CH 14The Age of Nation States

Revolutions of 1848

Collapsed in defeat for both liberalism and nationalism

25 years later-liberal and nationalist goals reached

Germany and Italy United Austria-Hungary becomes a constitutional

monarch Russia-serfs emancipated France had become a republic Franchise extended Political rights extended

Crimean War (1853-1856)

Russia desired to extend influence over Ottoman Empire

Russia protective big brother of Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire

France protector of Roman Catholics Ottoman empire had yielded to French

pressure and assigned care of holy places to French

Russians occupied Ottoman provinces of Moldavia and Walachia

Ottoman empire

“sick man” of Europe Russia saw breakup of Ottoman empire France, Britain, and Austria opposed Russian

expansion in eastern med March 1854-France and Britain declared war

on Russia in alliance with ottomans Austria mobilizes troops, but does not declare

war in support of Russia Inept conduct of the War March 1855-Nicholas I died-Alex II takes throne Russian fortress of Sevastopol falls

Peace Settlement

Treaty of Paris Russia surrenders territory near mouth of

Danube Renounces claims to protect Orthodox

Christians Shatters view of invincible Russians Alexander II reforms Russia after weakness Period of instability in European affairs Austria weakened after lack of support for

Russia

Italian unification

Mid 19th century-dozen independent states Hapsburg dynasty with power How to achieve unification? 1. Romantic Republicanism Leader was Giuseppe Mazzini-most

important nationalist leader aided by Giuseppe Garibaldi

1831-Young Italy Society Led insurrections and Guerrilla war Italy still a “geographic expression”

Mazzini and Garibaldi

unification

Count Camillo Cavour

Prime Minister of kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont)

King was Victor Emmanuel I Strong monarchist who rejected

Republicanism Favored a unified state on Italian peninsula Pr0moted economic expansion and

material bonds between Italians Conducted diplomacy to get French

support against Austria-War!

Romantic republicanism

May 1860-Garibaldi lands in Sicily with 1000 troops

Captures Palermo and Kingdom of Naples Threat of Civil War as Cavour sends

troops south Garibaldi accepts unification under

Piedmont’s control Monarchial rather than republican Italy March 1861-Victor Emmanuel II

proclaimed King of Italy

Italy

Conservative constitutional monarchy

2 house legislature Ministers responsible to King not

parliament Corrupt politics Papacy still controlled Vatican until

1929 Urban working class in north South rural, poor, and backward

German Unification-most impt political development between 1848-1914

German unification

German confederation was in place 39 states of differing size and strength 2 most important were Austria and Prussia Major states traded through Zollvereign

(tariff union) and railroads Prussian king Fredrick William IV opposed

unification efforts 1858-FW IV judged insane, Rise of William

I Deadlock between William and Parliament

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)

Otto von Bismarck

Junker noble who was appointed to be Prime Minister under William I

Moved against the liberal parliament to raise taxes to support army

Embraced the cause of nationalism to strengthen the monarchy and the army

Called a “white” revolutionary-Constitutional reform that supported core institutions-monarchy, army, junkers

Bismarck

“The great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and majority decisions-but by iron and blood”

Iron and Blood

The Danish War of 1864-Prussia allies with Austria to defeat Denmark and incorporate Schleswig-Holstein –Galstein convention gives Schleswig to Prussia and Holstein to Austria

The Austro-Prussian War of 1866-Prussia easily defeats Austria in 7 weeks war-excludes Austrian Hapsburgs from German affairs

North German confederation 1867-Prussia annexes all German

states north of Main river Military forces under Prussian control President of the confederation was

the king of Prussia- Bicameral legislature-conservative in

nature Federal council-Bundesrat -chosen by

states Lower House-Reichstag-chosen by

universal male suffrage-peasants would vote for conservatives

Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 Bismarck desired to bring Southern

German states into unified Germany Dispute with French over the Spanish

monarchy William I sent telegram to OVB about

peaceful resolution of crisis OVB edited telegram-William had

insulted French! French declared war on Prussia

Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 Southern German states fought with

Prussia Paris captured in 1871

Jan 1871-Hall of Mirrors in Versailles Proclamation of German Empire Germany annexed Alsace and

