The African Brain Drain-dr Onsando

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THE AFRICAN BRAIN DRAIN: USINGINTELLECTUAL DIASPORA TO

MANAGE THE DRAIN: WHAT ARE

THE OPTIONS?

PRESENTATION TO THE ASSOCIATION OF

AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES (AAU),

CONFERENCE OF RECTORS, VICE CHANCELLORSAND PRESIDENTS OF AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES

(COREVIP)

ByDr. Patrick Onsando Ph.D

Moi UniversityEldoret Kenya

OCTOBER 2007


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Abstract

There is an increasing realization that the next society will be a knowledge society,enabled by the rapidly developing information and communications technology.

This is despite the fact that the brain drain has brought harmful effects to Africa assome of her best talents have emigrated resulting into lower rates of growth, lessproductive educational investments and poorer health care.

The endogenous growth model provides evidence on these effects.

There has also been a loss of actual and potential innovators who might have led theway to modernization, as they migrated to educational systems and workingenvironments that have supported their innovative and creative abilities.

This study shows that in order to exploit its full potential, Africa will have to dependincreasingly on the acquisition, creation and use of knowledge.

However having the storehouse of treasure in the form of knowledge workers is notenough. In order to carry out those functions well, and be on the cutting edge, Africaneeds an effective innovation system, linking up with, innovation friendlyenterprises the various research units, universities, consultants, and otherorganizations that are able to access the growing stock of global knowledge andcreate new knowledge and new technologies.

We conclude that, the intellectual Diaspora may constitute a key resource for Africa,by providing contacts of many types, contributing know-how and investments andenhancing international trade and creation of wealth.


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CONTEXT

Because of low training capacity, a large proportion of Africans are still trainedoutside Africa, exposing them to the challenge of the Brain drain.

Millions of Africa Science and technology experts are stuck in western countriesas part of this brain drain.

According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), Africa hasalready lost one third of its human capital and is continuing to lose its skilled

personnel at an increasing rate, with an estimated 20,000 doctors, universitylecturers, engineers and other professional leaving the continent annually since1990.

There are currently over 300,000 highly qualified Africans in the Diaspora, 30,000of which have PhDs.

Africa spends US$4 billion per year (representing 35% of total officialdevelopment aid to the continent) to employ some 100,000 Western experts

performing functions generically described as technical assistance. Africa as a whole counts only 20,000 scientists (3.6% percent of the world total)

and its share in the worlds scientific output has fallen from 0.5% to 0.3% as itcontinues to suffer the brain drain of scientists, engineers and technologists.


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CONTEXT

The problem of brain drain has reached quite disturbing proportions in certain African countries, withEthiopia ranked first in the continent in terms of rate of loss of human capital, followed by Nigeria andGhana.

Ethiopia lost about 74.6% of its human capital from various institutions between 1980 and 1991. While Ethiopia has 1 full-time economics professor, there are more than 100 Ethiopian economists in

the United States.

According to the estimates of the Presidential Committee on Brain Drain set up in 1988 by theBabangida administration, Nigeria, between 1986 and 1990, lost over 10,000 academics from tertiaryeducation institutions alone.

Total estimates, including those who left public, industrial and private organizations, are over 30,000.64% of Nigerians in the United States aged 25 and older have at least a bachelors degree.

The Zimbabwe National Association of Social Workers estimates that 1,500 of the countrys 3,000trained social workers left for the United Kingdom over the past 10 years.

African countries are funding the education of their nationals only to see them end up contributing to

the growth of developed countries with little or no return on their investment. In Kenya, for example, it costs about US$40,000 to train a doctor and US$10,000-15,000 to educate a

university student for 4 years. The health sector is particularly affected; indeed, desperate shortage of health professionals is the most

serious obstacle as Africa tries to fight AIDS and support other health programs. Kenya loses on average 20 medical doctors each month. Ghana lost 60% of its medical doctors in the 1980s, 600 to 700 Ghanaian physicians are currently

practicing in the USA alone, a figure that represents roughly 50% of the total population of doctors inGhana.

Continuation


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CONTEXT

The loss of nurses, in particular, is growing phenomenon, fueled principally by the shortagesin developed countries.

The United States has 126,000 fewer nurses that it needs and government figures show thatthe country could face a shortage of 800,000 registered nurses by 2020.

