The Age of NapoleonThe Age of Napoleon

The Thermidorian ReactionThe Thermidorian Reaction

During 1794, opposition to Robespierre During 1794, opposition to Robespierre grew.grew.

On 9 Thermidor (July 27) he was arrested On 9 Thermidor (July 27) he was arrested and executed the next day.and executed the next day.

Many of his other Jacobin supporters Many of his other Jacobin supporters followed him to the guillotine.followed him to the guillotine.

Power in the National Convention passed Power in the National Convention passed from radicals to the wealthy bourgeoisie, from radicals to the wealthy bourgeoisie, who ended the Terror.who ended the Terror.

Constitution of 1795 (Year III)Constitution of 1795 (Year III)

National Convention prepared a new National Convention prepared a new constitution.constitution.Created a two house parliamentCreated a two house parliament– Council of Elders had 250 membersCouncil of Elders had 250 members– Council of 500Council of 500– Executive power was held by five Directors Executive power was held by five Directors

who were elected by the Council of Elders.who were elected by the Council of Elders.

National Convention was dissolved on Oct National Convention was dissolved on Oct 26, 1795 and the Directory came into 26, 1795 and the Directory came into being.being.

The DirectoryThe Directory

System of indirect elections and five man System of indirect elections and five man executive was designed to be a moderate form of executive was designed to be a moderate form of government.government.

However, they were repressive in their desire to However, they were repressive in their desire to continue as a government of the center.continue as a government of the center.

It did have a large It did have a large political spectrumpolitical spectrum..

LeftLeft CenterCenter RightRight

Babeuvists Neo-Jacobins Royalists Ultra RoyalistsBabeuvists Neo-Jacobins Royalists Ultra Royalists

The DirectoryThe DirectoryConspiracy of EqualsConspiracy of Equals led by led by Gracchus BabeufGracchus Babeuf– sans-culottes faction that sought to sans-culottes faction that sought to

overthrow government and abolish overthrow government and abolish propertyproperty

– precursor to communismprecursor to communism– Easily suppressed by Directory and Easily suppressed by Directory and

Babeuf executedBabeuf executed

Elections in 1797 a victory for Elections in 1797 a victory for royalists but annulled by royalists but annulled by government.government.Neo-Jacobin revival also Neo-Jacobin revival also suppressed by government.suppressed by government.

François-Noël Gracchus Babeuf

French Military VictoriesFrench Military Victories

War of the First Coalition continued.War of the First Coalition continued.Draft of all able bodied men in Aug. 1793.Draft of all able bodied men in Aug. 1793.1793-94, French succeeded in preventing 1793-94, French succeeded in preventing invasion.invasion.During 1794-95, French occupy Low During 1794-95, French occupy Low Countries, Rhineland, Switzerland and Countries, Rhineland, Switzerland and parts of Spain.parts of Spain.Treaty of Basel in March/June 1795 ended Treaty of Basel in March/June 1795 ended war with Prussians and Spanish, but war war with Prussians and Spanish, but war with Austria and Britain continued.with Austria and Britain continued.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)Born of lesser Corsican Born of lesser Corsican nobility.nobility.

Commissioned Lieutenant Commissioned Lieutenant in French artillery in 1785.in French artillery in 1785.

1793: helped recapture 1793: helped recapture Toulon from the British.Toulon from the British.

1795: defended National 1795: defended National Convention from mob Convention from mob action.action.

Married Josephine de Married Josephine de Beauharnais (1763-1814).Beauharnais (1763-1814).

Bonaparte’s Military SuccessesBonaparte’s Military Successes1796: received command of 1796: received command of French Army in Italy, French Army in Italy, defeating the Austrians.defeating the Austrians.Treaty of Campo Formio Treaty of Campo Formio ended War of the 1ended War of the 1stst Coalition with Austrians in Coalition with Austrians in Oct. 1797.Oct. 1797.– France annexed Austrian France annexed Austrian

Netherlands, Austria got Netherlands, Austria got Venice.Venice.

– Austrians recognized the Austrians recognized the independence of Cisalpine independence of Cisalpine Rep. (French Satellite) Rep. (French Satellite)

– Britain fought on alone.Britain fought on alone.

