and has probably been seeding for many years, and might be propagated largely if advisable ; in its bark, leaves and fruit it is utterly unlike anything else in any of the plantations.

Mr. Cross says he found it at 10,000 feet elevation, and that it grows at a higher elevation than any other known species of the genus.

me that Mr. Mclvor considers it hopeless to grow this varie ty ; its growth being so slow and poor, it would be far less profitable than the ordinary variety of “ Officin­alis,” notwithstanding the superiority in its yield in al­kaloids. 1 can always distinguish this plant at the first glance, but Mr. Cross considers it not even a variety bu t only a condition of growth of ‘‘Officinalis,” con­duced by poverty of soil or some other condition. I can­not say that I quite agree with this, but there is the fact that some 700 plants, supposed to be this species, in the nurseries a t the Ootacamund Gardens, and planted out in rich soil at Naduvatam, turned out to be ordinary “ Officinalis.” There is not sufficient evidence, however, as to what the original plants really were.

Var. Crispa ? Mr. Cross informs me that lie recog­nizes many plants of the “ Crispa” var. of “ Officinalis” (at least the one known in Ceylon as such) supposed to be very rich in quinine, scattered about with “ Of­ficinalis in our Dodabetta plantations. I forward (hied specimens of this form which Mr. Cross distinguishes by its rather smaller leaves, but I must say th a t I can­not distinguish it satisfactorily from ordinary “ Officin­alis,” and it appears at any rate to run into it.

Var. with very narrow leaf.—There are a few plants of a very narrow-leaved form of “ Officinalis” in the Dodabetta plantations, of which I also forward speci­mens. This variety is easily distinguished, and I believe i t is the one Mr. Mclvor considered as “ Crispa; ” it is only of shrubby growth, and cannot, I think, be of much value. I am very disinclined to attach too much value to the fact of a very favourable analysis (as we find in reports) of single individuals of varieties like “ Angustifolia” or “ C rispa” grown perhaps under very favourable conditions, or to attempt' their extended culti­vation on. such grounds. I t is of course evident that they are valuable yielders -under certain conditions, but i t would require stronger evidence, I think, to establish the fact that they are far superior to the ordinary type of “ Officinalis,” as a very high percentage of alkaloids has sometimes beerf obtained from single specimens of th a t also. If a cultivator takes a fancy to any particular variety he can probably get a very flourishing report on its yield by the •high cultivation of a few individuals, but this does not hold good in a large plantation, and I should be sorry to place faith in it with varieties like “ Angustifolia ” and “ Crispa.” Uritusinga is, I think, valuable on account of its very strong growth and much greater yield in b a rk ; the analysis of this from Doda­betta is given in G. 0 ., No. 1,330, of the 23rd June 1879, under the head of “ Condaminca ” as distinct from Crown barks.

47. Cultivation o f Crown Barks by Government should he kept up.—Crown barks will only grow at a high eleva­tion, and there are few or no sites for them except on the Nilgiris, where only grass land and not shola is now available to the public. “ Succirubra ” and “ Calisaya” on the other hand are spreading all over the Wynaad, Coorg, Ac. r it is desirable therefore that Government should keep this in view, and, if possible, extend the cultivation of Crown barks, or a t any rate work up their present estates without any stint as to expenditure.

48. Yellow Barks.—It is to be regretted that these are sucli a failure a t Naduvatam ; they all die out and the climate is evidently too cold and probably too dry for th em ; they grow at low elevations and in a very moist climate in their native habitat in Bolivia and Southern Peru, aud it is useless to make further attempts a t the cultivation of “ Calisaya ” or its variety “ Ledger­iana ” a t Naduvatam; but I would strongly recommend that a small garden should be opened out for experi­menting on their growth at 1 , 0 0 0 or ‘2 , 0 0 0 feet below our present plantations; they are, I believe, growing well in parts of Wynaad and in the Oucliterlony Valley a t about 3,000 feet elevation.

I t is not easy to distinguish the variety “ Ledgeriana” from ordinary “-Calisaya ” when in leaf only, but Mr. Rowson tells me he can always do so when they are

in flower, as the “ Ledger ” has white flowers, whilst those of the ordinary “ Calisaya” are pinkish,

Anylica, supposed to lie a sport or variety of “ Cali­saya,” is represented by a few trees at Naduvatam ; its bark is said to be of little or no value.

Javanica , said also to be a variety of “ Calisaya,” isalso represented by a few plants a t N aduvatam ; itappears to be of no value and not to be worth grow­ing, a t least in the form it assumes at Naduvatam,which is a small very bushy shrub. I do not know whether this is the variety usually called “ Josepliiana.”

49. Grey Barks.—“ Micrantha,” “ Peruviana,” and “ Nitida ” from the Grey bark region around Huanico in North Peru are all represented a t Naduvatam and Py- kara, but they do not succeed and are in fact all fast dying o u t ; they yield no quinine but are valuable for their yield of Cinchonine and Cinchonidine; it is use­less to grow them at Naduvatam, but it would be a pitythat they should be lost to India, and I propose thatanother site a t a lower elevation should be opened out for them. “ Micrantha ” and “ Peruviapa ” grow at about4,000 feet elevation and in a much moister climafe than that of Naduvatam, and could hardly be expected to answer in their present situation; but “ N itid a” grows a t high elevations and might have been expectedto thrive at Naduvatam.

50. Columbian Barks—Pitayensis (Pitayo bark).— There are some few very healthy trees of this in the Dodabetta plantation, but the tree has not been propag­ated here as yet. Mr. Cross anticipates valuable results from its introduction, and informs me it grew to 70 and 80 feet high and 3 to 4 feet in diameter where he met with it at 9 to 10,000 feet in Grenada. Samples of the bark of our Dodabetta trees have been sent by Mr. Cross to Mr. Howard for analysis, and on this report the question of its extended cultivation must de­pend ; it is supposed to yield much quinine.

Santa Fe—Soft Columbian (C. Lancifolia).—The plants brought by Mr. Cross from New Grenada (7 to 10.000 feet elevation) are healthy and are being propagated, so it is hoped this valuable species may ere long be established on the Nilgiris. I t is known to yield a very high percentage of quinine, and Mr. Cross anticipates great results from its introduction. I t grows, he tells me, 70 feet high with a diameter of 3 feet in its native habitat; it may be expected to answer well at Nadu- watam and perhaps also in sheltered places in Dodabetta.

Carthayena Bark—(Chinchona Cordifolia).—The two plants brought lately by Mr. Cross from the Central Codillera near Bogota (elevation 4 to 6,000 feet) are healthy and strong growing and are being propagated, and the prospects of establishing it on the Nilgiris are promising. I t is supposed to be a strong growing large tree, which its present appearance does not, belie ; its yield in quinine is much the same as that of Succirubra, and it will probably succeed in the same localities as that species. Mr. Cross tells me that he believes the “ China-Cupi'ea,” the seed of which is promised to this Government (vide G.- O., No. 630, of the 8 th April 1881) from Bogota is the same species.

51. Pahudiana.—There are a few of this very distinct species in the Dodabetta plantations; it is said to be quite valueless, and its extensive propagation in Java, owing to its robust and rapid growth, caused much loss aud annoyance.

[See page 600 for extract on “ Hybrids *' from the report omitted here.—IJu. T. AY

51. Analysis o f the various Barks.—I fear that too much reliance inay hitherto have been placed on the analysis of the barks of single individuals of one species or variety, grown under unusually favorable conditions; soil, solar influences, shade, moisture, long droughts, exposure to wind, frost, Ac., must probably exercise great influences on the bark and yield of alkaloids, and ana­lysis should not be too much relied on, unless taken from a considerable number of trees subject to the varied conditions which they must experience in a plantation.

55. Sites fo r Species requiring a Lower Elevation.— A fine-sheltered shola in the “ Silent Valley, ” elevation about 3,000 feet, has been reserved by the Collector of Malabar a t the request of the Conservator, in case it should be required by* this department for the growth of “ Rubber trees, ” or any other products. I now re­commend that this should be taken up by the Forest Department a t Nilambur, and that a small clearing should be at once made for experiments on the growth of “ grey barks” and “ yellow Larks ” a t that elevation ; if they grow well, there is ample room for opening out a considerable a rea ; it may also be necessary to try “ Carthagena ” and ii Santa Fe ” at this lower elevation. A small pucka building should be erected, and the Chin­chona budget should furnish the necessary funds; it is also desirable to try some of the rubber trees and the “ Ipecacuanha ” (Cephaelis) in the same locality.

56. Renovating Pits.—Mr. Rowson has much im­proved the health of the trees in the plantations under his charge (at NaduYatam and Pykara) by the renovating pits (2 feet cube). In many parts of the plantations the trees have a far more vigorous look than they had two years ago ; it has been surmised that the lateral roots might be injured by this system, but this is not the case ; where the lateral fibrils have been touched, they shoot out again with great rigor through the hu­mus in these pits ; in some cases cattle-manure has been put in the pits, but much of this not being available, they have generally been filled up with dead leaves, and decaying vegetation, such as the weeds, cleared off the plantations; they have, L consider, improved the condi­tion of the plantations in a most marked manner.

57. Perfect Drainage .most necessary.—All the varie­ties of Chinchona appear to grow' much better on slopes than on flats, the tree being most impatient of anything like insufficient subsoil drainage.

58. Licfyen.—In wind blown situations the trunks and branches are often much covered with white lichen. Mr. Rowson assures me this in no way affects the health of the trees or b a rk ; it is easily nibbed off.

.59. Diseases and Enemies.—There is very little sign of canker at Naduvatam, and the Chinchona seems to have few' or no insect enemies ; sambur and wild animals are, of course, destmctive, and fencing, is most necessary in some parts if the plantations are to be wrorked up to their highest possible yield.

60. Xumber o f Trees in Xaduratam.—Appendix A is a statement of the number of casualties amongst the trees in Naduvatam Plantation during the last three years (or since Major Walker’s report), and the num­ber of trees now existing based on Major W alker’s enumeration.

61. Statement showing number of plants in the nurse­ries at Naduvatam, 28tli May 1881:—

B o ta n ic a lN a m e s .

£ O« |

' " c s l j * 1

! i m i i

C. S u c c iru b ra C. O lticm aiis C. C ab say a

var. Ledger-

C . o th e r varie-

C. P u b e sc e n s

T o ta l

T o ta l.

210,000' 585,950 801,950 155,000! 378,000 533,000

4,4001 *1,500 5,900

4,000j

H3 .

■31

!.5 'd grH3.5Sti

: | | ! |

I” 3 S >*h >

489,950228,000

12,000, 300,000 -105,000- 200,000

1,305 5,30520,010 20,010

50

iiooo 2,3058,010

12,027

3 000 11,000

379,4001 966,825 1,366,225 719,000 127,315! 510,027

* R eceived fro m D o d a b e tta .1 3,383 seed lings h a v e d ied .

( I ’o be continued.

L a h o r e .—We have received a copy of the report of the Punjab Agri-Horticultural Society for the year 1880-81, from which we learn that much damage was done by hail in March last. The climate appears to be too cold for the rain tree (Pitliecolobium Saman), but some of the Eucalypti succeed well,' those specially recommended for planting in the plains of Punjab being Eucalyptus bicolor, E . hfematostoma, E . resinifera, E . rostrata, and E. tereticomis, besides others not yet named ; Grevillea robusta has also been distributed, and is doing well. The Carob (Ceratonia Siliqua) succeeds well, and ex­periments are to be tried with grafted plants. The culti­vated olive does not thrive on its own roots, but when grafted on the wild olive stock the result is very satis­factory. Apples and pearg do not succeed in the plains. In Kulu, in the Kangra Valley, the success in fruit culture has been such that it is anticipated that Kulu Valley and the adjacent district will become a great fruit producing country. As regards vegetables, it is con­sidered preferable to import seed each year from Europe rather than trust to Indian grown seed, but this remark apparently does not apply to peas, the “ acclimated ” seeds of which give a greater yield than the imported seed. Over 28,000 plants w'ere sent out to various dis­tricts in the province, especially to places along the Indus Valley Railway. Mr. Edgar Spooner is the Superintendent of the Society’s Garden.— Gardeners*Chronicle.

T h e P h y l l o x e r a C o n g r e s s a t B o r d e a u x .— “ A very slight study,” says, the writer in the Saturday Review, “ of the conditions of vine culture in tlie more valuable vineyards is sufficient to reveal the fact that the growth of w’hat may he termed liigh-bred vines is a singularly artificial m atter, the conditions of wdiich are most deli­cately balanced. One of the greatest difficulties of vine growing is to determine the particular kind out of the immense number known which is suited to the soil and physical conditions of a particular locality, and it is-not unusual to find in the same vineyard a vine which bears abundantly on one side of a road, unproductive and all but sterile on the other. Quite apart from the phylloxera, much money has been lost by planning vines without previously ascertaining the kinds which are likely to succeed.” I t is not to he wondered that in making choice of tlje remedies to he applied, the cultivator should wish to do anything rather than interfere with the vines themselves when tlicir produce is a valuable w7ine. The T he culture of the vine is possible even in presence of the phylloxera where the soil is of a sandy character, and this may lead to the extension o f 't lie cultivation in the Landes. The American vines are but little affected by the phylloxera, that is to say,, they have greater powers of resistance than the European \incs, and lienee their value as stocks whereon to engraft the liner kinds. The produce of American vines excites dismay in tlie minds of those who have tasted- it, else it might seem feasible to raise hybrids betw'een tlie American and the European grapes, which should possess the resisting pow'ers of the former. The probable or certain dete­rioration of the flavour would be of the less consequence, inasmuch as the great loss a t present is not in the higher class wines—the luxuries of the wealthy—but in tlie vin du pays of the peasantry, in which the question of flavour is not so important. Besides, in course of

. time, by repeated experiments, the evil flavour might be eliminated. All this, however, requires lengthened time, while immediate action is requisite to save the vines, for, as the writer we have already cited remarks :—“ TJie vines of Europe have been the insensible growth of centuries of development ; they are as much products of art as a violin. American vines in the nature of things are nearer to their uncivilized state, and one might as well place a tom-tom in the hands of a Joachim as offer American vines to the wine-growers of the Mcdoc to replace those they now cultivate.”—Gardeners' Chronicle.