Because of such shortages, industrialized nations have embarked on massive internationalrecruitment drives, offering African nurses the opportunity to earn as much as 20 times

their salaries. The 1993 UNDP Human Development Report indicated that more than 21,000 Nigerian

doctors were practicing in the United States alone while Nigeria suffers from a shortage ofdoctors.

If we were to add the number of Nigerian doctors in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states,Europe, Australia and those in other African countries, the figure would be close to 30,000.

One third of Ethiopian medical doctors have already left the country.

In Zambia, the public sector only retains about 50 out of 600 doctors trained in thecountrys medical school.

The flight of health professionals is not limited to doctors and affects nurses, pharmacistsand social services personnel as well.

It is not only the medics that are affected it is the entire spectrum of professionals.

African is thus fascinated with how it can utilize the African Diaspora to improve the lot ofAfrica.

Continuation


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CONTEXT

To acquire the scientific knowledge and technology required for a technological regime,Africa will have to strengthen its capacity to use wisely a mix of channels, including,copying, imitating, duplicating, intelligence gathering, resource engineering, licensing, FDI,partnering networking with the Diaspora, overseas studies, technical assistance andinternational and regional cooperation.

Africa may adapt innovation systems based on a catch-up model which favors theacquisition of advanced technologies from abroad in selected sectors rather than a broaderstrengthening of its knowledge base.

However, reliance on foreign technology results in heavy dependence on foreign sources ofmaterials, parts and components. This limits the beneficial linkage effects and amplifies

vulnerability to external shocks.

Continuation


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Endogenous Growth Model and the

Brain Drain Endogenous innovation models embrace a neo-Schumpeterian framework of endogenous

technological change based on three premises (Gross man and Helpman, 1991, 1994: Crafts,1996: Aghion and Howitt, 1998).

First, the basic driving force behind economic growth is technological change, that isimprovement in knowledge about how we transform inputs into outputs in the productionprocess.

Second, technological change is endogenous, being determined by deliberate activities of

economic agents acting largely in response to financial incentives. Third, the defining characteristic of ideas/knowledge is that once the cost of creating a new

set of instructions has been incurred, the instructions can be used over and over again at noadditional cost (Romer 1990). Therefore ideas are non-rivalries outputs and their use by onefirm or person does not in any way reduce their availability to other firms or persons.

The new growth literature therefore suggests that, the negative implications of a braindrain on the source country are magnified. For example, Hague and Kim (1995) posits thatthe emigration of people with high levels of human capital reduces the growth rate of the

effective human capital that remains in the economy, and thus generates the reduction of theper capita growth in the source country.

Under this scenario not only is highskilled labour complementary with capital and low-skilled labour, but high-skilled workers enhance technological innovations and theirdiffusion.

The main implication is that a continuous outflow of highskilled labour would deplete thesource countrys level of human capital and thus reduce the capacity of the country toachieve as much technological progress as other economies.


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Brain Drain

Scenarios from the standard model of production and endogenous growth models reflectthe drain of brains view that dominated migration research from the 1950s to the 1970s.

However, these, two scenarios ignore the fact that migration can induce skill formation.

The standard and new growth models have been challenged in various theoretical papersthat examine the impact of migration on human capital formation within a context of

rational migration flows (see Beine et al. 2001, and mount fold 1997). The theory assumes that workers weigh the costs of acquiring skills against prospectivemarket rewards for enhancing skills, both at home and abroad and thus making optimaldecisions.

Scherer (1999) advocates that human capital is the most important input in the process ofadvancing technology.

A growing body of literature has addressed the complementarities of human capital andtechnological progress.

One of the earliest models developed is by Nelson and Phelps (1966), which suggested whatthe level of education, speeds up technological diffusion.

Their simple illustration was that of an educated farmer, possessing ability to discernprofitable ideas and thus adopting new processes or products more quickly than hisuneducated counterpart.

Benhabib and Spiegel (2002), using cross data obtains results consistent to Nelson andPhelps hypothesis and extends the role of human capital to be an engine of domestic

innovation besides being a facilitator of technology adoption.

Continuation


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Brain Drain

Romer (1990) challenges and augments the Solow neoclassical growth model, which assumes technology

to be exogenous and hence available without limitation everywhere across the globe.

In order to explain continuous growth of output per worker in the long run the Solow model must

incorporate the influence of sustainable technological progress.

