The 1960sThe 1960s

KENNEDY’S PRESIDENCYKENNEDY’S PRESIDENCY

Election of 1960Election of 1960– NomineesNominees

Republicans nominated Vice President Republicans nominated Vice President Richard M. NixonRichard M. Nixon

Democrats nominated Democrats nominated Senator John F. Senator John F. KennedyKennedy

– Lyndon B. Johnson, Kennedy’s runningmateLyndon B. Johnson, Kennedy’s runningmate– Acceptance speech: Kennedy called upon Acceptance speech: Kennedy called upon

American people for sacrifices to achieve their American people for sacrifices to achieve their potential greatness- potential greatness- The New FrontierThe New Frontier

CampaignCampaign– Kennedy’s Catholicism was an issue Kennedy’s Catholicism was an issue

DebatesDebates– First time debates shown on national First time debates shown on national

television; determined fate of electiontelevision; determined fate of election Kennedy earned the support of Kennedy earned the support of

African Americans when he arranged African Americans when he arranged to have Martin Luther King released to have Martin Luther King released from a Georgia jailfrom a Georgia jail

ResultResult– Kennedy defeated Nixon by slightly over Kennedy defeated Nixon by slightly over

100,000 popular votes; 303-219 in 100,000 popular votes; 303-219 in electoral voteselectoral votes Only Catholic president in U.S. history; Only Catholic president in U.S. history;

youngest to be elected at age 43youngest to be elected at age 43

– Inaugural speech: Inaugural speech: "Ask not what your "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you country can do for you; ask what you can do forcan do for your country."your country."

Kennedy’s domestic policyKennedy’s domestic policy

Robert KennedyRobert Kennedy (RFK)- attorney (RFK)- attorney general general

Legislative failures: JFK unable to get Legislative failures: JFK unable to get much through Congress due to much through Congress due to resistance from Republicans and resistance from Republicans and conservative Southern Democratsconservative Southern Democrats– Congress blocked plans for an income tax Congress blocked plans for an income tax

cut, federal aid to education, urban cut, federal aid to education, urban renewal, medical care the aged, and renewal, medical care the aged, and creation of Dept. of Urban Affairs creation of Dept. of Urban Affairs

Minimum wage raised from $1 to Minimum wage raised from $1 to $1.25 an hour and extended to 3 $1.25 an hour and extended to 3 million more workersmillion more workers

Area Redevelopment Act of 1961: Area Redevelopment Act of 1961: provided $400 million in loans to provided $400 million in loans to "distressed areas”"distressed areas”

Housing Act of 1961: Provided nearly Housing Act of 1961: Provided nearly $5 billion for development of mass $5 billion for development of mass transit, and the construction of transit, and the construction of middle class housingmiddle class housing

Space RaceSpace Race– Kennedy promoted $24 billion project to Kennedy promoted $24 billion project to

land an American on the moonland an American on the moon US was behind the USSR in space US was behind the USSR in space

technologytechnology

– 1969, 1969, Apollo 11Apollo 11 mission transported mission transported two American astronauts successfully to two American astronauts successfully to the moon: the moon: Neil ArmstrongNeil Armstrong and and Buzz Buzz AldrinAldrin

JFK and Civil Rights JFK and Civil Rights

Did nothing during his first two yearsDid nothing during his first two years Civil Rights MilitantsCivil Rights Militants

– May 1961, May 1961, Freedom RidersFreedom Riders organized by organized by CORE (Congress of Racial Equality)CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) Rode interstate buses to verify segregation Rode interstate buses to verify segregation

wasn’t happeningwasn’t happening In Alabama, Freedom Riders were arrested; In Alabama, Freedom Riders were arrested;

some severely beatensome severely beaten RFK petitioned Interstate Commerce RFK petitioned Interstate Commerce

Commission to issue a ruling against Commission to issue a ruling against segregation of interstate facilitiessegregation of interstate facilities

– Sept. 1962, JFK had to send the U.S. Sept. 1962, JFK had to send the U.S. Army to enforce a court order to enroll Army to enforce a court order to enroll James MeredithJames Meredith in the University of in the University of MississippiMississippi

– Showdown in Showdown in Birmingham, AlabamaBirmingham, Alabama 1963, Birmingham closed parks, playgrounds, swimming 1963, Birmingham closed parks, playgrounds, swimming

pools, and golf courses to avoid desegregationpools, and golf courses to avoid desegregation Martin Luther King, Jr.Martin Luther King, Jr. chose Birmingham because it chose Birmingham because it

was the toughest challenge and a victory would break was the toughest challenge and a victory would break segregation throughout the Southsegregation throughout the South

MLK and supporters arrested on Good Friday for MLK and supporters arrested on Good Friday for marching without a permit and spent 2 weeks in jailmarching without a permit and spent 2 weeks in jail

““We know through painful experience that freedom is We know through painful experience that freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed. We must come to see… demanded by the oppressed. We must come to see… that justice too long delayed is justice denied.“that justice too long delayed is justice denied.“