The Egyptian CampaignThe Egyptian Campaign1798: Napoleon invades 1798: Napoleon invades Egypt to disrupt British Egypt to disrupt British Empire.Empire.– Discovers Rosetta StoneDiscovers Rosetta Stone– Napoleon winds Battle of the Napoleon winds Battle of the

Pyramids in July, 1798 Pyramids in July, 1798 against Mamelukesagainst Mamelukes

– British Fleet under Horatio British Fleet under Horatio Nelson (1758-1805) defeats Nelson (1758-1805) defeats French at Battle of the Nile.French at Battle of the Nile.

– Napoleon left his army to Napoleon left his army to return to France.return to France.

War of the Second Coalition War of the Second Coalition (1798-1801) (1798-1801)

While Napoleon was in Egypt, Britain While Napoleon was in Egypt, Britain forms alliances with Russia, Austria, forms alliances with Russia, Austria, Portugal, Naples and the Ottoman Empire Portugal, Naples and the Ottoman Empire to oppose the French.to oppose the French.Russia left the alliance the next year.Russia left the alliance the next year.France suffered military defeats in Italy France suffered military defeats in Italy and Germany.and Germany.Military defeats combined with the Military defeats combined with the continuing economic and political crisis continuing economic and political crisis and France further weakened the position and France further weakened the position of the Directory.of the Directory.

Coup d’Ètat de 18 BrumaireCoup d’Ètat de 18 Brumaire

In October 1799, Napoleon landed In October 1799, Napoleon landed in Southern France.in Southern France.

With help of two of the five With help of two of the five directors (Emmanuel Joseph directors (Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès and Roger Ducos), his Sieyès and Roger Ducos), his brother Lucien who was speaker brother Lucien who was speaker of the Council of 500, and of the Council of 500, and Talleyrand he plotted to seize Talleyrand he plotted to seize power.power.

They then used troops on Nov. 9They then used troops on Nov. 9 thth to seize control of the government.to seize control of the government.

Emmanuel Joseph SieyèsEmmanuel Joseph Sieyès

Constitution of 1799 (Year VIII)Constitution of 1799 (Year VIII)

Drafting a new constitution, a Drafting a new constitution, a Consulate Consulate of three rulers was created.of three rulers was created.

Napoleon had himself elected First Consul Napoleon had himself elected First Consul (the other two had little power) to rule for a (the other two had little power) to rule for a term of ten years. term of ten years.

In a plebiscite in 1802, Napoleon was In a plebiscite in 1802, Napoleon was made First Consul for life with the right to made First Consul for life with the right to name his successor (this was reaffirmed in name his successor (this was reaffirmed in the Constitution of Year X)the Constitution of Year X)

The Napoleonic StyleThe Napoleonic Style

Used power of personality Used power of personality to gain power and position.to gain power and position.

No major aristocracy to No major aristocracy to oppose his power.oppose his power.

Culture of “Notables” Culture of “Notables” enacted (those who had enacted (those who had risen on merit like himself) risen on merit like himself) used to consolidate rule.used to consolidate rule.

Administration and ReformsAdministration and Reforms

Curtailed political freedoms and liberties.Curtailed political freedoms and liberties.Established efficient central government and Established efficient central government and bureaucracy.bureaucracy.– Appointed prefect to administer each department and Appointed prefect to administer each department and

sub-prefects for each district.sub-prefects for each district.– Each answered to him, further centralizing power.Each answered to him, further centralizing power.

Eliminated corruption and waste.Eliminated corruption and waste.Reformed the tax system; created central bank.Reformed the tax system; created central bank.Paid government bonds, putting nation on sound Paid government bonds, putting nation on sound financial footing.financial footing.Reformed educational system.Reformed educational system.

The Religious SettlementThe Religious Settlement

Napoleon was himself a deist or atheist.Napoleon was himself a deist or atheist.

He believed however, that the conflict with He believed however, that the conflict with the Catholic Church should end.the Catholic Church should end.

The Concordat of 1801 established The Concordat of 1801 established reconciliation with Pope Pius VII (r. 1800-reconciliation with Pope Pius VII (r. 1800-1823).1823).