Y = AtKL1- (1)

Where and 1-are weights reflecting the share of capital and labour in the national income. Assuming

constant returns to scale, and for a given technology, At0, output per worker is positively related to the

capital-labour ratio (K/L). We can therefore rewrite the production function equation (1) in terms of

output per worker as shown by

Y/L = A(t0)(K/L)=A(t0)KL1-/L=A(t0)(K/L) (2)

Letting y = Y/Land k = K/L,we have the intensive form of the aggregate production.

y=A(t0)k (3)

For a given technology, equation (3) tells us that increasing the amount of capital per worker (capital

deepening) will lead to an increase in output per worker.

Continuation


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Brain Drain

ka k = K/L

yb

ya

y = Y/L A(t1)k

A(t0)k

Fig 1. Technologicalprogress

The impact of exogenous technological progress is illustrated in figure 1 by a shift of the production function

between two time periods (t0 =>t1) fromA(t0)ktoA(t1)k

, raising output per worker from ya to ybfor agiven capital-labour ratio of ka. Continuous upward shifts of the production function, induced by an

exogenously determined growth of knowledge, provide the only mechanism for explaining steady state growth

of output per worker in the neoclassical model.

Continuation


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Continuous upward shifts of the production function, induced by an exogenous determineda growth of knowledge, provides the only mechanism for explaining steady growth ofoutput per worker in the neoclassical model.

Insights on the impacts of technology on production are also provided by (Kumar andRusell) decomposition.

This decomposition exploits the assumption of constant returns to scale, in which case the

benchmark technology sets can be drawn in space, where k = K/L and y = Y/L. Using these hypothetical technologies for two periods, as we have already shown, say a base

period b and a current period c, are drawn in figure 2. In this example, the single kink ineach of the polyhedral technologies would indicate that a single economy the only efficienteconomy defines the frontier.

The two points (kb, yb) and (kc, yc), represent observed values of the two ratios in the twoperiods for some hypothetical economy.


Brain DrainContinuation


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By construction, potential outputs for this economy in the two periods are b(kb) = yb/eb

andc(kc) = yc /ec, where eband ecare the values of the efficiency indexes in the two periods,calculated as in (2) above.


Brain Drain

Yb(kc)

yb

Yb(kb

Yc(kb)

Yc

Yc(kc)

y

kkckb

C

T

D

E

B

A


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)(

)(

bbb

ccc

b

c

ke

kye

y

y

. Therefore,

Multiplying top and bottom byb(kc), the potential output-labor ratio at current-period capitalintensity using the base-period technology, we obtain

)(

)(

)(

)(

bb

cb

cb

cc

b

c

b

c

ky

ky

ky

ky

e

e

y

y

This identity decomposes the relative change in the output-labor ratio in the twoperiods into (i) the change in efficiencyi.e., the change in the distance from thefrontier (the first term on the right); (ii) the technology changei.e., the shift in thefrontier (the second term; and (iii) the effect of the change in the capital-labor ratio-i.e., movement along the frontier (the third term).




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Brain Drain

The decomposition in (4) measures technological change by the shift in the frontier in theoutput direction at the current-period capital-labor ratio-frompointC topoint D inFigure 2 and it measures the effect of capital accumulation along the base-period frontier-frompoint B topoint C. we can alternatively measure technological change at the base-

period capital-labor ratio-frompoint B topoint E in Figure 2 -and capital accumulationby movements along the current-period frontier-frompoint E topoint D-by multiplyingthe top and bottom of (3) by the potential output-labor ratio at base-period capital

intensity using the current-period technology, c(kb), yielding the decomposition,

)(

)(

)(

)(

bc

cc

bb

bc

b

c

b

c

ky

ky

ky

ky

e

e

y

y

Continuation

(5)


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Thus, the decomposition of (discrete) productivity changes (not attributable toefficiency changes) into the technological-change and capital-deepeningcomponents is path dependent, and the choice between (4) and (5) is arbitrary.

There is no avoiding this arbitrariness, unless technological change is Hicksneutral, in which case the proportional vertical shift in the frontier is independent

of the value of the capital-labor ratio. It is this assumption (along with constant returns to scale) that enabled Solow

(1957), and the legions of growth accountants who have followed his lead, tounambiguously decompose productivity growth into components attributable totechnological change and capital deepening.

But without constraining technological change to be Hicks neutral, theproportional (vertical) shift in the frontier varies in unspecified ways.

