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The Age of Reason and Enlightenment. Rationalism. The belief that one can arrive at the truth by using one’s reason rather than relying on authority of the past religious faith institutions. Rationalism began in Europe. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Rationalism
• The belief that one can arrive The belief that one can arrive at the truth by using one’s at the truth by using one’s reason rather than relying on reason rather than relying on – authority of the pastauthority of the past– religious faithreligious faith– institutionsinstitutions
Rationalism began in Europe
with the great rationalist with the great rationalist philosophers and scientists. Some of philosophers and scientists. Some of whom were:whom were:
• 1543--Nicolas Copernicus:1543--Nicolas Copernicus:Rethinks our place in the solar Rethinks our place in the solar systemsystem
• 1642-1727--Sir Isaac Newton:1642-1727--Sir Isaac Newton:Discovers the laws of gravityDiscovers the laws of gravity
• 1637--Rene Descartes:1637--Rene Descartes:“I think therefore I am.” “I think therefore I am.”
• 1632-17041632-1704 – John Locke: – John Locke: “the right to Life, Liberty and “the right to Life, Liberty and Property”Property”
•During the Middle Ages, people and the Church thought that the
Earth was the center of the universe
•They thought that God purposely placed the Earth at
the center of the universe•Nicolaus Copernicus changed this
old view of the universe•He figured out that the Sun is the
center of the universe (heliocentric), and that the earth and all other planets
revolve around the sun
If Copernicus is right –The Church must be
wrong
Hello, I am Copernicus. Why was my new idea a problem?
• If the Church is proven wrong on this issue – people might question all Church Teaching – even the authority of the Church itself!
•(It was panic thinking)
My name is Galileo Galilei. I was fascinated by the
planets, just like Copernicus. I
developed a telescope, and saw that Copernicus was
right!
It is the year 1633 and the Italian scientist, Galileo Galilei faces a life or death dilemma!
The Catholic court put him on trial because the idea that the earth revolves around the sun was dangerous to the Catholic
Church!
•He had to either deny his ideas, or be put to death! If he denied the ideas of Copernicus, the church would punish him, but not put him to death.•What do you think Galileo did? What
would you do?
•Galileo said that he denies what Copernicus taught. In court, he
stated:“With sincere heart, I detest the errors of Copernicus and every other error contrary to the holy
church”.*** Was Galileo lying or telling the truth?
•Galileo was not put to death, but he was never a free man again.
In 1992, Pope John Paul II officially acknowledged that Galileo was right
about the earth revolving around the sun. The Pope concluded that church leaders were wrong to put
Galileo on trial. The Pope also said that the church at the time was
acting in good faith and was only working within the knowledge of
their own time.
It’s interesting that …
The Age of Reason emphasised:
• reason over the imaginationreason over the imagination• the social over the personalthe social over the personal• the common interest over the the common interest over the
individualindividual• Reason is the dominating Reason is the dominating
characteristiccharacteristic both of nature both of nature and human natureand human nature
• nature is governed by fixed, nature is governed by fixed, unchanging lawsunchanging laws
Age of Reason• Growth of rational scienceGrowth of rational science• Culture venerates rationality, Culture venerates rationality,
consciousnessconsciousness• Represents educated (white, male) Represents educated (white, male)
mind asmind as– rational, scientific, critical, rational, scientific, critical,
objectiveobjective• Others (women, non-white) Others (women, non-white)
represented asrepresented as– irrational, emotional, irrational, emotional,
superstitious, corporealsuperstitious, corporeal• Dualism is a basis of much Western Dualism is a basis of much Western
thoughtthought
Impact of the Age of Reasonon the Church
• It was the first widely-read, It was the first widely-read, systematic attacks on concept systematic attacks on concept of religion in the westof religion in the west
• Tension between faith & Tension between faith & reasonreason
• Some ridiculed religion & Some ridiculed religion & miraclesmiracles
• Some saw religion as the root Some saw religion as the root of all evilof all evil
Religion and the Rational Mind
• DEISMDEISM
“God makes it possible for all “God makes it possible for all people at all times to discover people at all times to discover natural laws through the God-natural laws through the God-given faculty of reason.”given faculty of reason.”