PR EPA R A TIO N OF COFFEE.In reference to th e following article from the South

o f India Observer, we may m ention th a t on most estates in Ceylon the weather is adverse to the final drying of the coffee, and casks could he obtained and transported only a t great expense. In Java, curiously enough, the objection to sending coffee to a seaport to dried and prepared, is th e paucity of avail­able labour a t the p o r ts :—

The form in which coffee is pu t on the m arket has a good deal to do w ith th e price of the article, and tbe omission of comparatively simple and trifling op­erations causes a serious loss to the grower. One of these oper.itions which plays an im portant pa rt in the drying of the coffee and so on its color and form, is the washing. The mucilaginous substance which covers the bean m ust be completely washed off, and most growers are content th a t this operation shall be performed by coolies who tran pie the pulped masses in the vats till th is substance comes completely off. On one estate we have seen the washing done in a great wooden tub, fitted w ith a set ol rolatary brushes which work horizontally. W e believe th is does fairly well, bu t an American invention, known as the “ Coffee W asher,” though on the same principle, is more complete, and washes w ith greater rapidity, and a t a minimum of cost. I t consists of a large cylinder from 7 to 12 feet in length, similar to a perforated sizer, bu t not more th an 20 inches in diameter. This is fitted with a series of washers working on an axle. The cylinder is on an incbne, and the delivery end is furnished with a gu tter, out of which the coffee, which enters the machine through a hopper w ith w ater a t the other end, comes ou t per­fectly clean iu a few seconds, and is emptied into a vat to receive it. 'The eight foot machine can clean 10.0H0 pounds of coffee, per day and weighs alto­gether 1 000 pounds. A one-horse power engine is sufficient to work the machine, or a w ater wheel with equal convenience. The Americans have brought out another serviceable machine for the coffee planter, namely, a H uller and Polisher. The most striking feature of the invention is the construction of the pestle and m ortar in which the husk of the coffee is broken and pulverized after the drying process Both pestles and m ortars are provided with a succession of oblique ribs, set a t a proper distance from each other, on the surface, so as to form channels, wherein the coffee is pushed up and down, and receives a considerable friction, which speeds the work w ithout injuring the coffee in the le a s t : 011 the contrary, owing to this increased friction, i t acquires a beautiful polish, and loses all th a t silvery pellicle which gives such an ugly appearance to coffees cleaned by o ther processes. Not a single grain of coffee is broken by this machine. The pestle is so arranged th a t i t can only penetrate or reach W'ithin an inch from the bottom of th e m ortar. The 1 mortars are tilled with coffee with the greatest facility, and by opening a valve a t the bottom, 011 the outside, they are emptied in a few seconds, and then refilled. Of course, stop the pestle of the m ortar th a t is to be em ptied ; th is is easy to learn. In the mean­time, the other pestles continue their work. This is a very plain, strong machine, easily worked. I t can be arrm ged iu round or stra igh t batteries. The round arrangem ent is composed of th irteen m ortars, each of which will clean from 150 to 200 pounds of coffee per hour. The amount of work to be done will depend on the num ber of m ortars and pestles. A bout six horse power will be required to run the battery of thirteeen mortars, and about four horse power to run th e seven m ortar battery. A stra igh t battery of seven m ortars and seven stamps will hull and polish 7,000 pounds of coffee per day. Beyond an improvement

161

in the machinery, the princ pie of the coffee huller i n-it novel. I t has for years been adopted as a rice- cleaner, chiefly to remove the husk. The cost of trans­port of produce to a coffee cleaning establishment, the cleaning and the packing of the coffee in bags or barrels, is a considerable item of estate expenditure, and w hatever the selling price of the staple is th is charge is always maintained a t a uniform figure. W ith m echanical appliances of the kind to which we invite attention, every large estate will be able to clean and ship its coffee direct a t probably a quarter of tbe cost incidental to the preparation of the bean for the London m atket a t the present time. C. Adolphe Low and Co., of New York, ate the m anufacturers of both the W ashing and H ulling Machine.

T H E LONDON M A RKET FOR IN D IA N TEA.

A fter a period of severe and prolonged depression there has certainly been a great and encouraging reaction in the m arket for Indian tea. Low prices, although disastrous to individual planters, have had the usual effect of increasing consumption, and now there is evidently a large and increasing class of persons in B ritain who, having acquired a taste for the superior Indian tea, will insist on being supplied with it in preference to the weaker China stuff. Leaving prices out of the question for the present, the com parative figures for deliveries and imports of Indian tea, in ten months of each of the past three years, are worthy of attentive consideration. In ten months ending 31st October 1879, the deliveries were 29,463,000 lb. against inports equal to only 28,177,OuO lb., an excess of deliveries over imports of nearly 1,300,000 lb. In the corresponding period of 1880 the figures were 33,627,000 lb. for deliveries against 32,822,000 lb. for imports, the excess of deliveries being 805,000 lb. In the two years up to 31st October, therefore, deliveries exceeded im ports by 2,105,0001b. B.ut this was as nothing to the enormous increase which has taken place in deliveries in th e ten m onths of th e present year. The figures are :—

Im p o rts....................32,609,000 lb.D e liv e ries...............40,933,000 ,,

Excess deliveries... 8,324,000 lb.So th a t in the three periods deliveries exceeded im ports by no t far short of 10J millions of pounds. No doubt a great deal of this latge and rapidly increased consumption (for “ deliveries" in the case of Indian tea mean con­sumption in Britain) is due to prices in the period under review which were the rpversn of rem unerative. Prices in October 1881, however, presented a m arked and most encouraging contrast to those which prevailed in the cor­responding period of 1880. Prices in October 1881, notw ithstanding a m arket which had fallen from the range of previous rates, ran from 1/3 per lb. to 3/31), as as against only 10$d to 2/1 j per lb. in October 1880. These are average prices, pekoes, in the case of Oooteriah E state, Darjeeling, having actually realized 3/8Jj as the following figures, quoted from Marsden & W alker’s Report, will shew :—

B r o k e n T e a s . —Eastern Assam Co. Is 7d, Larsingah Is 7Jd, Bishnauth Co. Is 7jd , Scottish Assam Co, Is 9Jd, Dinjan Is lOd, Darjeeling Co. Is lOd, M argaret’s Hope Is l l£ d , Koomber 2s Id , Gajildoubah 2s Id, Dooteriah 2s 8Jd.

P ekoe Souchong.—Dhunsiri Is 6 |d , U pper Assam Co, Is (>£d, Mooudakootee Is 7d, Gielle Is 7£d, Dar­jeeling Co. Is 8d, Dmjati Is 9d, Teesta Valley Is lOd, Nagri Is 10^1, Punchanai Is lO-|i, Ma^gar-d; Hope 2s.

P ekoes.—Amgoorie 2s 6Jd, Doom i>ooma 2s 6^d, M ihm «ra 2s 7d, Koombcr 2s 7Jd, Mudoora 2s 7^d, United Planters 2s 7£d, Kang nook 2s 7Ad, Hoolun- goorie 2s 72<1, Ringtoug 2s 8d, M argaret’s Hope 2s 8^1, Leesh Kal 2s 9jd , Punkabaree 2s lOd, Burratnsal . 2s lOJd, Dhunsiris 3s Id , Hokongoorie 3s l jd , Doote- ri-th 3s 8Jd.

Broken P ekoes.—Kungj > 2 -6 fd , M nrionbaree2s 6}d, Grob 2s6$d, Do nn Dooma 2s 7.jd, Gielle 2s Sd, Rut- tingdong 2s 8£d, Singla 2s 8Jd, tielim 2s 9d, Mookum- cherra 2s 9J, Hoolungoorie 2s lOd, Cbargola 2s 10£d, Long-view 2s lO^d, Bisimaufch Co. 2s 10^(1, T urkvar 2s l id , Teesta Valley 2s l l^ d , Nagri 3s, Moondakoote 3s O^d, Jhaozie 3s O^d, M argaret’s Hope 3s lfd , Rung* mook 3s fid.A l: hough opposed to leading authorities, we have always contended th a t high-grown teas, if properly prepared, ought to be superior in quality. Every price current which w ines before us supports this view. Darjeeling t as always top the m aiket,and the m ajority of the Dar­jeeling estates range from 2,(00 to 4,000 feet elevation. A good many are indeed more elevated, and it m ust be remembci ed th a t 2,000 feet in Darjeeling are the eqniva’eut of 3,260 in Ceylon, while 4,000 feet there are represented by at least 5,260 here. In the average prices giv-*n by Messrs. Marsden & W alker, all from 2/ to 3/3.| refer to teas grown on Darjeeling estates, such as Rungjo, Ringtong, Moondakootee, Margaret’8 Hope, Rungmook, Teesta Valley and Dooteriah. Broken teas, too, from Gielle sold a t 2/8, from Selim a t 2/9, an I from Tukvar a t 2/11. On the la tte r estate, we saw tea growing a t from 1,700 feet to 5,300 feet above sea level. The medium elevation was said to give the best results, and th a t medium, being 3,4U0 feet, would in 27° north iu B ritish Sikkim be equivalent to 4,8( 0 in 7° north in Ceylon. The yield per acre a t high elcva’ions mayjpe less th a t a t lower positions, but the persistent higher prices for Darjeel ng teas prove th a t high-grown teas m ust have compensation in better quality . A gentleman who sent us a copy of Messrs. Marsden & W alker’s report wrote opposite the list of average prices :— “ Good figures for Ceylon men to look forward to .” So say we, for we have known the figures for Darjeeling lo be lower than those a t which Ceylon teas are now generally sold. No doubt, we have some­th ing to learn in the preparation of our teas, and we m ust send larger “ breaks.” The prejudice against a new’ competitor will gardualiy disappear, and we con­fidently look for the period when Ceylon teas w ill rank in the London m arket w ith Darjeeling a t least. As to large breaks we quote again from the re p o rt: —

The firm m arket reported in our last gave way early iu October under pressure of very heavy sales, th e q .an tity a t each auction averaging nearly 4,000 packages : a quantity bey on 1 the power of buyers to attend to. The growth of the trade, and the short time available in which to value each day’s sale necessitates a more general bulking than is now carried out both in Garden and “ Calcutta Bought ” i ivoiceq and strong representations hw e recently been made in the Auction Room against the practice of Invoices containing two or more breaks of similar tea. The f dl in common teas during the hist three weeks is from Jd to Id , medium kinds Id to 2d, and finer grades fully 2d to 3d, bu t at these reductions the

m outh clot-es firm for all kinds. Deliveries for the season are still in excess of the Im ports.

October Public Sales comprised 66,900 packagesagainst 65,500 packages in 1880.A w ritten note opposite the above paragraph runs :—

The Trade have no t time to devote to a m any sub­divided parcel, and bulking must be resorted to.

“ John Lloyd’s Ind ian Tea R e p o rt” is dated 10th Nov., or a week la te r than the one we have quoted from, and the introductory rem arks are :—

A t the date of my last, a quiet feeling existed in the m arket owing to large supplies. The tone is now firmer, as deliveries continue to increase and offerings a t auction are moderate.

F inest teas are becoming ra ther scarce. Pekoes are unchanged and offer w ry good value a t current rates. Broken Pekoes are readily taken a t previous quota­tions. Pekoe Souchongs show no change, but Sou­chongs are rather firmer particularly th e lower grades. Broken teas sell freely a t full prices.If, w ith the largely increased demand for Ind ian teas, resulting in a British consumption in 1880 of no t far short of 50 millions of lb., the crop is really 2 millions below th a t figure, there is evidently an era for Indian tea of great prosperity in which the product from Cey­lon should share.

T H E SEASON IN IN D IA .( For the week ending the '22nd N o v ,)

More rain bus fallen in the M adras Presidency and has m uch benefited the standing crops, bu t some localities are in need of a fu rther supply. In the Bombay Presidency prospects continue much the tame as in the previous week, rain being still urgently required in Ahmednagar and Nasik. The reports from Mysore, Coorg, the Berars, Hyderabad, Central Ind ia and R ajaputana continue favourable. In Bengal the prospects of the rice crop are generally satisfactory, b u t in parts of Orissa th e outturn in unirrigated lands has been damaged through w ant of rain ; rain is also required for rabi sowings in some districts. Reaping of sali paddy has commenced in Assam, and both in th a t province and in Burma the standing crops con­tinue to thrive. There has been no rain in the North- W estern Provinces and Oiulh, though i t is u rgen t'y needed in parts and would everywhere be beneficial to the young crops. Fever is abating, but cholera has made its appearance in two districts of Oudh. The want of rain for the rabi is also m aking its -If felt in the Punjab ; a t present, however, tbe prospects in th a t province are generally favourable.

M adras.—General prospects good.—M. Mail.

, LANKA PL A N TA TIO N COMPANY M EETIN G IN LONDON.

There were very few shareholders present, bu t they all seemed well contented w ith th e satisfactory nat ure of the report. The proceedings lasted about half- an-honr.

Iu the unavoidable absence of the Chairman, Tl. P. Harding, Esq., the chair was taken by Sir H . B. Sandford.

The Chairman called a tten tiondo the report, which sta ted th a t three interim dividends had been declared a t the ra te of 8 per cent per annum. He thought the shareholders would agree with him th a t, for a young Company, and the present tim e not being very favourable in Ceylon, they had done very well in earn­ing such a good dividend, and having such a respect­able balance to carry forward to next year’s account. The Company already stood very high in public esteem ; and he, him-elf, while travelling lately in Australia, had heard their Company mentioned several times as

“ a Company th a t was m aking its way well, and was being carried 011 in a very business-like m anner.” The properties (estates) had been selected in different dis­tricts. The reason for this was th a t there are two seasons, or monsoons. Sometimes i t is a good season in one part of Ceylon, and sometimes in another part. Therefore, by having the estates scattered there was a prospect of having a good season on one pa rt of their property, even if i t should be a bad monsoon on another part. They possessed now a to ta l acreage of 3,2Gs|, of which 2,541 was coffee and cinchona, and the re -t forest and grass land. There was only one more property, now under consideration as to purchase. The Directors have thought i t advisable to hold their hands for a short time to see if the property they already held was going on well, before they made any further ventures.

I ' was then proposed and seconded th a t the Report be adopted, which proposition was carried unaniously.