Martin Luther King, Letter from a Martin Luther King, Letter from a Birmingham Birmingham

Jail, Jail, 1963 1963

– After his release, King began using black After his release, King began using black school children in the demonstrations:school children in the demonstrations: Police commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor Police commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor

used police dogs on demonstrators, fire used police dogs on demonstrators, fire hoses on childrenhoses on children

– Public pressure mounted for civil rights legislationPublic pressure mounted for civil rights legislation– Shortly after, King’s motel bombed (as was his Shortly after, King’s motel bombed (as was his

brother’s home)brother’s home) Rioting eruptedRioting erupted President Kennedy decided to side with King President Kennedy decided to side with King

Kennedy actively pursues civil rightsKennedy actively pursues civil rights– June 1963, JFK federalized Alabama National June 1963, JFK federalized Alabama National

Guard to enforce a court order requiring the Guard to enforce a court order requiring the admission of two blacks—James Hood and admission of two blacks—James Hood and Vivian Malone--to the Vivian Malone--to the University of AlabamaUniversity of Alabama Governor George WallaceGovernor George Wallace stood in doorway stood in doorway

protesting that states’ rights were being crushed protesting that states’ rights were being crushed (earlier had said in his inaugural speech: (earlier had said in his inaugural speech: "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever.")segregation forever.")

– That night, That night, Medgar EversMedgar Evers, NAACP director in , NAACP director in Mississippi, was assassinatedMississippi, was assassinated Seen as retaliation for University of Alabama incidentSeen as retaliation for University of Alabama incident

– In response, JFK announced he would send a In response, JFK announced he would send a civil rights bill to Congresscivil rights bill to Congress

– March on WashingtonMarch on Washington, August 28, , August 28, 1963 (led by King)1963 (led by King) Largest protest in nation’s history thus far; Largest protest in nation’s history thus far;

200,000200,000 Organized by Organized by A. Philip RandolphA. Philip Randolph Protesters demanded support for Kennedy’s Protesters demanded support for Kennedy’s

civil rights billcivil rights bill Martin Luther King, Jr. gave his "I have a Martin Luther King, Jr. gave his "I have a

dream" speechdream" speech

Kennedy and the Cold WarKennedy and the Cold War

"Flexible Response""Flexible Response": Kennedy : Kennedy developed conventional military developed conventional military strategies to deal with difficult strategies to deal with difficult challenges around the worldchallenges around the world– Kennedy ordered buildup of conventional Kennedy ordered buildup of conventional

armed forces to fight wars in the Third armed forces to fight wars in the Third WorldWorld Replaced Eisenhower’s heavy reliance on Replaced Eisenhower’s heavy reliance on

nuclear weaponsnuclear weapons Set up Set up Green BeretsGreen Berets (elite commando force) (elite commando force) Built up nuclear arsenalBuilt up nuclear arsenal

Bay of PigsBay of Pigs– 1960, Eisenhower authorized CIA to train in 1960, Eisenhower authorized CIA to train in

Central America a brigade of 1,400 Cuban Central America a brigade of 1,400 Cuban exiles for an invasion of Cuba to overthrow exiles for an invasion of Cuba to overthrow Fidel CastroFidel Castro JFK continued the planJFK continued the plan

– In April 1961, Bay of Pigs invasion failed In April 1961, Bay of Pigs invasion failed miserablymiserably 1,189 men were captured, 400 killed1,189 men were captured, 400 killed

– Kennedy publicly took full responsibility on Kennedy publicly took full responsibility on national TV for the ill-conceived missionnational TV for the ill-conceived mission

– Significance: brought USSR and Cuba closer Significance: brought USSR and Cuba closer together in planning for defense of a future together in planning for defense of a future U.S. invasion U.S. invasion

Peace CorpsPeace Corps – one of Kennedy’s – one of Kennedy’s most popular programsmost popular programs– Established in 1961, sent young Established in 1961, sent young

volunteers (doctors, lawyers and volunteers (doctors, lawyers and engineers) to third world countriesengineers) to third world countries

– Alternative to military containment of Alternative to military containment of communismcommunism

Alliance for ProgressAlliance for Progress– 1961, JFK gave $20 billion in aid to Latin 1961, JFK gave $20 billion in aid to Latin

America ("Latin American Marshall Plan")America ("Latin American Marshall Plan")– Primary goal was to help Latin American Primary goal was to help Latin American

countries to close gap between rich and countries to close gap between rich and poor thus quieting communist poor thus quieting communist sympathiessympathies

– Result: Little positive impact on Latin Result: Little positive impact on Latin America’s social problems America’s social problems