Benjamin Benjamin FranklinFranklin
The deists
• The largest movement among The largest movement among philosophesphilosophes
• Believed only those Christian Believed only those Christian doctrines which met the test of doctrines which met the test of reasonreason– Denied miracles, Denied miracles,
Resurrection, original sin, Resurrection, original sin, divine revelation (Bible)divine revelation (Bible)
The deists & God
• God as “great clockmaker”God as “great clockmaker”– Non-participatory after the Non-participatory after the
CreationCreation– So no purpose to prayer!So no purpose to prayer!
• Christ as a great moral teacherChrist as a great moral teacher– But not the Son of God!But not the Son of God!
Influence on Social thought
• The guiding principles:The guiding principles:– Reason can find eternal laws Reason can find eternal laws
governing human governing human relationships.relationships.
– Injustice is the result of our Injustice is the result of our ignorance of these laws.ignorance of these laws.
• UtilitarianismUtilitarianism– Jeremy Bentham (d. 1832)Jeremy Bentham (d. 1832)
““The greatest good for the The greatest good for the greatest number of people”greatest number of people”
Rene DescartesRene Descartes““Stay-in-Bed Scholar”Stay-in-Bed Scholar”
““Gentleman, Soldier, and Gentleman, Soldier, and Mathematician” Mathematician”
Born on March 31, 1596Born on March 31, 1596
Died on February 11, 1650Died on February 11, 1650
Childhood
• As a child was very weak and was As a child was very weak and was always sick. always sick.
• He had been picked on by bullies He had been picked on by bullies for it.for it.
• He was inspired to do math by his He was inspired to do math by his mother.mother.
• Little did he know he would be Little did he know he would be affected by not doing math as a affected by not doing math as a child.child.
Accomplishments
• He graduated from the He graduated from the University of Poitiers.University of Poitiers.
• He changed math by He changed math by discovering the X and Y axis.discovering the X and Y axis.
• He wrote the book He wrote the book SEEKING SEEKING THE TRUTH IN THE SCIENCES.THE TRUTH IN THE SCIENCES. (1637)(1637)
• Descartes did not revise Descartes did not revise geometry; he created it.geometry; he created it.
•Descartes was a scientist, mathematician and philosopher
•He used a lot of logic in his findings
•He came up with a quote:
•He doubted everything in life, unless it was proven by reason
•The only thing he was sure of and that he felt he could prove, was his existence.
I think, therefore,
I am
Rene Descartes (Cartesian Dualism)
• “I think therefore I am”– Body and mind are separate
• body takes up space• mind occupies no space
– Justifies other dualisms:• People vs. Nature• Culture vs. Nature• Mind vs. Body
Descartes
• Venerates the rational mind– vs. bodily urges
• Body and universe– become a machine– something to be
mapped, explored, dissected by rational science
Newton was another important scientist from the scientific
revolution.
This law said that all motion was
controlled by the same force.
I discovered the lawof gravity!
Isaac NewtonIsaac Newton
• 1642 to 1727;• Lived during the last European
plagues, the Baroque period in music, and the beginning of the Age of Reason.
• Thinkers who came after saw Newton’s Laws as a description of a Mechanical Universe.
Newton’s First Law of Motion:
• An object in motion in a An object in motion in a straight line at a constant straight line at a constant speed (or at rest) stays in speed (or at rest) stays in motion in a straight line and motion in a straight line and constant speed unless acted constant speed unless acted upon by an external force.upon by an external force.
• Radical departure from Radical departure from previous ideas of Aristotle who previous ideas of Aristotle who believed objects moved believed objects moved because of their own natural because of their own natural tendenciestendencies
Newton’s Third Law
• The Karma of PhysicsThe Karma of Physics• For every action there is an For every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.equal and opposite reaction.• The action/reaction pairs occur The action/reaction pairs occur
at a single point. (you feel at a single point. (you feel something you push on with a something you push on with a force equal to your pushing.)force equal to your pushing.)
Isaac Newton•The great mathematician and The great mathematician and
physicist Sir Isaac Newton (1642-physicist Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) discovered the law of 1727) discovered the law of gravitation and successfully explained gravitation and successfully explained the workings of the physical universe.the workings of the physical universe.