Mr. P r a t t (a shareholder) then rose and said th a t he thought all present must be gratified a t the busi­ness like way in which everything connected w ith the Company's affairs had been carried out by the Board. H e was glad to hear th a t the Directors did not intend •purchasing any more property a t p resen t; tor to do so would only be burdening the Company w ith bor­rowed capital, which it was advisable to avoid. On behalf of his fellow-shareholders, he would express th e ir very great satisfaction with the Report, and th e manner in which the accounts had been p u t before them . If all Companies were able to give such a balance-sheet as th a t before them, he thought it would be a very good th ing for the City of Loudon. (Hear, hear )

M r J. T. W h i t e (Director) referring to the dividends said th a t two dividends a t the rate of 8 per cent per annum had been paid prior to June SOth, and the th ird dividend since th a t at the same rate. These 3 dividends covered the period of 15 months working of the Company since its formation, the profit on th is period being a t the ra te of 8 per cent per annum. As it was necessary th a t these dividends should be confirmed by the meeting, he begged to propose il. H . G. 1 i A y e s seconded it, and the proposition was unanimously carried.

The retiring auditor, Mr. John Smith, was unanimous­ly re-elected.

The C h a i r m a n then rose to make a few further remarks. He said th a t as Mr. P ra tt had made a re­m ark as to its not being advisable to burden the Com­pany with borrowed capital, he would say th a t th a t was quite the feeling of the Board. They did not wish to have any mortgage on their estates. The share­holders would see by the report th a t some of the estates were subject to unpaid mortgages ; bu t these would be paid off as soon as possible. I t was their firm determination not to borrow; aud, if i t was found necessary to have more money, they would prefer to increase the capital ra ther than mortgage their estates. He hoped in tim e they should be able lo keep up a good reserve fund, and the balance of £1,485'39, which they now had, might, be considered the nucleus of such a fund. In reply to a shareholder, he said th a t Mr. H arding was still their manager (agri­cultural) in Ceylon. H e was a very large shareholder in the Company, and resided 011 the principal estate. As to their prospects for the season of 1881-2, he would like to make a few remarks. In the H aputale d is 'ric t, the season there has been very unfavourabl, for us.- The long-continued drought has prevented the wood from coming forward and the plants from ripening, so as to bring forward the usual abundant blossoms, which is generally characteristic of this district. In all probability the crops for the coming season will be rather worse than past year. But they m ust re­collect th a t last year there were only three estates to deal with, whereas for the current year, there

would be six estates. The Thotalagalla was their j finest and largest estate ; and in the curren t year i t j would be necessary for them to incur exceptional

expenses, which would be ra ther high, he feared, in I order to road and drain it, to pu t the trees in good i condition for bearing well. Their estates would give i a good avirage crop, he expected, bu t it m ight be a

little below the average. They were, however, in fine condition, and they m ight look for a bumper crop before long. In reply to a shareholder, he did not th ink the dividend would be less than 8 per cent for the next year. But he thought i t would be wrong to hold out any certainty, as they were so very much dependent on th e seasons. A very large amount of cinchona would always be growing. This was not so dependent on the season as coffee. They possessed 1J million of cinchona tre e s ; and they could easily strip the bark of these, if the coffee crops fell much below the average. They were a kind of reserve to fall back upon. The estate they were now treating for was altogether a cinchona estate.

A vote of thanks to the ( hairman was then moved and seconded, and unanimously accorded. The Chair­man, in returning thanki, expressed his regret th a t M r R. P. H arding had been unable to be present.

NEW IND USTRIES : GOLD-PROSPECTING ;TH E MADRAS RULES.

The task of initiating new industries in any tropical or oriental land must inevitably be attended with much difficulty. There are necessarily no exact means of ascert­aining what the returns will be for the money invested; and the new venture, whatever it may be, is regarded as a speculation more or less rash and uncertain accord- big to the temperament and attitude of the critic. In a Colony like Ceylon with so many undeveloped resources, with a good supply of comparatively cheap labour, a favourable climate and easy means of trasp irt, every possible encouragement ought to be given to the pioneers in new industries. More particularly is this true in reference to the Government and gold-prospectors. The impetus that would be given to trade and to the de­velopment of local revenue, affords ample justification for the Crown, as the holder of immense reserves of land, setting its mining rights in abeyance altogether until the experimental stage had passed into one of settled and prosperous work. More than that it is the part of a Government situated like that of Ceylon to encour­age prospecting and pioneering, by a system of well- considered “ bounties.” In several of the Australian Colonies this has been tried with success, and a bill is now before the Natal Legislature, with every prospect of being carried, proposing that the Natal Government should offer a premium “ to anyone who, within three yearsfrom the 1st January 1882, shall introduce into thecolony any new agricultural industry suitable and cap­able of general adoption in the colony by persons of moderate capital. The Council may make such regula­tions as they may deem fit for awarding the premium, provided that :—

a. No article a t present exported shall be con- sidered a new industry.

b. The claimant of the premium shall have grown, exported. and sold such product of a profit of not less than £1000 va'ne during the three years.

c. The Council may, with the consent of the Go­vernor, waive the necessity for the full value of the export within the three years, provided th a t the new product is of such a character as to a tta in to general cultivation, and fulfils the purpose intended.

d. Should two or more persons compete, and the product or products be such as to m eet the general requirem ents of the reward, the Council may, with th e consent of the Governor, apportion the whole or any part of tha premium mentioned in Section 10 of this law in such m anner as to them may seem fair and just.

The amount of premium proposed to be offered in this case is £1,000. The example is one that might be copied with great advantage in Ceylon; but we fear there is little chance a t this time of the Government permitting the planting representative to widen the scope of his motion on Wednesday next. That motion has reference to “ Mining Rights.” I t is extraordinary that the Ceylon authorities should have so long delayed to make then- regulations known, seeing that the Madras rules, which they were supposed to he waiting for, were published some time ago. Our Madras contemporaries have criticized unfavourably the local Government rules, pointing out that they are far less liberal than those drawn up by the Mysore Government. The M ail advoc­ates “ free trade ” in land for mining purposes, and supports its argument as follows:—

The Madras rules first lim it the extent of land which may be granted, to one and the same applic­an t for mining, to 30 acres, in one block or more, though they allow land adjoining to be taken up for buildings, works, or w hat not, provided i t is not used for mining. They next fix the as>essment at th e extremely high figure of R5 per acre on all land taken up, whether for mining or o ther purposes. They then provide th a t within three months of the grant, nob less than five coolies per acre of the land granted for mining shall be regularly employed. And they forbid any assessment or sub-lease, w ithout the consent of the Government being previously obtained. I t is probable th a t the Government wish to dis­courage land being taken up for speculative pur-

oses, and to prevent large areas getting into the ands of the same individuals. If, as in the early

days of gold in A ustralia, men took up small pieces of land, and worked them themselves, washing the soil for gold, and using only the simple appliances each individual miner could command, and if there were any chance of all the available land being so taken up, we could understand the policy of lim iting the area of mining g rants—only we should then say, the lim itation did not go far enough, and th a t instead of 30 acres being granted, the grant to each should not exceed a few square yards. B ut there is no chance of anything of th is sort in India ; the climate is against i t ; everything is different W e are beginning where they only arrived in A ustralia after years of work—with quartz-crushing on a large scale, whi^h demands the best machinery, and a capital so considerable th a t it is almost a necessity th a t the mines should all be worked by Companies which, now th a t everything comes out in £1 shares, will prob­ably have their thousands of members. Now Com­panies, as a rule, w ant a good deal more than 30 acres; and if each shareholder had 30 acres it would have to reckon the extent of its property by square miles. Though only 30 acres may be given to the same applicant, there is nothing, so far as we can see, to prevent ten men going in for ten adjoining 30 acres lots, and making them over to a Company in one lo t of 300 acres, except the rule prohibiting transfers without the consent of the Government, which we think, could never be enforced, and would be practically a dead letter. So again a man m ight apply for ten 3 acres lots, with say 27 acres of land for other purposes adjoining, and when he had sold one of the-^e lots, the purchaser could, a t once apply for a mining

grant for other 27 acres, tak ing up the land for other purposes alongside. In fact w hether the rule is wise or not, i t is certain to be evaded. But we deny its

. wisdom altogether. W e consider such speculation as i t is (presumably) intended to prevent perfectly legit­im a te ; and we look on it as only rig h t and ju st that a man, who by superior skill, energy, oreven luck, finds himself in the position ol the dis­coverer of a valuable formation, in w hat was supposed to be valueless land, should be able substantially to profit by the position, Suppose th a t one of the pioneers after the expenditure of much tim e and trouble, and no inconsiderable outlay of money, finds a few square miles of auriferous lands ; i t is extrem ely hard th a the shall only be able to get 30 a*rea of it, and th a tall the rest shall be given to Tom, Dick, or H arry, who never spent a rupee in the search, or gave a single thought to the subject.

Then again, take the assessment. The land wanted for mining will be waste ; and not waste only, but in nine cases out of ten, unculturable, or practic -lly of no value whatever for any purpose except mining. Land as good, or better, can be had for cultivation a t rates varying from As. 4 to III an acre ; why then th is heavy assessment which is about the s me

* as th a t imposed on the best class of irrigated land ? I t may be said th a t with a paying mine, the assess­m ent will be a trivial item , and will hardly be felt. This we grant. W e go further and say, th a t with such a mine, an assessment of R5 an acre will, by no means, represent th e share of profit which the S tate may fairly expect to derive from th e venture. B ut gold mining is a t present in its infancy in India, and it is p re tty certain, th a t some of the mines will come to grief, though others may pay handsomely. Take the case of a non-paying mine, w ith 30 acres of mining land, and adjoining land taken up alongside to the extent of 1,000 acres—of course w ith the object of eventually applying for for further m ining grants if the concern is a success. This land will he burdened from the s ta rt w ith a yearly paym ent of 115,150, and may never make a rupee of profits ! Surely i t is unwise to handicap enterprize so heav ily ! I t is not as if Government were giving up land, from which revenue could be drawn in any other w a y ; for as we have already pointed out, if not taken up for m ining it will never pay a rupee to the State in the great m ajority of cases. Again, suppose th is Company is m aking a profit of £100 000 a y e a r ; would the paym ent of K5,150 be absurdly inadequate, W hy then should not land be tnven on a very light assessmant, say As 4 or As 8 per acre, and a royalty of, say 5 per cent, charged on the n e tt profits ? Then while the prosperous Campany would be a source of consider­able revenue to the State, the struggling and unsuccess­ful one would not be unduly burdened. A royalty on n e tt profits would always be cheerfully paid, for the larger the paym ent to Government, the larger would be the profits to shareholders, and under such a rule as this, there would be a fair chance th a t all land giving promise of good results, would be taken up, and tried.

B ut bad as all this is is the labour clause is undoubtedly worse. Not less than five coolies per acre are to be regularly employed, th a t is one hundred and fifty coolies on 30 acres—re­presenting probably an expenditure of R800 a

! month. I t may be taken as tolerably certain, th a t ; if i t pays to employ five coolies per acre, or double, t treble, or ten tinn-s th a t number, they will be em­

ployed, and if i t does not pay, we fail to see why their employment should be insisted on. A nd the beauty of i t is, th a t Government gain nothing by it. H ad there been a royalty instead of a fixed assess-

I ment, we could have understood the condition, though

we should still have considered it unwise ; b u t as things are, Government get precisely the same amount, w hether the mine is being worked at a loss, or is giving a magnificent return. Again, the cooly test is a somewhat rough and unscientific one. If i t is desired to insure a certain expenditure,—which, how­ever, we deprecate altogether—it would be better to say that so much a month shall be spent on mining operations. Most of the work is done by m achinery; mining engineers and skilled English miners are found necessary ; none of th is is iak en into accoun t; the hard and fast coolie labor tes t holds good, and is brought into force three m onths after the grant is made—long before a Company could be got into w ork­ing order, and put the necessary m achinery and staff on the ground. This one clause alone is enough to condemn any rules of which it forms a part.

We trust the blunders pointed out so clearly in the Madras rules, and which it seems are not to be found in those operating in Mysore, will be avoided by the Ceylon Government. To help them to a right conclusion we append a list of rules for granting out mining land, drawn up by the M ail as embodying all that is required in the case of Southern India, and therefore well applicable to the case of Ceylon:—

Persons desirous of obtaining permission to mine, on Government waste lands, may apply to the Com­missioner, or Collector for leases specifying thesituation of the land required with its estim ated area.

Each application shall be accompanied by a rough sketch, or by the survey map w ith the position of the block roughly indicated.

Applications will be dealt with in order of receipt.No lo t o»* lots in one application shall exceed one

square mile in extent.B ut the s ime applicant may apply for more than

one square mile in other applications, and such ap­plications will be granted should there be 110 reason against it.

On an application being accepted the lo t shall be durably demarcated, and conveyed a t the expense of the applicant, to whom a lease shall he granted.

An assessment of As. 8 per acre shall be payable by two half yearly instalm ents on 1st January and 1st Ju ly , the first instalm ent being due for the then current half year, and payable on the date of the execution of the lease.

The land may be thrown up a t any time, h u t so long as the assessment is paid, and the conditions are not broken Government will not resume or in­terfere with. it.

The land shall be liable to road assessment.A Royalty of 5 per cent on the n e tt profit of any

mining operations shall be pa) able to Government.The works shall a t all tim es be open for inspection

by the Commissioner, or Collector, or by officers deputed for the purpose by him.

Accounts shall be furnished to the Commissioner or Collector yearly, and bookS shall be duly kept, which shall a t all reasonable times be open to the inspection of the Commissioner or Collector, or officers deputed by him.

C i n c h o n a a n d P r i v a t e E n t e r p r i s e . —The Times o f India writes :—Planters in Ceylon and India, and other private individuals who have pu t their money into cinchona w ill not hear with profound satisfaction th a t a few days ago upwards of three hundred bundles of bark were shipped from Madras, to the order of the Secretary of S ta te for India. The supply was from the Government Cinchona E state , and each bundle, i t is eaid, was valued a t R300. P rivate growers are na tu r­ally asking when Lord Ripon’s policy of encouraging private enterpiiae is going to be applied to cinchona.

162

T H E C R Y PT O G A M ISrS LATEST U TTERA N CE ON “ LEA F DISEASE.