In fact, this arbitrariness is not, per se, attributable to the decomposition itself. It is endemic to the basic task of measuring technological change, as is evident in

the necessity of normalizing on one of two technologies in the (Malmquist)productivity index proposed in the pioneering paper of Doughlas W. Caves et al.(1982a).




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Within this framework it is inferred that technological innovation is a chronicdisturber of comparatives and the rules of the game are rapidly changing.

The emerging trends have farreaching implications for Africas sustainabledevelopment and competitiveness.

Global firms are steadily upgrading their technological capacity and performance

and progressively raising entry barriers to new entrants. In this process inefficient producers such as African ones, are often squeezed out. Africas competitiveness in its traditional areas of comparative advantage is

eroding. This is well documented; The continents share of global export trade fell from

5.9% in 1980 to less than 2% at the end of the 1990s, while sub-Saharan Africas

market share at global manufacturing value added (MVA) was halved from 0.69%in 1970 to a low 0.3% in he 1990s. Globalization and liberalization compel companies to compete not only in

foreign markets in order to prosper, but also in their own national markets. Africa, therefore, needs to act promptly to counter the possibilities of this double

internal and external squeeze.




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Causes and Impacts of Brain Drain

CAUSES

Push factors

Pull factors


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PUSH FACTORS

Focus on those pay, working conditions and broader management and

governance factors that encourage professionals to exit their own

systems and leave their country.

Continuation

Low and eroding wages and salaries

Unsatisfactory living conditions, lack of transport, housing, etc

Under-utilization of qualified personnel; lack of satisfactory working conditions;low prospect of professional development

Lack of research and other facilities, including support staff; inadequacy of

research funds, lack of professional equipment and tools Social unrest, Political conflicts and wars

Declining quality of educational system

Discrimination in appointments and promotions

Lack of freedom


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PULL FACTORS

Direct attention to the factors that encourage professionals to move to

other countries, including shortages and active recruitment from high

income countries.


Continuation

Higher wages and income

Higher standard of living

Better working conditions; job and career opportunities and professionaldevelopment

Substantial funds for research, advanced technology, modern facilities; availability

of experienced support staff

Political stability

Modern educational system; prestige of foreign training

Meritocracy, transparency

Intellectual freedom


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IMPACTS

The brain drain crises can also be seen as a process that Africa can theoretically capitalizeon.

Virtually all of Africas major export sectors are struggling to compete on world markets, yetwithout any policy effort whatsoever Africa has demonstrated its competitiveness in the

training (or production) of doctors and nurses. Such exports allow Africa to bypass the formal trade facilitation challenges (from the world

trade organization) that so hamper exports.

The mobility of highly skilled labour is associated with a number of positive feed backeffects as skilled emigrants continue to affect the economy of their origin country.

The main benefits are associated with the remittance of income, the knowledge and skillsacquired by returnees, and spillover effects when migration increases the urge to obtainhigher education, increasing the stock of education in the source country, with only aproportional of this accumulation of skills lost to out-migration (see mountfold 1997).

An illustration of these spill-over effects is the degree in which the educational level ofapplicants in nursing schools in Ghana has risen to the equivalent entrance level and thenumber of applicants has also risen sharply, as applicants start to view a nursingqualification as an investment in leaving the country (Mensah et al. 2005:19).


M i th D i Wh t th


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The brain drain has brought harmful effects to many countries as some of theirbest talents have emigrated.

Some of the consequences have been lower rates of growth, less productiveeducational investments and poorer health care.

There has also been a loss of actual and potential innovators who might have led

the way to modernization, as they migrated to educational systems and workingenvironments that better supported their innovative and creative abilities. The conception about the migration of skills is now evolving, putting stronger

emphasis on brain gain, which is based on the idea that the expatriate skilledpopulation may be considered as a potential asset instead of a definite loss.

There are two main options to implement the brain gain either through thereturn of the expatriates to the country of origin (return option) or through their

remote mobilization and association to its development (diaspora option) . The return option has been successfully realized in various new industrialized

countries (NICs) such as Singapore and the republic of Korea or big developingcountries such as France and China (Charum, Meyes eds, 1999).

Strong programmes to repatriate many of their skilled nationals abroad have beenput in place since 1980.

Managing the Drain.What are the

options?

Continuation

M i th D i Wh t th


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The experience of the Asian countries like the republic of Korea, Singapore andTaiwan, can provide very useful lessons from which African countries can learnfrom.