•But to the romantic artist William But to the romantic artist William Blake this was not enough:Blake this was not enough:
•Newton had left out Newton had left out God as well as theGod as well as theemotional andemotional andspiritual elementsspiritual elementsfrom his theories.from his theories.
William Blake:
Personification of Man Limited by Reason 1805
The popularisation of science
• Newton’s Principia Newton’s Principia hard to understandhard to understand
• To understand To understand scientific thought scientific thought processes is to processes is to understand reasonunderstand reason
• Popularisers made Popularisers made science accessiblescience accessible
John LockeJohn Locke
(1632-1704)
Biography
• B. 1632, son of a small property-owner and lawyer
• Oxford, 1652-67• Studied church-state issues, chemistry
and medicine, new mechanical philosophy
• Involvement in politics through Lord Ashley, whom he treated for a liver abscess
• Plotted to assassinate King Charles II and his Catholic brother, later James II
• Exile in Holland, 1683-89• 1689: 3 major works published
Major works and themes:
A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)- Argues for religious toleration; - Except for atheists, “who deny the Being of a
God” and thus cannot be trusted to keep their promises (e.g. in contracts).
Context:
- Religious wars and persecution in England (‘Test’ Acts) and on the Continent.
Innate Ideas
• Philosophers such as Plato & Descartes, maintained that we are born with some of the ideas which we have.
• For Plato, all of our ideas are innate, even though a certain amount of experience may be required to grasp them clearly.
• According to this theory we have innate ideas of such things as God, freedom, immortality, substance, and of some moral truths, eg. that deliberately harming an innocent person is wrong.
• Locke seriously disagreed with this.
Locke’s Basic “Theory of Knowledge”
• Human being = tabula rasa (blank slate)• receives sense-impressions• some of these transformed by Mind into
Ideas • Ideas represented in language by words• However, no Ideas are innate• Mind operates (through gradual learning
process) without reference to any received authority (of Church, State or others)
Locke’s Ideas
• Model of photographic-type images (“ideas”) left in the mind by sense-impressions:
• primary qualities: inherent in objects themselves (size, shape, number)
• secondary qualities: those we assign (color, taste, sound) to sense-impressions, e.g. vibration produces sound; however, the sound we hear is not the vibration itself, but its effect on our hearing apparatus.
Complex Ideas
• Sense-data of primary qualities (PQs) and secondary qualities (SQs), produce ideas in the mind:
• Ideas are mental results of sense-data – Sense-perceptions– Bodily sensations– Mental images– Thoughts and concepts
Some basic info about Some basic info about Charles DarwinCharles Darwin
Some basic info about Some basic info about Charles DarwinCharles Darwin
The following, on Darwin, is gleaned from a presentation by
David PannellUniversity of Western Australia
LifelineLifelineLifelineLifeline Born 1809 Study (Edinburgh and Cambridge)
1825-1831 Voyage of the Beagle 1831-36 Retired to Down 1842 The Origin of Species
1859 Died 1882 Darwin’s home at Down, near London
Darwin’s achievementsDarwin’s achievementsDarwin’s achievementsDarwin’s achievements Transformed biological science
Both style and content Still the cornerstone of biology Now the cutting edge of psychology
Transformed attitudes of humanity to our place in the universe
Not just an evolutionistNot just an evolutionistNot just an evolutionistNot just an evolutionist Not even a biologist to start with Collected beetles for fun Studied geology more seriously Considered himself a geologist
throughout the Beagle voyage and for some time after
Famous for working out how coral atolls are formed
His books His books (not just on evolution)(not just on evolution)His books His books (not just on evolution)(not just on evolution)
Beagle voyage Coral reefs Volcanic islands Geology of South
America Barnacles Species Man
Emotions Climbing plants Domestication Cross and self
fertilisation Orchids Worms Autobiography
Contribution to style of scienceContribution to style of scienceContribution to style of scienceContribution to style of science Pre-Darwin, science was done in
homage to God Was primarily descriptive Deduction and theorising was
disparaged as “speculation” Darwin used detailed observation to
explore much larger questions - helped change scientific methods
Natural selectionNatural selectionNatural selectionNatural selection Developed theory in complete isolation In face of violent opposition With no knowledge of genetics With no knowledge of DNA With no observations of natural
selection actually occurring
Not first to propose evolutionNot first to propose evolutionNot first to propose evolutionNot first to propose evolution French tradition
Jean-Baptiste Lamark Etienne Geoffroy St Hilaire
Erasmus Darwin (Grandfather) Robert Grant (Mentor) Was expounded in a popular book
(“Vestiges”) 15 years before “Origin”
Darwin was mis-creditedDarwin was mis-creditedDarwin was mis-creditedDarwin was mis-credited Died famous for evolution (which was
not his idea) Natural selection not widely accepted,
even among his supporters Darwin remained convinced Only 40-50 years later did scientists
appreciate his foresight.