Tbe long le tter from Mr, M arshall W ard, in reply to criticisms on his reports, which appears on another page, will be carefully perused by the large class in terested in the present condition and prospects for the fu ture of coffee in Ceylon and in th e Eastern world generally. W hen Mr. W ard w rote th a t “ complaint* ’ had reached him th a t portions of his report* had been “ m isunderstood by lay readers*” be meant, of course, th a t certain statem ents, in his reports were worded in such technical term s th a t lay readers—persons no t le trued in cryptbgamic lore—failed to apprehend th e ir meaning, or pu t a wrong construction on w hat was w ritten . Now, as Mr. Marshall WTard ds not -only a scientist but a “ ’Varsity ” man, and as he m anifestly took great pains to clothe his conclusions in fitting language, we have little doubt he f-’ols inclined to quote the w riter who insisted th a t i t was no' part of his busi. ness to provide his readers with brains to understand m atter which he had m ade“ understandable.” B u t sometimes words convey different ideas to different m inds$ and it m ust be due to this fact or to some natural obtusen^ss on our part, tha^ we m ust be ranked amongst the lay readers who m isunderstood him in regard to coffee leaves m atured 'in to a condition of “ h a rd n ess /1 U ntil now corrected by Mr. W ard, we were inclined to believe th a t, as a leaf hardened, its stomata contracted to such an extent as to offer an obstruction to the access of the spores of Hemileia vastatrix, when, fallowing th e astonishing in stinc t im planted in them , they sought their food in the interior cells of the coffee leaf, carefully discriminating the leaves o f that p lant from those o f any other. As we now understand Mr. W ard, i t is a fact in vegetable physiology th a t a m atured or hardened leaf has breathing m ouths of the normal size ju st as m uch as in the case of the softest and most succulent, and bearing the same relation in the one as in th° o ther to the spore tubes of the parasite th a t an ordinary house drain does to au ordinary snake ! We confess also th a t the proportions of in truder and door of en try , now so explicitly stated by Mr. W ard, cou-titute to us a new and most formidable feature in the life history of fungus and leaf , of feeder and fed ; of guest and host. There is always an open door for the fungus, which is only too ready to enter w i'h in twenty-four hours being sta rted from dorm ant to active life by the influence of moisture. Our previous impression was th a t the moisture which enabled the fungus spore to germ inate produced also an enlargement of the breathing pores of the leaf, so as to render facile the access of the enemy to the citadel and its food stores. W e thought and hoped, as we suppose m any other lay readers did, th a t if we could get m atured and hardened foliage on a tree th a t foliage would be impervious to the insidious spores of this cuckoo of the vegetable world. B ut we m isunderstood the crypfccgamist, whose intention it was merely to indicate that, if the planter can so order his manuring, pruning and cultivation generally, as to cover his bushes with a crop -of m atured leaves, before the spores of th e fungus are driven by the winds of the monsoon on to the leaves while those spores are simultaneously awakened to active and destructive life—a life of system atic theft—by th e monsoon m oisture—they (the

planters) will have enabled their coffee to derive the full benefit of tlie nourishment elaborated in such leaves, instead of getting only such portion as it can share with the parasites when once they form a lodgment. If only the spore tubes are present in sufficient quantity, all that is wanted is moisture to germinate them, in order not only to infect each* leaf with one 01* a few but to fill each stoma of every leaf. That is the “ owre true tale,” the moral of which we have to study, and in its light, surely, the dullest of lay readers can under­stand that manure, so far from being a cure for “ leaf disease,*' is an active agent in propagating the fungus which is the cause of leaf disease—disturbance of those functions on whose regular action the plant depends for healthy life. But manure can only act in this way when spores of the fungus are allowed to exist and obtain access to the leaves of the plant. Were the spores de­stroyed or prevented from obtaining access to the sap- cells of the leaves, then, as in the pre-fungus era, the whole benefit of the manure applied to tlie root of the tree would go first to the formation of nutriment in the leaves and then to the perfecting of a profitable crop of fruit. The planter’s great duty then is, by all means within his reach, to destroy spore-infected leaves and twigs by burning or burying them. If buried, of course they should be thoroughly covered with quick­lime ; and a portable incinerator, which we have heard of as manufactured for a planter by Messrs. Jolm Walker & Co., which can be easily carried from place to place by a couple of coolies, may help to solve the problem of how, at a reasonable cost, to destroy refuse leaves, twigs, Ac. Then shelter should be conserved or supplied to prevent the wind blowing the spores on the leaves of the coffee trees. If all this is done, then certainly even Mr. Ward would admit that manure might prove a cure for “ leaf-disease”—not of the c a u s e , Ilemileia vastatrix, but the e f f e c t , debility superinduced by re­peated visits of the voracious parasite to the life-sup­plying la* oratory of the plant, contained in its foliage. But, if nothing is done: if neither burying nor burning is resorted to, if shelter is not provided, and if spores on the leaves are not killel by sulphurous gases before they germinate and enter the stomata, then manuring must be resorted to, even a t the risk of propagating the fungus, because it is better to manure so as to foster fungus, plus leaves and fruit, rather than abstain from manuring at tlie risk of seeing tree, foliage and fruit becoming “ small by degrees and [not] beautifully less,” from the persistent presence and destructive effects of the fungus. To give up manuring would be to throw up the sponge and confess ourselves hopelessly beaten in the con test; but clearly our duty is if possible to follow Mr. W ard's advice and apply manure as a com­plement to operations calculated to annihilate or reduce to the smallest minimum those fungus spores, which, if present, would, in proportion to their number, deprive the coffee of the life sap elaborated in the leaf cells as the result of an application of manure. Ilemileia vast- atrix, so far from being the external development of an “ internal ulcer,” as an authority highly honoured by a certain sapient judge explicity taught, is so essenti­ally an external agent, that its spores might, for an in­definite period, be scattered over the leaves of a coffee tree, without producing the slightest ill effects, provided

the spores did not receive moisture to germinate them and enable them to enter the leaves by the mouths on their lower surface. The spores and the favourable con­ditions present, no condition of a tree can enable it to resist an attack, while no predisposition will intensify that attack. Once for all,•planters, and critics of plant­ing operations, may dismiss from their minds all ideas of “ leaf-disease” having been caused by errors in de­tails of cultivation or the constituents of manure. But for the mysterious development in 1869 of a parasite which had been previously latent, leaf-disease (the effect

j of the parasite’s operations) would be non-existent, and the majority of our coffee estates would be still yield­ing average crops of 6 cwt. per acre or even more. Our one error, as we now can see, was the very natural one of growing in large and unbroken areas, to the almost total exclusion of other products, that whicfi paid the cultivator b e s t: that which gave the largest and the most profitable returns.* That was the principle 011 which potatoes were so largely grown in Ireland and other places, and that is the principle 011 which wheat is grown in America and A ustralia; tobacco in S um atra ; sugar in the West Indies, Java, <fcc. When visitations of pro­vidence, in the shape of- disastrous natural agencies, con­vey sharp lessons, then some of us can loudly condemn what their neighbours and even they themselves did, as unscientific and even immoral. As far as Ceylon coffee planting is concerned, all we can say is that unless we are suffering for the one error we have mentioned, or unless special chastisement has come upon us for special sins, we do not feel that planters are to blame. On most of the estates, all that capital and labour, care and skill, and scientific appliance, could effect was done to keep tlie soil in heart while it yielded remunerative crops. When Skobeloff had a great disaster inflicted on lnm, lie sa id : “ I blame 110 o n e : it was the will ofGod.” So, without irreverence, we think we may assume that it was the will of providence that the great and once prosperous coffee enterprise of Ceylon and the Eastern world should be checked (we cannot and will not say destroyed) by the development of a new and terrible parasite. The plague haring existed and oper­ated injuriously for a considerable period of years, maywe not cherish the hope that the time for its graduallessening in virulence, if not its entire disappearance, is close a t hand. Perhaps the theory of “ cycles” maynot be deemed scientific or worthy of regard by theschool to which 3\fr. Marshall W ard belongs, but surely lie must have at least adverted to tlie idea of the pest passing away with effluxion of time. Is there anything in tlie nature of Ilem ileia vastatrixy or in the analogy of like pests, to render the hope of its virtual dis­appearance within a few years unreasonable?

REM ILE1A VASTATRIX AND COFFEE L E A F - DISEASE : MIL MARSHALL W A RD ’S R E PL Y

TO CRITICISM S ON IIIS REPORTS.(To the Editor, “ Ceylon Observer”)

D e a r S i r , —In replying to Mr. Talbot’s criticism on my th ird report on coffee leaf-disease, I propose' to* consider a t the same time some of the various otli r rem arks which have been inad-1, both in private letters and in the newspapers, and which im v t be looked upon as adverse to proper views of the nature of this ‘‘disease” : th is I do the more readily, since a few

com plaints have reached me to the effect th a t some points in my reports have been misunderstood by lay readers, and i t may be possible, therefore, to render service by re-stating the im portant conclusions in sligh tly different language.

The chief points touched upon more or less in the criticism s referred to are the following, aud I will take them in order after mentioning them as below :—

(1) The general conclusions to which the whole research has impelled me, viz th a t “ lvaf-disease” is caused by the ravages of a vegetable parasite derived from without;

(2) The statem ent in my 3rd report to the effect th a t “ no special predisposition 011 the part of the coffee is required for its infection” ;

(3) The statem ent th a t “ m anure cannot be properly looked upon as a cure for the disease,” and

(4) The conclusions arrived a t respecting the use of remedial measures.

W ith regard to the first point, I need not occupy tim e and space w ith a lengthy argument to repeat what each step in my reports goes to prove ; bu t will shortly summarize the position for the sake of the few who still indulge in such expressions as “ the fungus arises from a diseased state of the tree ,” “ th e disease arose from b id m anuring,” i t is “ in the sap ,” and other equally vague statem ents.

HemVeia vastatrix is a parasitic fungus with a definite, and, as we now know, very simple life-history, and is propagated by means of spores as are o ther similar p lants. The chief peculiarity about th is particular fungus, however, is that its mycelium, or vegetative system (acting somewhat like roots and stems of o ther plants), requires the organized m aterials found in the cells of living coffee-leaves for its food, and obtains these by spreading in the loose passages be­tw een the spongy tissues of the leaves, and imbibing th e contents of the cells which compose these tissues.

These imbibed food substances, instead of going th u s to satisfy the voracious appetite of the fungus, should normally have gone to benefit th e coffee-tree as a whole, by supplying the materials necessary for building up tissues where required—it might be leaves, i t m ight be flowers or fru it &c.

Hence we see th a t a direct robbery is perpe­tra ted by the fungus, in appropriating food-materials which the cells of the coffee-leaf had, w ith great expenditure of energy, m anufactured for the use of the coffee-tree as a whole.

Now such materials are m anufactured or elaborated in the green parts of the coffee-plant, and especally in the cells of the leaf exposed to light and air, thence to pass into the branches, stems &c. to be distributed as required. To replace quickly the food-materials of which it has been robbed, therefore, the coffee leaf would require a t least not less m anufacturing capabil­i ty than it had b e fo re ; bu t i t has less, because the spreading mycelium, occupying space on and in the leaf, destroys eventually the little hardworking cells which would have made more food-stuffs. Hence the fungus fu rther does injury by destroying the tissues, and occupying space which should have benefited the coffee tree.

In doing tln-se injuries to the leaf, t he fungus shortens its period of usefulness, and the coffee-tree m ust pro­vide more leaves in a given tinm, if i t is to obtain the same amount of manufactured m aterial th a t it norm ally derived from the activity of the leaves. Unless i t can do this, or unless the total am ount of active leaves &c. is more than the tree requires, the ability to produce crop must be diminished. In a ttem pt­ing to meet th is difficulty (so to speak) the functions of the coffee-tree as a whole become still more dis­tu rbed, and it must be plain to all that, if such a condition of things lasts for a long time, or n curs often, the ability to m anufacture and distribute the

large quantities of food-material necessary for the production of the amount of crop looked for m ust diminish—th e periodic losses of m atter and local diss turbance of function affect the whole tree, and it i said to be “ diseased.”

There can be no difficulty, therefore, in under­standing the phenomena of “ leaf-dieease” which have so long and so generally puzzled the p lan t­ing com m unity : a tree cannot be expected to produce leaves, flowers a> d fruit &c., in the same proportions when thus afflicted, as i t did when the numerous drains and disturbances were absent. In the local actions a t numerous centres of the parasite w«e see a vera causa for “ leaf-disease,” and i t becomes unnecessary to seek refuge in vague expressions.

I would now call a ttention to still fu rther proof th a t the fungus causes the disease. In proportion as coffee plants are sheltered from the spores of the fungus do they remain free from the disease; while exposed plants become diseased as the fungus obtains a hold on their tissues. On sowing spores of Hemiteia on certain leaves I found th a t these leaves became diseased : not only so, bu t the “ discase-spots ” appeared on th e area where the sowing was made, and nowhere else on the plant, unless spores were again sown. If a leaf has only one “ disease-spot” on it, th e damage done is little ; but if m any spots occur, the leaf is soon de­stroyed ; so, too, w ith the whole tree, If only a few “ disease-spots ” occur here and there, the harm is small : i t is when m any leaves (in proportion to the whole) are afflicted with many “ spots, ” th a t the rapidly denuded tree suffers so much.

I need not here detail the experiments which led to these results, nor the numerous actual “ infections ” perform- d; b u t will simply refer to the reports published during the past two years. W hen, however, i t is dem onstrated th a t, of two plants grown from W est Indian seed, iu baked earth or in earth from England, the one which is sheltered from spores does not become diseased, while th a t which is “ infected ” (by sowing spores) does become diseased in due course, we have no longer any excuse for doubting th a t the fungus is the great cause of the disease. There is, however, much less doubt expressed regarding th is point, th an with respect to the next, v iz :—

(2) “ No special predisposition on the part of thecoffee is required for its infection ” Having discovered th a t a coffee-leaf could he “ infected with leaf-disease ” by means of the spores ; and having proved th a t natural infection ovcurs by the germination of wind-blown spores &c. s i t became necessary to ascertain exactly under what condition this takes place.