These nations did set up incentive schemes and mechanisms within a benignsocio-economic framework that helped to attract back home quite a lot of their

own highly trained expatriate people from the various industrialized countrieswho helped to fuel the revival of agriculture, commerce, higher education and hi-tech research within these nations and to transform them into the so called newlyindustrializing countries (MICS).

However, the IOM highlights difficulties of facilitating return in relation toAfrican professionals abroad.

The challenges highlighted include prolonged job search arising from

cumbersome processes, lack of trust in African government amongst thediaspora, and weak government ownership. (IOM cited in WHO/World Bank).


options?

Continuation

M i th D i Wh t th


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The diaspora option is based on network approaches where a network can be defined as aregular set of contacts or similar connections among individual actors or groups(Granoveltes and Suedberg; 1922:9).

These networks of highly skilled expatriates are referred to as expatriate knowledgenetworks.

The main feature of the diaspora option is that it tries to set up connections/linkages

between highly skilled expatriates and between them and the country of origin. This allows for information and knowledge exchange between expatriates and between

them and the country of origin.

It allows expatriates the opportunity to transfer their expertise and skills to the country oforigin without necessarily returning home permanently.

In this way the country of origin has access to the knowledge and expertise of the expatriate,but also the knowledge networks that he/she forms part of in the host country.

A crucial element of the diaspora option is therefore an effective system of information tofacilitate transfer and exchange of information between network members and betweenthem and their counterparts in the country of origin.

Intellectual diaspora members therefore can enable and promote collaboration with Africanpeople, institutions and enterprises


options?

Continuation

M i th D i Wh t th


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However Diaspora Option requires good organizations of networks to ensurecommunication informationexchange and coordinated actions.

This is where an interface or coordinating body becomes necessary.

The function of such a coordinating body would be to collect, organize and maintain theinformation needed for the systematic search of partnerships, but also o manage and

promote the interests and actions of the multiple entities in a network of this kind. Diaspora option is based on information transfer, and studies have shown that, the next

society will be a knowledge society, enabled by the rapidly developing information andcommunications technology. According to Peter Drucker, it will have highly competitivecharacteristics and will use knowledge as a key resource.

Knowledge has become the most important factor for international competitiveness, thecreation of wealth and the improvement of living conditions.

The knowledge society will rely heavily on knowledge workers, both traditionalprofessionals like doctors, scientists and engineers, and also "knowledge technologists" suchas IT technicians, lab analysts and manufacturing experts, who need a basis of theoreticalknowledge acquired through formal education.


options?

Continuation

M i th D i Wh t th


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Innovation, a knowledge-intensive endeavor, requires creative people to put knowledge towork. It also needs a favorable environment.

A culture of innovation has indeed become a prerequisite of development in the 21stcentury.

"To understand peoples ability to innovate and their ability to adapt to change",

says a recent report from UNESCO, "one has to take into account the social and culturalcomponents of innovation, our environment - including our belief and value systems -shapes the way we view the world around us and determines how we react to ongoingchange.

Technological change has often-overlooked social effect or consequence; namely, it alterssocial hierarchies and the power structure of groups within society and in some cases societyitself.

In order to understand peoples ability to innovate and their ability to adapt to change, one

has to take into account the social and cultural components of innovation. In the end, these factors are the tools that enable us to create a culture of innovation". The experience of many countries has clearly shown that the loss of high level people

cannot be stemmed successfully by restricting mobility, but rather by a favorable politicaland economic climate together with better work facilities, adequate pay and advancementthrough merit.

This helps retain exceptional talents within the country and utilize them for the countrys

benefit. It may also help to bring back some of those who had previously emigrated.


options?

Continuation

M i th D i Wh t th


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Members of the intellectual Diaspora may be induced to participate actively in new,innovative productive ventures in the home country.

Emigrants that have accumulated abundant capital, developed novel technologies, andgenerated successful enterprises may be willing to create new ventures at home on the basisof such resources, often in association with a local partner, if there is true support for theseefforts.

A promotional mechanism and adequate incentives may help here, such as has happened inKorea, Taiwan and China, where the respective governments have catalyzed and nurturedsuch initiatives.

Several "brain exporting" countries have become aware of these potential benefits, and areattempting to organize their intellectual Diasporas so as to better utilize their high levelnationals abroad.