It governed the relationship between the It governed the relationship between the Church and state until 1905.Church and state until 1905.

The Concordat of 1801The Concordat of 1801

Granted the Church special status as the religion Granted the Church special status as the religion of the majority of the Frenchof the majority of the FrenchCatholicism was not the established religion of the Catholicism was not the established religion of the state.state.Government had authority to nominate bishops Government had authority to nominate bishops then invested by the pope.then invested by the pope.Bishops would appoint the priests.Bishops would appoint the priests.System established under Civil Constitution of the System established under Civil Constitution of the Clergy was ended.Clergy was ended.Loss of church lands accepted by pope.Loss of church lands accepted by pope.Salaries of clergy paid by the French gov’t. Salaries of clergy paid by the French gov’t.

The Code NapoleonThe Code Napoleon

Napoleon continued the Napoleon continued the process of reorganizing process of reorganizing the legal system.the legal system.In 1800, appointed a In 1800, appointed a commission of legal commission of legal experts to draft a new experts to draft a new civil code.civil code.Civil code was enacted Civil code was enacted in 1804 and renamed in 1804 and renamed the Napoleonic Code in the Napoleonic Code in 1807.1807.

The Code NapoleonThe Code Napoleon

Made all citizens equal under the law and Made all citizens equal under the law and abolished privileges by birth.abolished privileges by birth.People could be employed as they pleased, a People could be employed as they pleased, a gov’t employees would be hired by ability.gov’t employees would be hired by ability.Reaffirmed rights of property gained during the Reaffirmed rights of property gained during the revolution, as well as the bed of revolution, as well as the bed of manorialism/feudalism for the peasants.manorialism/feudalism for the peasants.Included the principle of freedom of religion.Included the principle of freedom of religion.State took precedence over the rights of State took precedence over the rights of individuals.individuals.Men were granted greater authority over family.Men were granted greater authority over family.

Napoleon Consolidates Napoleon Consolidates PowerPower

January 1804, Bonaparte's police January 1804, Bonaparte's police uncovered an assassination plot uncovered an assassination plot against him sponsored by the against him sponsored by the Bourbons.Bourbons.

Bonaparte then used this incident Bonaparte then used this incident to justify the re-creation of a to justify the re-creation of a hereditary monarchy in France, hereditary monarchy in France, with himself as Emperor, on the with himself as Emperor, on the theory that a Bourbon restoration theory that a Bourbon restoration would be impossible once the would be impossible once the Bonapartist succession was Bonapartist succession was

entrenched in the constitution.entrenched in the constitution.

Napoleon CrownedNapoleon CrownedNapoleon crowned himself Emperor Napoleon crowned himself Emperor on Dec 2, 1804 at Notre Dame. on Dec 2, 1804 at Notre Dame. Claims that he seized the crown out Claims that he seized the crown out of the hands of Pope Pius VII during of the hands of Pope Pius VII during the ceremony in order to avoid the ceremony in order to avoid subjecting himself to the authority of subjecting himself to the authority of the pontiff are false.the pontiff are false.After the Imperial regalia had been After the Imperial regalia had been blessed by the Pope, Napoleon blessed by the Pope, Napoleon crowned himself before crowning his crowned himself before crowning his wife Joséphine as Empress.wife Joséphine as Empress.At Milan's cathedral on May 26, 1805, At Milan's cathedral on May 26, 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy Napoleon was crowned King of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. with the Iron Crown of Lombardy.

A Fragile PeaceA Fragile Peace

The War of the Second Coalition ended The War of the Second Coalition ended with Austria at the Treaty of Luneville in with Austria at the Treaty of Luneville in Feb. 1801.Feb. 1801.The British continued the war, forcing the The British continued the war, forcing the surrender of the French remaining in surrender of the French remaining in Egypt in summer of 1801Egypt in summer of 1801The treaty of Amiens, signed in March The treaty of Amiens, signed in March 1802, created a fragile peace between 1802, created a fragile peace between France and Britain.France and Britain.