The first circumstance of importance is clearly th a t w a'er or moist air be present, for in a dry atmosphere 110 spore can germ inate: the spore remains on the leaf apparently unchanged for an indefinite period, unless sufficient aqueous vapour be provided, and in such cases no 61 disease” follows.

The other two conditions are always present (with rare exceptions when the tem perature falls very low): they are, the presence of atmospheric air or oxygen, and th a t the tem perature be suitable for the development of the fungus. Provided these three conditions of the environm ent be not absent, I find no difficulty in bringing about the germination of the fungus spore ; and if this takes place on the stoma-bearing skin or epidermis which covers the leaf of coffee, th e little germ-tube enters the stoma or spore, grows and branches inside the leaf, forming a mycelium or “ fungus p lan t” in the cavities which drains the leaf-cells of their food-substances as already described.

Now, pu tting aside for the moment the question w hether a coffee-leaf which is rich in food-materials or the reverse best suits such a “ fungus p lan t,” I pro­ceeded to make experiments by sowing the spores of

Hemileia on all kinds of coffee-leaves, old and young, weak and strong, &c., to see i f any special predisposition to disease existed; or, in more exact words, to see if any one kind was more “ predisposed” than another.

The answer to these questioning experiments is a defini'e one. »In all cases 1 found th a t the leaf could be infected ; th a t the germ tubes entered the stomata, and the tissues became “ diseased.” I here, in fact, asked nature herself “ Are any kinds of coffee more predisposed toinfection than the other?” And nature said: “ N o !” Such is the tru e interpretation of the successful experiments on coffee from Ceylon, Java, India, and Jamaica, of several varieties and a t various ages.

Hence it will be seen th a t my statem ent is in no way of the nature of an opinion. I was biassed by no predeterm ined idea when commencing these en­quiries ; or, if any assumption was tacitly adm itted, it was to the effect th a t some kinds might be more prone to “ disease” than others.

I t may be replied, although the above has been pioved, i t is surely true th a t when once inside the ie if the fungus does not do the same amount of damage in all cases. I will not here m ultiply examples, bu t will shortly examine the results of many observations bearing on this difficult m atter.

We have seen th a t Hemileia differs from many other plants in being unable to construct its own food- substances from the air and earth &c., as dues the coffee and similar plants i since, however, Hemileia requires these substances ready made, i t eteals them from the coffee. In a certain sense, therefore, we may look upon the coffee leaf as the soil in which the fungus-plant lives ; and we shall not be surprized to find th a t according to the nu tritive quality of this living soil, so to spt-ak, the little fungus-plant* flourish well or ill, much as coffee plants thrive or the reverse in good or bad vegetable mould, &c. I t is im portant to bear in mind, however, th a t the roots of a plant like coffee send crude sap up into the leaves, and it is not un til the materials have become elaborated in the leaves th a t they s u ve for fo o d : the fungus, therefore, is more accurately compared wish the crop than with the whole tree in th is respect.

I t becomes probable from the foregoing that a fungus- p lan t or mycelium m ight be found to grow more rapidly iu some leaves than in others. I find th a t the finest specimens, butanically speaking, of Hemileia vastatrix are grown on those leaves from which the fungus can obtain its food most readily i., e. on the succult n t, vigorous, well-developed leaves of a fine tree, where th e cell.' are readily broken into, and the contents rich in food-stuffs. Such, leaves abound in the height of the growing season (April to June, and September to November near Kandy), and I need not remark further how terribly they suffer from the abundant mycelium about Ju ly and December as a rul'-.

I t thus becomes evident th a t the fungus-plant can be placed in any kind of leaf w ith equal facility, ju st as Coffee seedlings can be planted in any kind of so il ; and th a t the former flourishes best in a well-nourished, succulent- leaf, from which it can most readily obtain rich food, much as the la tte r thrives in deep, luxuri­an t mould. In both cases, of course, o ther things are supposed equal, since differences iu tem perature, the amount of moisture, intensity of light, etc. etc. have their due effects.

And now I come to the m ost difficult point. I t will probably be replied th a t good coffee suffers least even though the fungus be plentiful, and th a t it is the poor, weak, “ shuck ” tree which exhibits the ravages of the pest so lamentably. B ut we m ust here take care lest we argue in a circle. In many cases known to me it is simply because th e coffee has not yet become the prey of th e fungus th a t it looks so well. Good, deep soil suffers little , although it supports many luxuriant plants : so, too, good strong

coffee can afford to feed m any little fungus plants, and yet its large b af surface supply m aterial to produce crop as well. Much “ good coffee,” in fact, does support large quantities t>f mycelium as well as of crop.

B ut I have thus far allowed the assumption th a t other things are equal, while as a m atter of fact, other

i things are commonly very unequal where coffee and its ! “ d isease” in one place, are compared with those a t

a distance. My reports abundantly jahow w hat are the chief factors in this connection ; b u t I may call a ttention to one or two points which appear to be either unknown or ignored by many of th e critics who so readily compare unequal things together, with the somewhat naive surprize th a t the results are not equal. To expect two coffee trees on an estate (and the illustration may be extended to masses) to be equally “ d iseased” simply because they stand near one another is, to say the leash, daring, since it in ­volves one or o ther of the fol owing comprehensive assumptions. I t must be assumed either—(a) th a t the two trees were a t th e outset equal in all respects —th a t their root-masses, leaf-surfaces, &c. were alike in extent and exposure, and th a t the relations of these to the soil and air, light, &c. Averc similar in all respects—th a t equal quantities of food-materials were in the two trees, and th a t the supplies and de­mands connected with th is were steadily equal, &c, &c. I t m ust fu rth er-b e assumed th a t each tree received a t the outset the same quotum of disease-producing fungus-spores, which developed witli equal energy and effect, and were equally related, actively and passively in the two cases.

Or, if the above formidable details be not assumed, i t m ust be allowed -(b) th a t the various complex re­lations between coffee and its surroundings on the one hand, and Hemileia and its environm ent on the other, though differing in details in all possible degrees among themselves, amounted to the same final result in the cases selected:—that, although the trees were dissim ilarly related to earth, air, light and the fungus, &c. as far as quantity goes, yet they became in the end diseased to the same extent.

E ither of these assum ptions would be rash in the extreme ; and it is a bold argum ent to infer th a t because one of two trees, apparently sim ilar in many respects, is “ worse diseased ” thnn another, th a t the reason is outside w hat has b£cn stated.

In cases where trees or groups of trees are pointed out as “ disease-proof or practically so, ” on what grounds are the assertions made ? Have those who make the statem ents satisfied theim elves th a t there are no other reasons than those they give for the com parati’ e imm unity from “ disease spots,” a t the tim e of the particular trees referred lo ? Have they even proved th a t the trees remain “ fr e from disease ” for a year ; or th a t the relations between the number of diseased and nealthy leaves are not different in the cases cited. And yet, surely the onus of proof lies with those whocontrovert record of observed facts w ith unsup­ported statem ents : and it is, to say the least, rash to affirm th a t a tree is less “ diseased” t han its neighbours, w ithout being able to say th a t th e tree w as carefully and closely observed for a sufficiently long time. B ut even adm itting th a t “ a tree here and there nlmws fewer “ disease-spots ” during a given period than surround­ing specimens, who will undertake to prove th a t it

j has had as much chance of becoming infected as ’ another ? There is nothing remarkable, for instance,

in more spores being distributed successfully on the leaves of one tree than on those of another : nor could we be surprized if many spores fall from the Daves altogether. The following simple illustration may make my meaning clearer, though it does not cover the whole question. Suppose sevcrrd boys bath­ing in a stream near the banks, and suppose leeches to be borne down by the stream , and falling from

the bushes a t various heights, would it he wise to argue th a t the boy who got most leeches attached to his b«>dy was ‘‘ more su scep tib le” or “ specially p re­disposed ” to them ?

(3) I now pass on to consider the th ird statem ent, to which so much objection has been raised, viz. :— “ Manure cannot properly be looked upon as a cure for the disease.” ' If the organized m aterials or food­stuffs in the cells of the coffee leaf are the proper food of the parasite Hemileia, as is found to be the case ; and if manure, after being worked up into organized materials, is a proper food for coffee, as no one will doubt i t is, then it follows th a t in manuring coffee to provide nourishment for the production of fru it, &c., we indirectly manure Ilemileia. I t should be remembered th a t the crop obtains its principal nutrim ent from the leaves, just as does the fungus ; aud, unfortunately, they both take similar materials.

I t m ust be clear th a t wo a t least run a risk of increasing the amount of fungus and of its spores (the orange-red rust), and therefore of the leaf tissues being destroyed, &c., ns we increase the amount of food stuffs by m anuring ; and if the fungus, i.e., the dis< ase-produc*r is increased, i t is obviously absurd to consider the dis­ease cured. I do not wish the above to be construed as meaning th a t manure should not be used in the cultivation of the coffee ; i t must be used, or the drains on the tree will be more than it can stand. I t would be as rash to conclude th a t manure does no good to coffee suffering from loss of sap and func­tional disturbances induced by Ilemileia, as to imagine th a t food could do no good to a man suffering from loss of blood, and certain consequences following it : in both cases, however, i t should be borne in m ind th a t the evil may be past remedy if th e patien t has been too long neglected. And i t should also occur to all, th a t the prime cause of the loss of sap, &c., should be destroyed, by burning or burying all spore­laden leaves possible, by shelter, and other precautions.

A coffee tree badly afflicted with Hemileia and bearing a lavge -crop suffers more than one bearing an equally large crop bu t less fungus, or than one bearing more fungus and less crop—other things being nearly the same. I t is known th a t both the fungus and the crop draiu the leaves of substances formed in their green cells exposed to light, air, &c., and since by manuring we supply crude sap (mineral and other sub­stances in solution) in larger quantities to be worked up in the leaves, i t is possible in a given case for a tree to support both crop and fungus un til the former is all ripe, provided the functional activ ity of the leaves &c was not already too far disturbed.

I t is now easy to conceive the following possible cases: — (1) A tree is deficient of manure and leaves, and suf­fers severely, because its tissues are not replaced nearly as fast as the fungus destroys them. (2) Sufficient manure is present to supply crude sap as required, and the amount of leaf surface is large enough to provide food for all purposes; new' leaves form as the fungus destroys older ones, and th e tree appears p re tty even throughout. (3) The tree is so richly fu r­nished with leaves, and so abundantly provided with crude sap, that the comparatively small amount of fungus mycelium is easily supported, and yet abund­ance of food materials remain for the tree, as the leaf-cells elaborate what comes from the roots &e. Aud every degree of complication of these circumstances occurs, and he who undertakes to explain the con­dition of a tree m ust carefully bear th is in mind. N ot only do trees differ in the number, sizes, density &c , of their leaves, bu t they differ in the quantity of spores which they receive. Not only do they dif­fer as to the sources of income a t the • roots (clay, grub, water, “ slab-rock” &c, have their different influ­ences) and from the leaves (their stoutness, number, exposure to sunlight, moisture, wind &c, have to be

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considered); bu t they differ with respect to the number and kind of drains on th e ir resources (crop, leaf-buds, and mycelium, &c.). I t should not, therefore, be rashly concluded th a t the differences which can be readily explained by known agents are brought about byunknown causes: th e wonder is not th a t two coffeetrees should suffer unequally from “ leaf-disease” ; it is ra th e r th a t any one should expect otherwise. I hope th a t I have now shown why, in manuring disease*! coffVe, w ithout taking steps to remove the sources of reinfection as the leaf surface is increased, a seriousrisk of increasing the amount of fungus is incurred ;nay, th a t unless the conditions for spore germ in­ation happen to be w itheld (rain, dew,] &c}) the risk becomes a certain danger. I may now p iss on to consider the last point with which we are here concerned:

(4) I t is agreed that, while the coffee m ust be m an­ured, to enable i t to support crop etc., tbe sources of reinfection should be diminished, in order th a t all the food-products formed in the p lant may go for tlie benefit of the tree : how can the sources of re-infection be dim inished? On a small scale (as w ith coffee plants grown in wardian cases, lighted rooms e tc .) two ways are perfectly practicable.

The spores of the fungus may be prevented from alighting on the leaves, or, if they do alight there, water can be w ithheld from them ,and no disease appears: this is the first and surest method of preventing infec­tion. The second way is to k ill the germinating fungus before its tubes enter the leaf and form the “ disease sp o ts” : th is method is less certain, because so m any causes may co-operate to prevent the destruc'ive agent from seizing all the germinal tubes. Nevertheless, with care, th is method is also successful.

In th e open air, however, and on large masses of coffee, under various kinds of control, the problem of destroying the spores becomes a much more dif­ficult one, since it is impossible to guard the tree entirely from wind and moisture. Here also, how ever, both the above methods are available to a cert­ain extent. W e may, first, devote our energies to the destruction of all spore-laden leaves and prunings,' provide as much shelter as possible, and in every way seek to prevent spores from reaching the coffee, since, when once there, we cannot withhold moisture and prevent germination. Secondly we may devise some m ethod of applying a destructive reagent to k ill those spores which do reach the coffee.

I t is with respect to the second method th a t so much has been w ritten and attem pted, and I will examine once more what the application of an external re­medy implies :

1st. I t m ust effectually k ill all the germinal tubes before they enter the leaf (which they commence to do in about 24 hours from the b ginning of germination), and yet m ust not injure the coffee.

These two im portart conditions fu rther demand other properties on the p a rt of the re-agent or “ cure” employed, viz? :—(rr) I t m ust be capable of rapid and wide diffusion, so th a t it may extend into every cor­ner of the treee, and so reach th e most remote spore. (6) I t m ust be very soluble, so th a t i t may be taken up by th e water in which the germ-tubes are forming, (c) I t m ust act for a long time, arc! continuously, in order th a t the later germ-tubes may* be attacked as they form.

2nd. But th is is no t all. Several ga?eous com­pounds can be named which would satisfy the above conditions of efficacy aud safety, combined w ith pro­perties of diffusibility, solubility, &c., bu t most of them would be too expensive. The reagents to be used on estates m ust be very cheap in the first in ­stance, since large quantities will be necessary.

3rd. And the application of the remedial agents m ust be simple : the planter should be quite familiar

w ith all th a t lak e s place, 110 machinery or time- consum ing processes being admissible on estates.