Lorraine Forced France to pay indemnity

Germany

Powerful new state in central Europe Talented and productive citizens Rich in natural resources Advanced education system Conservative creation and politics Strongest economic and military

state on continent Revealed French and Austrian

weakness

France: from Liberal Empire to the Third Republic 1860-dividing line between authoritarian

empire to liberal policies Napoleon III-more liberal policies to shore

up domestic support after fopo failures1. Mexico-French intervened in Mexico to

support Archduke Maximilian of Austria-led to the execution of Maximilian

2. Franco-Prussian War-France humiliated by Prussia-Emperor captured and sent to England after Battle of Sedan

Paris Commune

1871-Paris captured by Prussians after seige Treat of Frankfurt ratified by NA

Paris Commune established by radicals and Socialists

National Assembly surrounds Paris with army

20,000 killed Desire to establish independent radical

democratic enclave-failed

The Third Republic

Monarchists divided and frustrated 1875-National government formed Republic Bicameral legislature

Upper House-Senate-chosen indirectly Lower House-Chamber of Deputies-

universal male suffrage

President-Chosen by 2 legislative houses

The Habsburg Empire

Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916) Response to revolts was to reassert

absolutism and tradition No strong advisor like Cavour or Bismarck Failure in foreign policy-Crimean War,

France Peidmont, Prussia

Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867-Habsburg empire transformed into a dual monarchy between Austria and Hungary-almost wholely separate states

National unrest

Principle of legitimacy?

Political loyalty based on Nationality-Hungarians

Political Loyalty based on dynastic attachment to emperor

Major source of political instability throughout central and eastern Europe for all of the 4 great empires-German, Russian, ottoman, and Austrian

Russia: Emancipation and revolutionary Stirrings Alexander II: Reforming Czar Humiliation after Crimean war Abolition of Serfdom-1861 Abolished serfdom-did not give them

land! Village elders controlled titles to land

and installed collective taxes for 49 years

Peasants fell behind in debt to powerful landowners

Other reforms

Authority of village communes over peasants

Local councils of nobles organized in 1864 Alex II introduces western legal principles

–equality before law and jury trials Reform of the army-mandatory service

reduced to 15 years, and then to 6 years

Polish January insurrection of 1863-alexander II moves to Russify Poland

Problems

Reforms did not go far enough Serfs not truly emancipated Nobles resented lack of influence in

government 1866-Attempt made on Czar’s life Government becomes a police state Rise of radical groups Autocracy becomes reactionary

Revolutionary ideas

Populism: sought a social revolution based on the communal life of the Russian peasants

Alexander Herzen: The Bell Land and Freedom- radical society

Winter of 1877-78-students and the intelligentsia take message to peasants in villages-hundreds arrested and tried

Repression

Policy of terrorism adopted Jan 1878-Vera Zasulich attempts to

assassinate military governor of St Petersburg

1879- The People’s Will – manifesto called for destruction of autocracy

March 1881-Assassinated Alexander IINicholas III-Reactionary autocrat-rolled

back reforms

The dastardly deed

The Czar in repose

The executions

Great Britain: Towards Democracy Confident liberal state with maturing

institutions New groups and institutions

absorbed into Parliament and shared general prosperity

2 remarkable Prime Ministers- Benjamin Disraeli-Conservative William Gladstone-Liberal

The Great Rivalry

Benjamin Disraeli

Conservative minister in HOC Introduced Reform bill in 1867 after

failure of liberal bill Extended vote to male working class

voters Thought workers and middle class

would be more responsive to Conservatives if responsive to social issues

William Gladstone: (1868-1874)-4 times liberal PM Culmination of classical British

liberalism 1870-civil service reform 1870-Educaton Act-Govt assumed

responsibility for running elementary schools

1872-Secret Ballot act All able citizens compete on base of

ability and merit

Benjamin Disraeli-(1874-1880) Founder of Modern British conservatism More paternalistic than Gladstone Protect the weak and ease class antagonism

Public Health Act of 1875-state would protect public health and physical well being dealing with sanitation

Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875-housing for the working class

Gave new protection to British trade unions-allowed to raise picket lines

Act of Union of 1800-Kingdom of Ireland and GB United United Kingdom-1801

Abolished Irish Parliament Irish represented at Westminster by 100

MPs Est of Church of Ireland No Catholics allowed in office

The Irish Question

Irish question of home rule-1880’s to 1914-question of more autonomy for Ireland within British empire

Home Rule League-Charles Stewart Parnell Legislation passed during Gladstone’s

ministries 1. Disestablished Church of Ireland 2. land act-compensation to evicted Irish

farmers 3. 2nd Land act-tenant rights for Irish 4. Coercion Act-restore law and order in Ireland

Irish question

1912-Third Irish Home Rule bill passed

Festered in British politics until after WW1-suspended during the war

Created division in British politics that made social and political reform difficult

Made the creation of new party of Labor to fill vacuum