War of the Third Coalition (1805-07)War of the Third Coalition (1805-07)

Both sides were not content with current Both sides were not content with current peace.peace.In 1803, Great Britain renewed its war In 1803, Great Britain renewed its war against France.against France.In 1805, Austria and Russia joined the In 1805, Austria and Russia joined the coalition (Prussia remained neutral at the coalition (Prussia remained neutral at the outset.)outset.)Napoleon moved into Germany, defeating Napoleon moved into Germany, defeating the Austrians at the Battle of Ulm on Oct the Austrians at the Battle of Ulm on Oct 17, 1805.17, 1805.

War at SeaWar at Sea

Throughout 1804-1805, Napoleon planned Throughout 1804-1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain.to invade Britain.

The British Navy blockaded French The British Navy blockaded French controlled ports throughout Europe, controlled ports throughout Europe, keeping most of the fleet bottled up.keeping most of the fleet bottled up.

Across the globe both sides engaged the Across the globe both sides engaged the other, attempting to disrupt the trade of the other, attempting to disrupt the trade of the other side.other side.

Battle of TrafalgarBattle of Trafalgar

Just four days after Just four days after Napoleon’s victory at Ulm, Napoleon’s victory at Ulm, the combined French and the combined French and Spanish fleets were Spanish fleets were smashed at the Battle of smashed at the Battle of Trafalgar (Oct. 21, 1805).Trafalgar (Oct. 21, 1805).The strategic daring of The strategic daring of Admiral Nelson and the Admiral Nelson and the tactical superiority of the tactical superiority of the British fleet won the day.British fleet won the day.With reduced naval power, With reduced naval power, Napoleon had to suspend Napoleon had to suspend his invasion plans.his invasion plans.

War on LandWar on Land

Moving East from Ulm, Napoleon defeated Moving East from Ulm, Napoleon defeated a combined Austrian and Russian force at a combined Austrian and Russian force at Austerlitz on Dec. 2, 1805.Austerlitz on Dec. 2, 1805.Austria signed Treaty of Pressburg, Austria signed Treaty of Pressburg, relinquishing most of its Italian relinquishing most of its Italian possessions (Third Coalition dissolves).possessions (Third Coalition dissolves).In July, 1806, Napoleon reorganized In July, 1806, Napoleon reorganized western Germany into a satellite called the western Germany into a satellite called the Confederation of the Rhine (provided Confederation of the Rhine (provided buffer).buffer).

French Victories on LandFrench Victories on LandNapoleon dissolved the Holy Napoleon dissolved the Holy Roman Empire (Francis II Roman Empire (Francis II became Francis I of Austria)became Francis I of Austria)War of Fourth Coalition begins.War of Fourth Coalition begins.Prussia entered the war, on Prussia entered the war, on Oct, 14, 1806 Napoleon Oct, 14, 1806 Napoleon defeated them a the Battles of defeated them a the Battles of Jena and Auerstadt.Jena and Auerstadt.Napoleon took the capital Berlin Napoleon took the capital Berlin in late October.in late October.Napoleon moved into East Napoleon moved into East Prussia in spring, 1807, Prussia in spring, 1807, defeating the Russians at defeating the Russians at Friedland on June 13Friedland on June 13thth..

The Treaties of TilsitThe Treaties of Tilsit

Napoleon meets with Tsar Alexander I and Napoleon meets with Tsar Alexander I and Frederick William III of Prussia.Frederick William III of Prussia.Treaties end War of Fourth Coalition.Treaties end War of Fourth Coalition.Prussia losses half of its territory to Prussia losses half of its territory to Saxony and The Grand Duchy of Warsaw Saxony and The Grand Duchy of Warsaw (Polish satellite of France)(Polish satellite of France)Russia was given a free hand to deal with Russia was given a free hand to deal with the Ottoman Empire in return for support the Ottoman Empire in return for support against Britain.against Britain.

1807

We Are Family…We Are Family…Treaties allow Napoleon to place Treaties allow Napoleon to place his family members on the his family members on the thrones of Europe.thrones of Europe.– Brother Joseph – King of Brother Joseph – King of

Naples (and later Spain), Naples (and later Spain), replaced by Marshall Murat and replaced by Marshall Murat and Napoleon’s sister Caroline.Napoleon’s sister Caroline.