4 th . Having decided th a t a powder which evolves a soluble gas m eeting all the requirements is simplest, i t becomes necessary to see exactly when the applica­tio n should occur In my 3rd report are data on which th is can be based, and we see th a t the re­agen t should be 011 the leav s when the spores begin to germ inate. W hat does th is mean ? Simply tha* th e soluble chemical is to be active du mg the very wet w e ith ,r, and consequently th a t it becomes washed to th e roots of the coffee tree. Doubly cautious, therefore, must we be of such bodies as carbolic acid and mineral poisons, since the continued applica­tion a t sufficiently rapid intervals would be a great source of danger a t the roots. I may point out that, from th is point of view, it m atters little whether carbolic acid is Applied as ordinary car' olic powder mix*‘d with caustic lime, or in the chemically feeble compounds such as “ carbolate of lim e” &c.

5th. B ut the p lanter requires more than the above : it is not enough th a t he possesses the re­quisite chemical, and knows when to apply it. He also demands th a t a minimum of labour force shall be employed. I take i t that, apart from other rea ­sons, estites will not supply the labour necessary to go over all the acres once a week or so (as would be necessary in the wet season), and it does not seem wise to ignore th is practical difficulty.

6th. B ut suppose the planting community to have overcome all the above difficulties : suppose th a t every estate has arranged for efficient aud continuous ap ­plication, a t the proper times, of a suitable remedy, the danger of reinfection m ust still be guarded a g a in s t; for a very few spores from native villages, abandoned cofiee estates, th e leaves on the ground, and from the jungle, may rapidly make things bad again, if no precautions are taken. I t is quite cert­ain, therefore, th it a successful fight can ou’y be made if the sources of reinfection are removed : in any case, the trees m ust be sheltered, and the d is­eased leaves sw ept and destroyed.

7th. And the coffee m ust also be cu ltiv a ted : manuring and pruning m ust be carried on. ju st as well I need r o t comment fu rther on the reasons for the advice given : it is useless to ignore any of th e facts before us.

8 th. I would now ask: is i t not a wiser plan to tu rn our a ttention to the slower bu t surer method of protecting coffee as much as possible against infec­tion ? By ctrefully destroying all leaves and prunings a great deal may be done towards ridding the estate of what spores are then on i t : by jealously pre­serving what shelter there is, and by providing more where possible, much can be done towards keeping spores from without.

Manuring m net be properly carried on under any circumstances : the chief ends to be attained in the present difficulty are th a t the manure ehall not be most active ju st when the raius come on. I t is im­possible t ) give any general directions for the whole island : planters on the estates can alone judge of these m atters, Since the}7 are ruled by many and varying circumstances.

Pruning m ust also be conducted as carefully as ever ; or even more so. And now let me make a f-w remarks on the system often employed. I t is not uncommon f -r estates on the K andy side of Nuwara E 'iva to manure in January (say) and prune about the same tim e : on o ther tsta tes the pruning has been left un til June, while others perform the operation in the interval.

Tbo--e haves which a**e formed very early, and have th e dry sunny weather of January, February, and March to work in—i. e. to elaborate the sap, as they are exposed to light and air—possess this great

advantage : the a ir is too dry for the vigorous growth of Hemileia, and little or no “ disease” appears. In May and June the fungus is beginning to a ttack the succulent leaves formed in the preceding few weeks, and about Ju ly they will become badly diseased to dissem inate more spores. I f the pruning has been delayed un til June, however, large numbers of the incipient, disease spots, with the mycelium, become removed before the latter has fr u i te d : there can be little doubt th a t th is occurred in the case of the field m entioned by Mr. Talbot, and I would call th e earnest attention of planters to the success of his experiment. In th is connection planters require simply their own methods, suved in each case to the estate and climate ; but, understanding the phases of the * ‘ disease,” a great deal may be done by having either fewer leaves in May and June (so that a sm aller surface for infection is offered) or m any hardened and old ones—not because they resist infection, bu t because they will have been on the branches long enough to have done good work for the tree during a period of im m unity from disease. I -strongly urge p lant tb to use all their thoughts and efforts on th is part of the sub ject; for the gradual reduction of Hemileia, by depriving it of its ibest f-iod a t c ritical moments ap ­pears to me by no means a hopeless task.

I hope 1 have succeeded in rendering clearer the im ­portan t points, and, m conclusion, I would indicate what appear to be some of the chief sources of error on the p a rt of those who m isunderstand the true nature of “ leaf- disease,” and its relations to coffee, and Hemileia On the one hand, a confusion of ideas seems to exist w ith ixspect to the meanings of the terms employed, and, 011 the other, a difficulty in conceiving such large effects to he produced by such apparently email causes.

“ Leaf-disease ” is too frequently confounded with the parasite (Hemileia) which causes i t : a disease is an abnormal sta te or condition of the organism, and we are here concerned with a disease of th e leaves, caused by the lavages of a fungus.

“ Predisposition to infection ” implies th a t the tree m ust have undergone some profound in ternal change, before i t could he attacked by the fungus : not only does no cvidenc * exist to support this view, bu t healthy coffee is as easily infected as any other.

The coffee-plant or tree is a complex organism, and has a life of its own—a life w hich consists of the sum- to ta l of the lives of its cells, harmoniously working together K ill a few cells or leaves, and little harm is done to th e lea* or tree, because so m any more cells and leaves remain to carry on the w'ork ; hut, if many cells and leaves be destroyed a t frequent intervals, the whole tree suffers.

Hemileia thus injures the tree as a whole, by des­troying the tissues w hich prepare its organized food, robbing it of substance, and overthrowing the balance of its functions. Did th is occur bu t ouce, the tree would put out fresh leaves, rapidly form new food- materials out of the crude sap passing up from the roots &c., and repair the damage done : the continued repetition of th is damage, however, gives the tree too little tim e. New leaves m ast be formed ere much crop can be produced and supported, and if these also rapidly become destroyed, continual efforts to supply new f->liage make up the major pa rt of the tree’s duty, and the tax of bearing much crop is too severe.

The sap of the tree does not simply flow up and down in definite channels, as does the circulating blood in animals : nor may the sap of a tree be too closely compared w ith the blood of an animal. Much error arises from misconception on tbe<e points I t is not by pouring poisonous m atter into a circulating medium, nor is i t by merely tapping and drawing off fluids from the tree, th a t Hemileia does so much in ­ju ry : i t is in breaking down the little cells which m anufacture the essential food of the tree, and thus

producing lesions, and disturbances in the relation between th e cells &c., th a t so much direct harm is done. The whole is therefore injured by innumerable injuries to its harmoniously connected parts.

Those who imagine th a t m anure acts as “ a cure for leaf-disease” by rendering the contents of the tree up ilatable (so to speak) to the fungus, evidently misunderstand the nature of the “ disease” altogether ; while any who think th a t by thickening the skin or epidermis of the coffee-leaf the la tte r would be rendered impervious to the germinal tubes overlook the fact th a t these tubes enter the stom ata or “ breath- ing-porcs,” each of which is to such a body as a m oderate sized house door to a man, or an ordinary drain pipe to a snake W ith every hope th a t I have succeded in clearing up difficulties, and w ith apo­logies for occupying so much of your valuable space,— believe me, yours tru ly ,

H. M ARSHALL W ARD, Cryplogamist.

H E M IL E IA VASTAT1U X AND TH E “ COFFEE LEAF-DISEASE " IT SU PER IN D U C ES: IS TH ER E

BALM (VAPORIZED: IN F I J I?Mr. Marshall Ward, it will be observed, adheres to

the position that a gas-producing substance, to be effectual, must be applied so as to kill the spores before they enter the ever-open stomata or breathing mouths of tlie leaves. The fungus, once inside and spreading its myce­lium through the sap-cells, is, according to the* Crypto- ganiist, safe from attack. If the stomata do not contract after the entry of the fungus, we scarcely see wdiy the parasite should enjoy such complete immunity. Where a comparatively solid body entered, surely a subtle gas can follow. Mr. Sehrottky certainly asserts that, by his process, the fungus is prevented from, ripening its spores : killed inside the leaf, in fact. And why not, or why should a carbolate of lime, very weak in carbolic acid, applied to the foliage of a tree, do harm to its roots ? Human nature is human nature, even in a cryptogamist, and the manifest determination to hold that nothing good can come out of Mr. Schrottky's Nazareth reminds us (we hope Mr. Ward will not l>e shocked) of “ the Turk who can bear no brother near the throne.” W hat the planters of Ceylon desiderate is a cure for leaf disease in the shape of a destroyer of the germs which cause that disease, and, provided the desideratum is dis­covered, their gratitude and due reward will be bestowed on the discoverer, whether he is known to the world as Marshall Ward of England, Sehrottky of Germany, or Storck of far Fiji. The interesting and important letter from the latter gentleman, which reached us as we were writing our previous article on Mr. W ard’s com­munication, dwells on certain subsidiary questions, before proceeding to state the merits of his alleged c u r e b y

v a p o r i z a t i o n . We suppose there will be a universal con­sensus of opinion in favour of Mr. Storck’s argument that coffee planters in Ceylon would have done wisely had they more frequently and largely introduced seed from abroad: especially from Arabia or Abyssinia. But, while Mr. Storck’s premises are, on general grounds of scientific and sound culture, admitted to be correct, Mr. Marshall Ward has, beforehand, effectually disposed of the conclusion that to the general use of local seed, and trees weakened in consequence, is due the develop­ment of Ilemileia rastatri.r. Plants grown from im­ported seed may have great merits of their own, but

amongst those merits power to resist attacks of the insidious fungus spores cannot certainly be ranked. As regards grab eating coffee roots, we knew what that was long before Ilem ileia emerged from the obscurity of its jungle home. No doubt, the evil has not only been more observed, but has been far more prevalent and destructive since the advent of the leaf fungus. Few Ceylon planters, however, we believe, will be prepared to admit that increased prevalence of grab stands in the relation of consequence .to the external fungus as cause. Whether, on the other hand, root fungi predis­pose to attack from grub or not is a moot question. A local scientist, Mr. A. Dixon, holds that the grabs never attack healthy rootlets: the attraction to the poochies, he insists, is to be found in the fungi which infest diseased roots. There is one planter of standing, too, who once asked at a m eeting: “ Has any one ever seen a grab with roots in its mouth ? ” and Mr. Dixon holds that the mandibles of the grab are unequal to the task of eating coffee rootlets. The vast majority of the planters, however, have no doubt that the white grub feeds on the perfectly healthy rootlets of their coffee bushes. Personally, we long cherished the con­viction that insects ate only dead or dying vegetable m atter. But there was no resisting the accumulated facts hi the experience gained,of white ants by the tea planters of India and the cocoa planters of Ceylon, and, to come nearer home, what the coffee planters of Ceylon have suffered from the ravages of the grubs of cockchafers. Hemileia rastatrix by enfeebling the coffee trees may render them less able to go tln'ough a recuperative pro­cess after being attacked at the roots by g rab s; but the fungus is far less answerable for the grabs than Tenterden Steeple was for the accumulation of Good­win Sands. W hat joyful holidays should we have in Ceylon, if we but felt assured that really “ perfect cures” had simultaneously been discovered for the two destructive agencies which have so long been burning the caudle of life of the coffee bush a t both ends. Repeated and pain­ful disappointments in the past rerider us liable to the suspicion that such news is “ too good to be true.” Still we are inclined to “ hope for the best,” in regald to the operations directed againt the lives, vegetable and animal, of leaf fungus and root grab. The analogy of sugarcanes, which can be so easily changed, if disease, whether fungoid or insect, appears 011 them, scarcely holds go.od in regard to coffee, which could only be changed a t a ruinous expense;—with the doubt if the same soil could bear coffee a second time, and with the certainty that introduced coffees are as liable to attacks of the destructive fungus as that which has existed in Ceylon probably since the time of the Muhammadan voyagers from Suez and Aden. The result of our ob­servation and enquiries during a recent visit to the rapidly rising sugar district of Mackay in Northern Queensland was the conviction that whatever effect continued pro­pagation from the same kind of cane might have in aggravating the effects of rust or insect blight, the varie­ties. of cane, which are numerous to bewilderment, differ essentially in their liability to, or immunity from, attack. The young industry, which was nearly snuffed out by “ a red rust fungus ” in 1805, has now quite revived under the process of importing canes from all parts of the world,—from places so far apart as the islands of

the South Pacific and the Antilles of the far W est,— and growing those which experience has proved to be the best as disease-resisters and saccharine-juice-yielders. Amongst the worst, from its liability to disease, is the pale, soft, succulent “ B ourbon” ; amongst the best is the more slender and less succulent “ Rose bamboo.” Arguments, therefore, which apply with more or less force to sugar culture must be received with large quali­fication when the hard-wooded perennial coffee is in question. Of one thing there can be no doub t: both plants benefit largely by Aipious applications of lime, and were this substance available in large quantities at a cheap rate, and could it also be cheaply applied in its caustic state to the fungus-infested coffee of Ceylon, we could soon afford to laugh at leaf-disease, Hemileia being relegated with a specially heart)' ha ! ha ! to the limbo of rare herbarium specimens. We have seen some warn­ings about the too free use of lime with reference to its effects on certain soils. But we should really like to see the coffee estate in Ceylon, the soil of which, as well as the plants, would not be benefited by a ton per acre per annum, dusted over the trees a t frequent in­tervals and ultimately affecting fallen leaves, primings, buried weeds and the soil. The latter is, over the vast proportion of the coffee-growing region, not essentially infertile, but in a state to yield up far less of its fer­tility than is desirable because f>f the over-prevalence of clay, that clay being in a bad mechanical condition because of the paucity of lime. We only wish some of our planters were able to try the experiment of how much lime dusted on the trees to destroy the fungus would be necessary before the soil was affected injuri­ously instead of beneficially. We are quite at one with Mr. Storck as to the value he places on caustic lime, the real limit to the use of which cure for leaf disease and soil imperfection is its cost in purchase, carriage and application. The cost of sufficiently copious and sufficiently frequent applications of lime being in the majority of cases prohibitory, most fervently do we hope that Mr. Storck’s vapour cure may turn out as great a success as he “ predicts” it will. The vast proportion of the substances required to produce vapour which will kill Hemileia, even when the parasite is inside the leaf, without injuring the tenderest leaf or the softest flower, exists, Mr. Storck tells us, on estates, and Mr. Filling- ham Pair states that the estimate of £2 an acre for the first year, vapour being constant, is too high instead of too low. But what planter would grudge £2 per acre for the first year and £1 per acre for a few succeeding years, if he felt certain that the result would be so to banish spores of the fatal fungus, as to enable him to follow Mr. Storck’s advice by applying organic manures, weeds, primings, Ac., to his coflee, without the disheart­ening conviction that he was fertilizing the fungus as much as the bushes it preyed on. We only wish that Mr. Storck, instead of “ predicting” what his automatic (self-acting) vapour machines, operating constantly from centres over circumferences, will do for Ceylon, had been able to tell us that as a m atter of fact and history lie had succeeded in freeing Fiji from a pest introduced* not by seed-coffee from Ceylon (Mr. Morris insisted that seed would not carry living spores) but by plants im­prudently imported. Mr. W. F. Parr, a former Ceylon planter, no doubt speaks of Mr. Storck’s process as an