The Beagle Only 90 foot long, but carrying 74 people.
Joining the Beagle VoyageJoining the Beagle VoyageJoining the Beagle VoyageJoining the Beagle Voyage Not paid for 5 years on Beagle. Actually, he had to pay! Was lucky to get on
replaced someone who was shot in a duel
his father opposed him going
Mainly asked because of his class, to keep Captain Fitzroy company
It was the making of him
Galapogos, 1835Galapogos, 1835Galapogos, 1835Galapogos, 1835 Portrayed as a “Eureka” experience. Actually, was hugely homesick Did not recognise significance until back
in England, 1837. Worked out theory much later. First inkling of natural selection in 1838.
Turtles & finches were key evidence On boat home, ate turtles, dumped shells Thought finches different species; didn’t even
label them properly
The Beagle in Sydney HarbourThe Beagle in Sydney HarbourThe Beagle in Sydney HarbourThe Beagle in Sydney Harbour
AnguishAnguishAnguishAnguish Social class
Respectability Evolution subversive - against his class
Religious considerations especially worried about hurting wife
Emma who grieved for his soul
Scientific prejudice against “speculation”
“Like confessing a murder.”
IllnessIllnessIllnessIllness Sea sickness Problems throughout life
violent shivering, vomiting, exhaustion, palpitations, hands trembling, head swimming, sleeplessness, headaches, flatulance, stomach problems, ringing of ears, fainting, copious palid urine
In 1841 could work “an hour or two a couple of days a week.”
Chaga’s disease or just nervous?
Slow to publish: Why so long?Slow to publish: Why so long?Slow to publish: Why so long?Slow to publish: Why so long? Anguish Illness Slow development of ideas Detailed analysis, collection of a
wealth of evidence pigeons barnacles
BarnaclesBarnaclesBarnaclesBarnacles Started out as a brief study.
Took 8 years (from 1948). Huge 2 volume treatise overhauling entire
sub-class.
Dominated his kids lives One of his kids asked a friend, “Where does
your dad do his barnacles?”
Established him as a biological specialist, not just a geologist
Royal Society Medal
CourageCourageCourageCourage On Beagle voyage, rode hundreds of
miles through bandit areas and war zones in South America
Worked through his illnesses. Was willing to publish “Origins”
despite the risks
WealthWealthWealthWealth Father a wealthy doctor Reduced his enthusiasm to get a job as
a doctor or clergyman Wealth bought time and resources Made money from investments (land
and railway stocks), not from books
ReligionReligionReligionReligion Started out on path to clergy
“The Darwins had produced lawyers and military men, but Charles lacked the self-discipline. There was, however, a safety net to stop second sons becoming wastrels: the Church of England. An aimless son with a penchant for field sports would fit in nicely.” (Desmond & Moore)
Signed 39 articles of faith A naturalist parson?
Religion did accommodate Darwin to some extent Many religious leaders not literalist Science served religion, so its findings
were taken as revelations of God’s plan
Buried in Westminster Abbey The Times: “The Abbey needed Darwin
more than Darwin needed the Abbey.”
Religious conflictReligious conflictReligious conflictReligious conflict Samuel Wilberforce vs T.H.Huxley
“Was it from your mother’s side or your father’s side that you were descended from an ape?”
“If the question is whether I would rather have a miserable ape for a grandfather or a man of means and influence who uses these gifts to introduce ridicule into a grave scientific discussion, I unhesitatingly affirm my preference for the ape!”
“For once reality and his brain came into contact, and the result was fatal.”
Years later Wilberforce fell off his horse, landed on his head and was killed.