– Brother Louis – King of HollandBrother Louis – King of Holland– Brother Jerome – King of Brother Jerome – King of

WestphaliaWestphalia– Napoleon divorces Josephine Napoleon divorces Josephine

in 1810, marring princes Marie in 1810, marring princes Marie Louise of Austria (Habsburg) Louise of Austria (Habsburg) and bears him a son the and bears him a son the following year.following year.

Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte

The Continental SystemThe Continental SystemUnable to beat the British at sea, Napoleon Unable to beat the British at sea, Napoleon launched the Continental System with the launched the Continental System with the Berlin Decrees of 1806 (expanded through Berlin Decrees of 1806 (expanded through the Milan Decree of 1807).the Milan Decree of 1807).

Any ship from Britain of caring British goods Any ship from Britain of caring British goods were banned from European ports.were banned from European ports.

The British responded with the Orders in The British responded with the Orders in Council, requiring all ships entering or Council, requiring all ships entering or leaving European ports to stop at British leaving European ports to stop at British ports.ports.

The Continental SystemThe Continental System

The two blockades caused considerable The two blockades caused considerable economic hardship across Europe.economic hardship across Europe.The blockade hurt British trade and The blockade hurt British trade and caused soaring unemployment and rioting caused soaring unemployment and rioting in 1811.in 1811.France suffered from a lack of imported France suffered from a lack of imported raw materials.raw materials.French satellites suffered as well, causing French satellites suffered as well, causing widespread discontent, even though widespread discontent, even though smuggling was rampant.smuggling was rampant.

The Peninsular War (1807-1814)The Peninsular War (1807-1814)Portugal and France’s ally Portugal and France’s ally Spain both failed to enforce Spain both failed to enforce the Continental System.the Continental System.In late 1807, the French In late 1807, the French occupied both nations.occupied both nations.In early 1808, Napoleon In early 1808, Napoleon deposed the Bourbon deposed the Bourbon monarchy and installed his monarchy and installed his brother Joseph on the brother Joseph on the throne.throne.The Spanish rose in revolt, The Spanish rose in revolt, which was brutally which was brutally suppressed by the French.suppressed by the French.

Francisco Goya: The Third of May, 1808

The Peninsular War (1807-1814)The Peninsular War (1807-1814)

The British sent troops under Sir Arthur The British sent troops under Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) to Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) to support the insurgents.support the insurgents.

The British Naval superiority was used to The British Naval superiority was used to support the expeditionary force.support the expeditionary force.

The war continued until 1814, slowing The war continued until 1814, slowing wearing down the French and keeping wearing down the French and keeping vital troops and supplies from other fronts.vital troops and supplies from other fronts.

War of the Fifth Coalition (1809)War of the Fifth Coalition (1809)

Along with British and Spanish warfare on Along with British and Spanish warfare on the Iberian Peninsula, Austria rejoined the the Iberian Peninsula, Austria rejoined the fight against Napoleon in spring 1809.fight against Napoleon in spring 1809.Napoleon defeated the Austrians at Napoleon defeated the Austrians at Wagram in July 1809, occupying Vienna.Wagram in July 1809, occupying Vienna.Under the Treaty of Schonbrunn, Austria Under the Treaty of Schonbrunn, Austria ceded land to Bavaria, Warsaw and ceded land to Bavaria, Warsaw and France.France.Napoleon takes Pope Pius VII prisoner for Napoleon takes Pope Pius VII prisoner for opposing Continental System and opposing Continental System and annexed the Papal States.annexed the Papal States.

Changes in the Colonial EmpiresChanges in the Colonial EmpiresSpain is convinced to Spain is convinced to return Louisiana to France, return Louisiana to France, but due to French naval but due to French naval inferiority, Napoleon sells it inferiority, Napoleon sells it to the United States in to the United States in 1803.1803.In Haiti, a slave revolt led In Haiti, a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture by Toussaint L'Ouverture leads to Haitian leads to Haitian independence in 1804.independence in 1804.The Spanish colonies took The Spanish colonies took opportunities as well under opportunities as well under Simon Bolivar to gain Simon Bolivar to gain independence.independence.