I undoubted success. But in asking for the protection of | a patent, or an adequate money reward in Ceylon, Mr. j Storck’s case would have been enormously strengthened ; had he been enabled to adduce the united testimony of ■ the planters of Fiji, that the vapour had banished the j fungus from the limited coflee culture of the archipelago, I as effectually as St. Patrick banished the “ varmint ”I (if he did banish them, which recent events make us j doubt) from Ireland. The old adage that a prophet j has no honour in his own country does not seem to

apply to Mr. Storck, but probably in Fiji, as here he j would like to be sure of his reward before he lets the

public into the secret of all his processes. We suspect there is nothing for it, however, but trials sufficient to demonstrate perfect success, and then trusting to Govern-

; ment and the planters for remuneration. I t will not , be forgotten that Mr. George Wall gave a full trial to ! vaporization as a cure for the fungus, and that it failed.1 The use of multitudinous tins was expensive and the

vapour did not fully and equally affect the foliage of ! the plants. From the use of the term “ automatic,” i are we justified in inferring that besides being driven | hither and thither by winds, the vapour from Mr. Storck’s

centres is mechanically driven outwards and upwards I from those centres, so as to reach and effect every por- ! tion of every tree and every leaf of the foliage ? As i one average man can attend to 50 acres (only four for

an average estate of 200 acres!) the automatic machines (Mr. W. F. Parr uses the term “ tins ”) can be neither very numerous nor very complicated. The substances most abundant on estates, apart from varieties of soils and manures, are leaves, prunings and weeds, and we should have suspected that Mr. Storck combined in­cineration with vaporization, but for his denunciation of any movement of leaves and twigs. They are to be treated with lime in situ and then forked into the soil. We do not quite understand why Mr. Storck thought it necessary to state, what is so obvious, that the larger thq area treated by his vapour the better, while the statement that an adjoining estate however badly affected by the fungus cannot infect one which has been vapor­ized is more satisfactory than clear. Amongst the sub­sidiary subjects treated by Mr. Storck is that of possible improvement in the bearing powers of coffee by resort­ing to cross-fertilization. We should be glad to know if any experiments in this direction have been tried in Ceylon, and with what resnlt?

We observe that the Planters’ Association of Ceylon has declined to offer any reward in the present phase of the alleged cure. But if Mr. Storck comes here, and under all possible conditions just to himself and yet permitting certain evidence of the success of his system, converts his prediction into absolute fact, we feel we can safely assure him that neither cordial gratitude nor liberal reward will be wanting.

i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

i (7To the Editor o f the “ Ceylon Observer,”)| H E M IL E IA VASTATRIX ; A COUNTERBLAST

FROM F IJ I .Levuka, 3rd November 1881.

i Sir ,—I suggested to Mr. Storck th a t he should ; write you a few rem arks about his newly-discovered

cure for leaf-disease, and he forwards th e enclosed,: which I send on to you a t once, instead of returning

them to him for correction and amendment. I wrote by last mail to my agent in Colombo respecting Mr. Storck obtaining protection from Government for his* rem edy; or, for a certain sum, he would transfer the cure to them. My own opinion is th a t Mr. Storck* over-estimates expenses a t £ 2 per acre, as it chiefly depends on the price the tin vessels can be made for in England, I feel very pleased to th ink th a t the honour of discovering this remedy should have been reserved for a Fijian se ttle r.—Your obedient servant,

WM. FILLIN G H A M PARR.

Upper Rewa, Fiji, October 20th, 1881.Si r ,—In several of the later issues of the Observer

and the Tropical Agriculturist. I notice a contro­versy upon the advisability of gathering up and de­stroying the dead and dying coffee leaves falling in showers after an attack of leaf-disease. I t strikes me, and indeed Mr. W ard’s own showing bears me out, th a t the ground is the best place for such leaves. J u s t imagine a g%pg of coolies raking and brushing up a mass of such foliage covered with sppres, dead and alive, and how it m ust make them fly. Any one wishing to diligently and mischievously propagate the fungus could do no better, not even t.iking into ac­count the difficulty and expense of the task. Those leaves should be disturbed as little as possible, not even by the foot of a passing laborer. But if you do w ant to do anything to them, give them a liberal dusting, of which the trees will get their shar-, of good, active lime in dry breezy weather, about once in 14 days during the period of the leaf shower. Let all lie until they are quite black and de-id; then fork them in, aud you will find an abatem ent of leaf-disease for a twelvemonth on a field so treated. The empty shell of a spore is quite as dead and harmless under the ground as th a t ' of any other seed. Nor is there any fear of the formation of nidus of th a t fungus below the ground, as some of your correspondents se*-m to apprehend, because the fungus cannot live there in any of its conditions. I th ink the value of lime, as a disinfectant against Hemilia vastatrix, is not nearly enough appreciated. I ts effects as a mitigant of th a t pest are far more im portant than it is generally credited with, and although a compulsory expense, its application serves a double purpose. I have by systematical application entirely and lastingly cured a considerable number of coffee trees, with nothing but pure lime.

I was much pleased to see several of your corre­spondents take a rational view of the manner in which the Ceylon plantation coffee p lant lias deteriorated in physical condition, to which fact the origin of leaf- disease may yet be traced. Only to mention the barbarous proceeding of using seed from maiden crops, and from the immediate vicinity for scores of years in succession. Tropical plants will far sooner show a deterioration of species by indiscreet propagation than those of the tem perate zone-, wheie over-production tnd reckless propagation have already shown such dire effects among the fruits and vines of Europe. I t is well known to gardeners th a t successive pro­pagation by cuttings from cuttings and grafts from grafts weakens the specific hardiness of any plant, which is to be noticed in their produce, w hether flowers or fruit. Although the a rt of grafting is very old, i t has not been very extensively prac­tised for purposes of systematical propagation (m ulti­plication) of any given and previously approved variety of fruit un til some 200 years ago. B ut some quarter of a century back many of the most intelligent fru it­growers of Europe, gardeners and amateurs, became alive to the fact th a t many of the once standard household varieties of apples and pears showed un ­mistakable signs of deterioration, both in tl^eir I

164

physical appearance, and in the size and flavor of their fruit. So far, no epidemic has shown itself among th a t class of fruit, bu t let us look a t the vines of the south of Europe. There are varieties grown there, which have been steadily propagated by cuttings since the days of Charlemagne, or, perhaps, the Romans, and what is the consequence ? Both fuugi and insect pests are combining to accomplish the extermination of tlie very species. Similar pheno­mena are already noticeable among the native eugar- canes of th is young colony, after a course of carelessly conducted propagation by the whites of some six years only, from tops, persisted in after repeated warnings from the w riter of this.

W hat I have said above on the pernicious effects of reckless propagation from cuttings and grafts, applies equally to th a t by seeds, and m e indiscriminate pro­pagation by seeds of the coffee-plant in Ceylon is th e less excusable, as her planters have every opportunity of renewing their seed from the coffee-growing countries around them, as well as from the very cradle of the coffee tree Jtself—Arabia and Abyssinia, i have re­peatedly, in Ceylon paper?, m et with the statem ent th a t plants raised from Ceylon seed are more subject to, and less able to stand the attacks of the fungus, than those raised from foreign seed, which is very probable, for Ceylon leaf-disease is of longest standing, and debilitation of the p lant i t preys on, is therefore more pronounced in its ̂fleets, than in countries where the habilitation of the fungus is of more recent date. The deterioration of the seed is only a natural conse­quence of th a t of the m other p la n t; seeds are imper­fectly nourished and often recklessly sown. A coffee- soed, as most other seeds, should always undergo a short period of slow and natural desiccation. I t should be shrunk before it is sown, when this partial desic­cation will not only be harmless, bu t will prove a stim ulant to germination, very much in the same way and for the same reasons as with bulbs, tubers and even the live plants of some classes the banana for instance Plants grown from such seed will bo less succulent and hardier than those grown from green seed fresh from the tree.

I would be glad to know a little more of the ro tting of the rootlets aud the grubs e tc ., of which 1 read so many complain s. D.d you have grub or damage w ith you, before leaf-disease became general ? I t would appear to me th a t there is some connection . in all th is :—th a t the rotting rootlets are tbe natural consequence of a disturbance (stagnation and partial fermentation) of the sap of the trees during and immediately after an a ttack of fungus, and fall of leaves, causing^ a reaction upon the roots, which ro t­ting would in th a t condition be a feast for a>y kind Of grub.' On the question of self fertilization, I do not know

quite w hat to think. A coffee field in full blossom, and in fairly good weather, should certainly, of all places, offer the most favorable conditions for crop-fecunda- tion. But, to judge from the anatomy of the flower, aud the short period within which fertilization must take place, I should say th a t i t is intended for direct— i.e. self-fertilization. To make sure of crop-fecuncla- tion, by way of experiments, it would have to be brought about by artificial m eans: for instance, by catting off a well-set branffi of flowers, and carrying i t from tree to tree, tapping, and shaking it over and around each. The effects of this, if at y, would very likely show themselves in a heavier <rop than th a t borne by other trees left to themselves. They would probably tend towards the production of strange seeds and plants . certainly not the contrary.

As to whether germs or mycelia of fungi infest the embryoee of any seed, I consider an idle speculation for the purposes of the planter. A seed may suffer in condition indirectly through the effects of a fungus

on the m other plant, but, however far the juices of a suffering p lant may be vitiated, I do not see how such a condition could take place. The theory reads to 'he plain observer of nature something like a sensational novel to the lover of standard literature : i t is overstrained and artificial. P lenty of Ceylon coffee seed has been sown in this country a few years past, but none of the offspring ever suffered from Hemileia vastratrix until i t was bodily imported on live coffee plants.

For more than two years now I have been a close observer of Hemileia vastatrix, and have proved th a t whatever superstitions of its wonderful powers of dissemination aud vitality may be abroad it does neither infest the soil nor the air in any other mannerthan other seeds, w ith superior means of traversingthe air, and thereby widening the zone of their geo­graphical distribution. As regards its vitality upon the surface of the soil or other uncongenial bodies, th a t Is determined by the time it takes for germination,and finding food for the germ in a coffee leaf. Inthe absence of th a t i t m ust as surely• D TE as any other seed germinating under conditions adverse to vegetation. The circumstance of spores of Hemileia vastatrix having lived and germinated after being kept for two years in a le tter has surrounded i t with a spectral halo of i m ortality which has made many despair of a successful treatm ent. I have known the spores of ferns under parallel conditions, i. e. kept in dry paper between the sheets of herbarium, germinate readily after more than 20 years from the tim e of collection. I have seen stumps of old coffee trees, that were left after the destruction of afie ld tho oughly infected with Hemileia vastatrix, sprout again and grow apace f ee from it, because, being old and sluggish of growth, th e fungus had actually died a natural death, before i t could find a home in the new growth made by those stumps.

My first attack upon it was made by direct applica­tion, on the principle of exhausting the spores con­tained in the tissue of the leaf by killing them as they come out. I succeeded in this with all (some ,10) the trees, applying moderately caustic lime only, after about eight weeks of daily applications. They are the same batch ot trees that were spoken of in the Observer, and continued clean for (most of them to this day) a twelvemonth, when some of them were accidentally reinfected by a gang of Fijian labourers from the Upper River. The result proved to my satis­faction th a t a thorough and lasting cure was possible. A t the same time, I became aware th a t th is or any m ethod of manual (direct) application was too laborious, even though weekly applications only would perhaps have answered the same purpose. I t is open to failure through interruptions by stress of weather and the negligence of labourers, and every in terrup­tion would of necessity mean the whole work over again. W hilst working a t and watching the effects of this experiment, I bad been thinking of a method of vaporization, which could be made autom atic and permanent. The principle suggested itself to me partly though Mr. M orris’ more recent sulphur and lime treatm ent, and through w hat I had seen prac­tised when a younger man a t home, bu t under the shelter and confinemet of glass-roofs. B ut the prob­lem to be solved was : how to adapt the system to the open field. The outcome of my cogitations and experiments is my

Method o f Permanent Vaporization, which I hereby recommend to the planters of Ceylon and all othr coffee, growing countries suffering from Hemileia vastatrix. The chief features of the system are :—

(1) The greatest simplicity.t2) The greatest economy of material and labour(3) The most perfect control.(4) Complete isolation of m aterial from soil & plants.

(5) Unparalleled cheapness.(6) Absolute and unconditional exemption from

’ leaf-disease.(7) The larger" the area treated the better.An average man can a ttend to fifty acres a week

or more, and the bulk of the material is to be found on every estate, meaning a saving of 90 per cent in cariiage, as compared with th a t of th e materials h itherto used against the fungus.