This requires a significant effort to survey the Diasporas human resources, create an activenetwork, and develop specific activities and programs.

China, Colombia, South Africa (with the motto transform brain drain into brain gain) andto a lesser extent other countries are putting efforts into this.

India has also embarked on a similar enterprise.

It has begun the process admirably, and should follow up with intensive, creative efforts toconnect the network in meaningful endeavors in order to effectively assist the country.


options?

Continuation

M i th D i Wh t th


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Even more can be done by identifying those members of the Diaspora who have acquiredexceptional innovative capabilities, utilizing them to spur the home country talents to amore innovative level, and providing easier access, open attitudes and opportunities to bringabout meaningful change.

Within the intellectual Diaspora, some individuals have developed truly innovativecapabilities. We may call them Diaspora innovatorshaving acquired cultural traits and

specific knowledge that are essential to innovation in science, technology, education andentrepreneurship.

"Diaspora innovators" who have studied and worked for extended periods in a modern,open innovative environment have acquired different beliefs and values from those of theiroriginal societies.

They view the world differently and are able to react to ongoing changes in a more flexible,dynamic and positive manner.

Many have acquired good managerial expertise and technological competence, as well as"cultural literacy (the ability to recognize and exploit social, cultural, lifestyle, and ethnicdistinctions)" and "a reflexive approach to knowledge and practices" (UNESCO).

These core competencies are crucial in creating a culture of innovation.

Diaspora innovators indeed embody a specific capital that may be tapped for the purpose ofbuilding a culture of innovation in the home country, and thus contribute to developing aknowledge society there.


options?

Continuation


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Supply of well-qualified labour is a key ingredient in the generation and diffusion ofinnovation. Increased human capital not only raises labour productivity, but also serves as adriver of technological progress through a significantly positive effect on businesssectorR&D.

The OECD Growth Study estimated that the longrun effect on GDP per capital of oneadditional year of education ranges from 4% o 7% (OECD, 2003g).

Governments invest in its citizens human capital through training and education and expecta return on their investment when the individual becomes economically and start payingtaxes.

Within this perspective migration of highly skilled human resources present a loss to thesending country, because they loss out on returns on the capital they invested in theindividual.

However, the intellectual diaspora takes a fundamentally different stance to traditional

perspectives on the brain drain in that it sees the brain drain not as a loss but a potentialgain to the sending country.

Conclusions and Policy Implications


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To realize its full potential, there is need for a democratization and domestication ofscience and technology in Africa.

All key stakeholders must be involved, through national dialogues, in the policy formulationand implementation process, so as to transcend policies that tend to be too narrowlyfocused on a few number of isolated, ill-equipped and under paid researched andacademicians.

This will contribute to moving a way from elitist policies, and to defining andstrengthening the respective role of public institutions, international partners, universities,NGOs, women organizations, civil society and the private sector.

It would also ensure that policies are tailored primarily with a view to meeting specific needsof end-users and clients.

Conclusions and Policy Implications

Continuation


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Annex Reference Tables

Time Period Average Annual Rate Total Number

1960-1974 1,800 27,000

1975-1984 4,000 40,000

1985-1989 12,000 60,000

Since 1990 20,000 --

Table 1.Emigration of Skilled Africans to Industrialized Countries

Source: IOM

Table 2 Intellectual Diaspora Network

Country Name of Network Type of Network

Arab Countries The Network of Arab Scientists and TechnologistsAbroad (ASTA)

Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

Argentina Programa para la Vinculacion con Cientificos y

Tecnicos Argentinos en el Exterior (Program for

the Linkage of Argentine Scientists and

Technologists Abroad) (PROCITEXT)

Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora

Network

Assam Transfer of knowledge and Technology to Assam TOK TEN Programme


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China Chinese Scholars Abroad (CHISA)Society of Chinese Bioscientists in AmericaChinese American Engineers and Scientists

Association of Southern California (CESASC)

Student/Scholarly NetworkLocal Association of ExpatriatesLocal Association of Expatriates

Colombia The Colombian Network of Researchers and Engineers

Abroad (Red Caldas)


El Salvador Conectandonos al Futuro de El Salvador (Connecting

to El Salvodor?s Future

Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

France Sillicon Valley Indian Professionals Association (SIPA)Worldwide Indian NetworkThe international Associaion of Scientists and

Engineers and Technologists of Bharatiya OriginInterface for Non Resident Indian Scientists and

Technoligists Programme (INRIST)