The Russian Campaign, 1812The Russian Campaign, 1812Tensions rise between Tensions rise between Napoleon and Tsar Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I refuses to Alexander I refuses to support the Continental support the Continental System.System.Napoleon raises a Napoleon raises a “Grande Armée” of “Grande Armée” of 691,501 men to invade 691,501 men to invade Russia in June, 1812.Russia in June, 1812.By mid August, French By mid August, French advance 300 miles with advance 300 miles with no major battles.no major battles.Russians retreat, trading Russians retreat, trading for space and time and for space and time and burning all left behind burning all left behind (“scorched earth”)(“scorched earth”)

The Russian Campaign, 1812The Russian Campaign, 1812On Sept.7, the Russians under On Sept.7, the Russians under Mikhail Kutuzov battle French Mikhail Kutuzov battle French at Borodino, 75 miles west of at Borodino, 75 miles west of Moscow; no clear victor.Moscow; no clear victor.On Sept. 14, Napoleon entered On Sept. 14, Napoleon entered a burned Moscow.a burned Moscow.Tsar Alexander refused to Tsar Alexander refused to surrender.surrender.Low on supplies, Napoleon Low on supplies, Napoleon began to retreat on Oct. 19began to retreat on Oct. 19thth

The Russian winter soon set in, The Russian winter soon set in, and by December, only 22,000 and by December, only 22,000 men in the Grande Armee men in the Grande Armee remained alive.remained alive.

War of the Sixth Coalition (1812-14)War of the Sixth Coalition (1812-14)A.k.a. – Wars of Liberation. A.k.a. – Wars of Liberation. Coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and a number of German the United Kingdom, and a number of German States (notably Bavaria) to take advantage of States (notably Bavaria) to take advantage of Napoleon’s Russian defeat.Napoleon’s Russian defeat.Napoleon raises an army of around 400,000 Napoleon raises an army of around 400,000 French troops supported by a quarter of a million French troops supported by a quarter of a million French allied troops to contest control of French allied troops to contest control of Germany. Germany. In Germany, In Germany, national resistancenational resistance grows in grows in Bavaria, Prussia and Austria, who join the Bavaria, Prussia and Austria, who join the Russians in opposing Napoleon.Russians in opposing Napoleon.Revolts in Spain continue to drain men and Revolts in Spain continue to drain men and resources.resources.

The Battle of NationsThe Battle of NationsThe Battle of Leipzig, Oct. 16-19 1813.The Battle of Leipzig, Oct. 16-19 1813.

Napoleon soundly defeated by Russians, Napoleon soundly defeated by Russians, Prussians and Austrians in the largest Prussians and Austrians in the largest battle in European history to that point.battle in European history to that point.

The Fall of NapoleonThe Fall of Napoleon

Napoleon was offered a peace settlement Napoleon was offered a peace settlement keeping his throne, but he refused.keeping his throne, but he refused.Nov. 1813, the Dutch revolted.Nov. 1813, the Dutch revolted.The British army led by the Duke of The British army led by the Duke of Wellington advanced from Spain into Wellington advanced from Spain into Southern France.Southern France.Jan. 1814, Russian, Prussian and Austrian Jan. 1814, Russian, Prussian and Austrian forces invade France and enter Paris on forces invade France and enter Paris on March 31March 31stst..

The Abdication The Abdication

April 11, 1814, April 11, 1814, Napoleon abdicated.Napoleon abdicated.Retains title and Retains title and exiled to island of exiled to island of Elba.Elba.Bourbons restored Bourbons restored with Louis XVIII with Louis XVIII (r.1814-24), younger (r.1814-24), younger brother of Louis XVI.brother of Louis XVI.Napoleon’s abdication order

Reasons for Napoleon’s FallReasons for Napoleon’s Fall

Imperial overreach – Imperial overreach – the attempt to defeat all the attempt to defeat all enemies and dominate enemies and dominate Europe.Europe.National resistance – National resistance – the despotic nature of the despotic nature of the empire led to the empire led to nationalist revolts.nationalist revolts.Loss of support at home Loss of support at home – French war weary – French war weary after 25 years of war.after 25 years of war.