The cost of the first year’s treatm ent will not ex­ceed £2 per acre, and th a t of any subsequent year be less than £1. The centres of vaporization in the field have to be supplied once a week, and the trea t­m ent may be started a t any time, whether leaf- diseas- be visibly present iu a field or not, w ith equal advantage. In the la tter event, 4 weeks of theapplication w ill brim; out every pinspot in the field,k ill them, and save the greater pa rt of the foliage. If, on the other hand, the fungus in a field be in full vigour, you will notice the action of the specific in the following manner :—Three or (our days after s ta r t­ing the treatm ent, the spores will show a change in color from bright orange to dull ochre, un til they tu rn from d irty yellow to greyish white. They all, if stead of dispersing, stick to the leaves un til they vanish from sight. In the second mouth, all ru st coming out begins to look dull in color and sickly ; many rust patches begin to show pale rings round them, in ­dicating the lim its of the mycelium, where its farther form ation has been arresied. After the second month, a large proportion of the spots have white rings round a yellowish centre, as if drying up in the m iddle; sometimes they push out a few sickly spores, bu toftencr noi^e a t all. The spots then tu rn into drytissue, and, unless the leaves had been too thickly charged with fungus, they remain on the trees. Thence­forth a little d irty rust may still appear, bu t the presence of the fungus will be chiefly indicated by dead and dying mycelia un til i t vanishes altogether. By this tim e a field of fairly vigorous trees will have recovered its full coat, or nearly so, of foliage, which under the permanent treatm ent remains clean.

In speaking of my lime treatm ent on the principle of exhaustion, I mentioned eight weeks as the time required for all the spores to come out from first to last, but, in giving the duration of my new process as of three months or more. I speak advisedly, since the I wo treatm ents are essentially different in their action. By outward and direct application, the spores are only killed as they make their appearance ; th a t means the spores are all fully developed before acted upon, and therefore the leaves have to empty their tissue of all particles of the fungus, which takes from 7 to 10 weeks, according to the weather. The effects of vaporization are quite different, inasmuch as the vapor is inhaled through the breathing organs of the leaves, and so brought into immediate and deadly contact with the mycelia lodged in the cuticle ; sickens and weakens them ; and thereby retards and finally arrests th e ir development, according to the differ­ent age and strength of the pinspots. A ll theleaves which bud and form after the establish­ment of m y system will mature free of fungus,and, under its permanent influence, m ust remain so, no m atter how th ick the fungus may be in the next adjoining field for want of treatm ent, thereby securing to any one employing i t the full benefit of his outlay. My method establishes a deadly enemy to Hemi­leia vastatrix, all pervading, ever-present,—nothing can escape it, nor is failure possible, except through the grossest mismanagement or w ilful1 neglect of one operator, who may have as much control over theprocess as i t is possible to have of anything. N ot anyp art of the p lant is injuriously affected through i t : n e t even the tenderest flower bud or young leaf.

I have two Liberian trees to show : one among a cluster of tive, the other in a batch of forty some distance off, which were infected a t the same tim e as the nursery was. Through my treatm ent I com­pletely isolated them from their neighbours, and con­fined the disease to those two individuals. Not a single spore reached the other trees alive, and none of them were infected. The nursery containing some300,000 nine m onth old plants, had a very bad se­condary attack, and although the treatm ent was car­ried out under the most unfavourable conditions, be­cause on so small an area the vapors m ust of necessity be very diffuse, i t was entirely successful : whilston a small area the vapors depart in all directions, a large field would have the benefit of every breeze and air carrying the vapors through it in waves, and by turns in every direction.W herever my method of permanent vaporization will have become general in a district, I venture to predict that, afte r a twelvemonth, the chances of reinfection will be so far rarefied, th a t the treatm ent may be safely discontinued and only taken up again for a few months, in the event of local reinfection, from the selfsown coffee in the forest, a native garden patch, or through the intercourse of travel by accid­ent from a distance. Your planters should endeavor to eradicate all sources of reinfection outside of the areas under regular cultivation. In the event of such reinfection, treatm ent m ust again be started at once, so as to prevent infection becoming secondary and general. One day will suffice to re-establish treatm ent over the largest estate.

Im m unity from leaf-disease will perm it planters to think of improved cultivation, and I would suggest the employment of organic manures chiefly, and the utilization of every scrap of primings and other refuse from the coffee tree, as well as all vegetable rubbish in particular.—I remain, sir, yours obediently,

JACOB P. STORCK.

“ G E R M S” AND DISEASE IN PLANTS.(Gardeners’ Chronicle, 5th November 1881.)

In our last issue, we alluded at some length to the action of “ Germ s” in producing certain forms of disease in animals and plants. We showed how modem investi­gation had sufficed not only to detect the germs, but even to isolate them and grow7 them under artificial con­ditions. The existence of these organisms has, of course, been known from the time people began to use the microscope; but it is only lately that it has been proved that they are not the mere accompaniments of disease and decay, but, in some cases at least, the actual cause. This has been proved by isolating the germs, cultivat­ing them, and inoculating healthy animals with them, as detailed in our last number. Introduce these organ­isms, and disease and decay set in ; prevent their in­gress or destroy them by carbolic acid or other germ destroyer, and no disease is produced. Already, in the case of animals, the practical results of these discoveries may be called enormous, and the prospects for the future are even more hopeful. We refer to the subject again, because, since writing our remarks, some papers of Professor Burrill have come under our notice, in which the author shows that the “ blight ” in pear and apple trees and the “ yellows” of the peach owe their origin to the presence of bacteria. We have ourselves noticed the occasional presence of “ micrococci” in cankered apples, but we had looked upon their presence more in the light of a coincidence than a cause. W ith Professor BurrilTs papers before us, however, we wrould urge those who have the requisite leisure to investigate this m atter for themselves. According to Professor BurrilTs state­ments he finds bacteria in the drops of whitish viscid fluid found oozing from the bark of diseased apple and pear trees. At the same time the cells of the bark,

which should be full of starch, are nearly void of that reserve of nutriment. The bacteria are found, as we understand it, actually in the cells, but how they gain access to the interior is not made out. Inoculation of previously healthy trees was practised in a great num­ber of instances, the disease being thus reproduced in a large percentage of cases, but not invariably Actual inoculation by means of a needle charged with the virus, as in the case of vaccine lymph, is necessary, or the transfer of a portion of infected bark, as in the opera­tion of budding are requisite, as it seems that the mere deposit of the virus by means of a brush upon the leaves is inefficacious. The progress of the disease is very uncertain and irregular, but always slow, no change being visible for nine or ten days. The chemical changes produced are the giving off of carbonic acid gas and the formation of butyric acid. In the Lombardy Poplar these ferment-producing agents follow the attacks of the wood- boring beetles, and complete the destruction set up by them.

Such in brief outline are the results obtained by Prof. Burrill. We do not know by actual observation what the “ fire blight ” of the pear and the “ twig blight ” of the American apple are, and what relation they bear to the canker and other diseases of our fruit trees, hut we have said enough we hope to induce those with the requisite leisure and competence to investigate these matters for themselves. I t may be requisite to point out that some only-—not all such diseases—are likely to be caused by these organisms, that the presence of bacteria, inicrococci, and the like need not necessarily cause diseased action, for assuredly they often occur ivhere no ill effect is perceptible. Their presence is readily detected by the microscopist, but to prove that they are the actual cause of the disease requires pro­longed careful experiments directly to prove and indi­rectly to show that no other cause is sufficient. Should it turn out—as we strongly suspect it will—that some forms of canker arc due to these organisms, we may have a chance of combating the malady by cutting away and destroying the affected branches, and by the free use of carbolic acid as a poison to the germs.

A trial might be made of this substance at once, for in any case it would be as efficacious as any other remedy, and there is the probability that it may prove much more so. Practical, points to be home in mind are to take care not to take grafts from an affected tree, and not to use the same knife for pruning healthy trees as has been used for those that are in any way diseased. Who knows but that the explanation of the facts attributed by some to xvearing out and degenera­tion of particular varieties may really be due to the disse­mination of disease by means of the knife and pruning-saw.

The whole subject demands the most careful examina­tion—practical men are too busy; few of us, indeed, have the requisite leisure, and unfortunately at present we have no schools of gardening or forestry, no experi­mental botanic gardens where such experiments could be undertaken by competent persons. Some day, perhaps, we shall be wiser. At present not only the Americans but the Germans and the Belgians, and to some extent the French, give ns the go-by in these matters, to our certain loss in the future.

F i j i : T h e C o f f e e - l e a f D i s e a s e .—W ith reference to the cure described by Mr. Jacob P. Storck, Upper Rewa, in the F iji Times of 6th August, the Gardeners’ Chronicle says:—“ We should be glad to have the testimony of some disinterested person on this matter, and some fur­ther explanation of the method adopted.—E d s .

C o c k r o a c h e s . —We would recommend O. Orpet, Ciren­cester, to prepare a mixture of oatmeal and plaster of Paris in equal quantities with sufficient water to make it adhere, dropping it in small quantities in different parts of the floor or stokehole, where the cockroaches frequent. We believe with this method he will soon relieve himself of this disagreeable pest.— H a r r i s o n & S o n s , Leicester.—Ibid.

VEGETABLES FOR TH E TROPICS.(From Sutton's Tropical Garden Guide.)

( Continued from page 540.)T o m a t o (Lycopersicum esculentum).

Sow in October in seedpans, and transplant on any spare piece of ground. Fruit becomes ripe in February. No great care or attention is required for this plant, as it grows almost like a weed.

T u r n i p (Brassica Rapa).I t is not desirable to sow Turnips until the middle

of October. The seed may either be sown broadcast or in drills, but in either case the land should previously have been well trenched, and care should be taken that if the seedlings come up too thickly they are thinned out as soon as possible. Eventually, when well estab­lished, hoe out to 1 foot distance between the plants.

V e g e t a b l e M a r b o w (Cuenrbita esculenta).Cultivation same as for Pumpkin.

ENGLISH ANNUAL FLOWERS.There is nothing more calculated to recall pleasant

home memories and early associations than the sight of these flowers in the tropical garden. Though shortlived, their variety is so great and their beauty so engaging, that now the great difficulty of transit is overcome, Annuals may brighten every foreign garden. Some amount of care and trouble is doubtless necessary to ensure success, but attention to a few guiding principles will avoid much disappointment. A few remarks as to the times when seeds should be sown in India are neces­sary. In Bengal do not sow before the rains are well over. In the Upper Provinces, on the contrary, it is often well to sow' much earlier to ensure good growth before the cold weather. In Bengal Asters, Cinerarias, and Salpiglossis should be sown very early, or they will not flower before the following hot season. Some of the quicker growing varieties, as Nemophila, Larkspur, and Virginian Stock, should not he sown before No­vember.

M o d e o f S o w i n g .

Sow the seeds in pots or pans, or in a seed gumlah supported on an empty flower pot standing in a pan of water, hi a compost of leaf mould and sand. Be care­ful hot to bury the seed too deeply under the soil. Keep shaded but give plenty of light and air, and at night when the weather is favourable stand the pans out in the open. Of course where pots and pans are not to be had, the seeds should be sown in the open ground in a shady but airy place. When sown in the open ground great care must be taken to protect the tender seedlings from the scorching rays of the sun and from rough weather a t night. To effect this make a covering of Loogla on a bamboo frame about 3 feet from the ground. The red ants commit such ravages that it is useless to sow sparingly in the open ground. On the other hand, those seedlings which survive are far liealthief and stronger than those raised in pots.

T r a n s p l a n t i n g .

We would recommend the transplanting of" all varieties | such as Mimulns, Aster, Cineraria, Balsam, Ac., but I those which delight in a dry sandy soil, as for instance Lupins, Portulaca, Poppy, Eschscholtzia, Mignonette, &c., are often irrevocably injured by the process. For some of those which will not bear transplanting and yet require some sort of protection at first, the follow­ing plan is recommended:—At the spot where the seed is to be sown scoop out the earth of the border and throw in some old leaf mould to mix with it, draw a cicular drill of 6 or 8 inches in diameter, and from J to 1 inch deep. Cover lightly with moist soil, place a flower-pot inverted over them, and let it remain until the seeds begin to germinate. The pot should then be propped up on one side 2 or 3 inches high until the plants are able to bear exposure.

Annuals sown on the border require daily watering, and the morning should be chosen in preference to any other period of the day.

One of the greatest pests of a tropical garden is the ant. Every care should be taken to prevent the ravages of these insects, or they will destroy the young seedlings as they appear above ground, and often cat the seeds before they germinate. The result of this is not only disappointment to the purchaser, but is frequently the cause of complaint to the seedsman, who is charged with supplying bad seed. A saucer of sweet oil is an irre­sistible bait to them, into wliich they will rush and kill themselves. Captain Weston says :—

‘ The usual way of getting rid of the red ant is, I believe, by powdered turmeric or haldee. I however found a plan my malee had last year more successful. When the seeds were sown, a cocoanut with the kernel in it was cut in halves and laid near the seeds; the ants flocked to it, and when it was full of them it was immersed in hot water. The nuts were watched during the day, and in three days no more made their appear­ance. A few days after they made their appearance again, when they were treated in the same way aud again similarly disposed of. My plan when I find a nest of red ants is to band the spot round with clay and pom-' in boiling water, and I have found it efficient in the destruction of the red ants.’

FLOW ER SEEDS.A b b o n i a .

A very pretty trailing annual, with heads of flowers resembling the Verbena. Sow in October to bloom in February.

A c b o c l i n i u m .Highly ornamental, producing large everlasting flowers.

Sow in October, and transplant to the open border.A g e r a t u m .

A very attractive annual, either for bedding purposes or for planting singly in the border. Sow in August, prick out singly, into pots, and transplant to the open ground in October.

A l o n s o a .A small showy annual, with bright scarlet flowers.

Sow in October.A l y s s u m .

A pretty dwarf annual, more valuable for its delicious fragrance than for any special showiness in colour. Sow patches in the borders during October, to bloom the middle of December.

A m a r a x t h u s .Very handsome and ornamental. A few groups placed

at intervals along a border produce a good effect. Sow in July.

A n t i r r h i n u m ( S n a p d r a g o n .)A beautiful and well-known flower. Sow in October.

The plants will generally bloom the same season as sown, but it is better to keep them over till the next cold season and replant in good soil.

A s t e r .The Aster is one of the finest garden flowers, and is

of easy cultivation. Sow on a bed of fine rich mould, or in a pot, any time from May till November. When a few inches high transplant carefully to where they are intended to flower, about 8 inches apart, the tallestkinds in the centre of the bed.

B a l s a m .This is one of the finest annuals, and is a native of

India. Imported seed produces flowers much like large Camellias, but native seedlings should be destroyed, as not at all equal to plants from a carefully selected stock. Sow in the early part of September, as plantsfrom seed sown in July or October do not thrive halfso well—the rain injuring the plants in the former case, and the cold in the latter.

(To be Continued.)