Local Association of ExpatriatesIntell/Scien Diaspora NetworkDeveloping Intell/Scien Diaspora NetworkDeveloping Intell/Scien Diaspora Networks

Iran The Iranian Scholars Scientific Information Network Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

Ireland The Irish Research Scientists? Association (IRSA) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

Japan Japanese Associate Network (JANET) Student/Scholarly Network

Kenya Association of Kenyans Abroad (AKA) Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

Table 2 Continuation



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Korea Korean Scientists Engineers Association of

Sacramento ValleyThe Global Korean Network

Local Association of ExpatriatesIntell/Scien Diaspora Network

Latin America Asociation I.attino-americaine de Scientifiques

(Latin American Association of Scientists) (ALAS)


Lebanon TOKTEN for Lebanon TOKTEN ProgrammeMorocco Moroccan Association of Researchers and Scholars

Abroad (MARS)

Student/Scholarly Network

Nigeria Association of Nigerians Abroad (A.N.A) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

Norway Association of Norwegian Students Student/Scholarly Network

Pakistan Return of Qualified Expatriate Nationals to Pakistan TOKTEN Programme

Palestine Programme of Assistance to the Palestine People TOKTEN Programme

Peru Red Cientifica Peruana (Peruvian Scientific

Network)

Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

Philippines Brain Gain Network (BGN) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

Poland The Polish Scientists Abroad Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

Romania The Forum for Science and Reform (FORS) Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

South Africa The South African Network of Skills Abroad

(SANSA)





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Thailand The Reverse Brain Drain Project (RBD)Association of Thai Professionals in America and

Canada (ATPAC)The Association of Thai Professionals in Europe

(ATPER)

The Association of Thai Professionals in Japan(ATPIJ)

Developing Intell/Scien. Diaspora

NetworkIntell/Scien Diaspora NetworkIntell/Scien Diaspora NetworkIntell/Scien Diaspora Network

Tunisia The Tunisian Scientific Consortium (TSC) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

Uruguay Red Academica Uruguaya (Uruguayan Academic

Network)


Network

Venezuela In contact with VenezuelaEl Programa Talento Venezolano en el Extrior

(Program of Venezuelan Talents Abroad)

(TALVEN)


Networks




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Country of training Number of African

trained IMGs in

US

Number of trained

IMGs in Canada

Number of physicians

remaining in

home country

% of total African

trained now in

US or Canada

Nigeria 2158 123 22894 9

South Africa 1943 1845 23844 14

Ghana 478 37 1210 30

Ethiopia 257 9 1564 15

Uganda 133 42 722 20

Kenya 93 19 4001 3

Zimbabwe 75 26 1694 6

Liberia 47 8 72 43

Other 12 countries* 83 35 12912 1

Total/average 5334 2151 65589 10

Table 3 Country of medical school of sub-Saharan African internationalmedical graduates (IMGs) in the US and Canada

Source: Hagopiuan et al. (2004: 5)

Note:*other 12 countries with at least one graduate in the United States.



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Table 4 Overseas trained nurses registered per annum in the UK 1998-2005(Excluding the European Union)

Country 1998/99 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05

India 30 96 289 994 1830 3073 3690

Philippines 52 1052 3396 7235 5593 4338 2521

Australia 1335 1209 1046 1342 920 1326 981

South Africa 599 1460 1086 2114 1368 1689 933

Nigeria 179 208 347 432 509 511 466

West Indies 221 425 261 248 208 397 352

Zimbabwe 52 221 382 473 485 391 311

New Zealand 527 461 393 443 282 348 289

Ghana 40 74 140 195 251 354 272

Pakistan 3 13 44 207 172 140 205

Zambia 15 40 88 183 133 169 162

US 139 168 147 122 88 141 105



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Mauritius 6 15 41 62 59 95 102

Kenya 19 29 50 155 152 146 99

Botswana 4 - 87 100 39 90 91

Canada 196 130 89 79 52 89 88

Nepal 21 43 73

Swaziland 81 69

China 60

Malawi 1 15 45 75 57 64 52

Others 637 495

Total 3621 5945 8403 15,064 12,730 14,1222 11,416

Source: NMC (2005).

Listed by most numerous country applicants in 2004-05




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Thank You

THE ASSOCIATION OF AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES (AAU),

FOR THE OPPORTUNITY

Documents

The African Brain Drain-dr Onsando