Berlin WallBerlin Wall, 1961, 1961– 1949-1961: Thousands of East Germans 1949-1961: Thousands of East Germans

fled to West Berlinfled to West Berlin– August, 1961: East Germans built wall August, 1961: East Germans built wall

separating West Berlin from the rest of separating West Berlin from the rest of Berlin and East Germany almost Berlin and East Germany almost overnightovernight Purpose: Stem the flow of 100,000 people Purpose: Stem the flow of 100,000 people

leaving East Berlinleaving East Berlin

– Kennedy called up 1,500 US reserves to Kennedy called up 1,500 US reserves to reinforce West German garrisonsreinforce West German garrisons

– Tensions eased as the refugee problem Tensions eased as the refugee problem was solvedwas solved

– Wall remained until November, 1989 Wall remained until November, 1989

Cuban Missile CrisisCuban Missile Crisis (October 1962) (October 1962)– Khrushchev began placing nuclear Khrushchev began placing nuclear

weapons in Cuba, just 90 miles off Florida weapons in Cuba, just 90 miles off Florida coast in October 1962coast in October 1962

– Oct. 14, U.S. aerial photographs revealed Oct. 14, U.S. aerial photographs revealed Russians were secretly and speedily Russians were secretly and speedily installing nuclear missilesinstalling nuclear missiles Warning of missile attack would shrink from Warning of missile attack would shrink from

30 to 2 minutes30 to 2 minutes U.S. unaware that tactical nuclear missiles U.S. unaware that tactical nuclear missiles

were also in Cubawere also in Cuba– Designed to destroy invading armiesDesigned to destroy invading armies

Soviets also had nuclear cruise missiles to Soviets also had nuclear cruise missiles to destroy U.S. Navy destroy U.S. Navy

– October 22, JFK ordered a October 22, JFK ordered a naval naval "quarantine""quarantine" of Cuba and demanded of Cuba and demanded immediate removal of Soviet missiles immediate removal of Soviet missiles from Cubafrom Cuba Kennedy also stated any attack by Cuba on Kennedy also stated any attack by Cuba on

US or any other Latin American country US or any other Latin American country would result in a full retaliatory response on would result in a full retaliatory response on the Soviet Unionthe Soviet Union

Rejected a U.S. invasion of CubaRejected a U.S. invasion of Cuba Kennedy announcement on national TV; Kennedy announcement on national TV;

Americans shockedAmericans shocked All US forces put on full alert All US forces put on full alert

For a week, world watched as the For a week, world watched as the Soviet ship carrying missiles steamed Soviet ship carrying missiles steamed toward Cubatoward Cuba

October 26, Khrushchev agreed to October 26, Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles if U.S. removed its remove missiles if U.S. removed its missiles from Turkey and vowed not missiles from Turkey and vowed not to attack Cubato attack Cuba– This agreement publicly favored This agreement publicly favored

Kennedy as the U.S. quietly pulled its Kennedy as the U.S. quietly pulled its Turkish missiles out 6 months laterTurkish missiles out 6 months later

New spirit of cooperationNew spirit of cooperation– Kennedy and Khrushchev realized they had Kennedy and Khrushchev realized they had

come dangerously close to nuclear war come dangerously close to nuclear war and now worked to prevent a future warand now worked to prevent a future war

– Nuclear Test Ban TreatyNuclear Test Ban Treaty (July, 1963) (July, 1963) Banned the atmospheric testing of nuclear Banned the atmospheric testing of nuclear

weaponsweapons Signed by all major powers except France and Signed by all major powers except France and

ChinaChina JFK considered the treaty his greatest JFK considered the treaty his greatest

achievementachievement

– Hot-line installed with 24-hour access Hot-line installed with 24-hour access between Moscow and Washington between Moscow and Washington

Assassination of JFKAssassination of JFK

November 22, 1963, Kennedy November 22, 1963, Kennedy assassinated in Dallasassassinated in Dallas

Lyndon JohnsonLyndon Johnson became president became president Lee Harvey OswaldLee Harvey Oswald, the alleged , the alleged

assassin arrested shortly thereafterassassin arrested shortly thereafter– Oswald killed a few days later by Jack Oswald killed a few days later by Jack

RubyRuby

Warren CommissionWarren Commission, ordered by , ordered by Johnson, report stated that Oswald Johnson, report stated that Oswald was the lone assassinwas the lone assassin– "Magic bullet theory”"Magic bullet theory”

JOHNSON’S PRESIDENCYJOHNSON’S PRESIDENCY

President Lyndon B. Johnson and the President Lyndon B. Johnson and the Election of 1964Election of 1964– Pledged to continue Kennedy’s policiesPledged to continue Kennedy’s policies– Began his "War on Poverty“Began his "War on Poverty“– 1964 tax cut of about $10 billion 1964 tax cut of about $10 billion

resulted in an economic boom resulted in an economic boom

Election of 1964Election of 1964– Democrats nominated LBJ on the Democrats nominated LBJ on the

platform of platform of "The Great Society“"The Great Society“ Sweeping set of New Deal-type economic Sweeping set of New Deal-type economic

and welfare measures aimed to transform and welfare measures aimed to transform AmericaAmerica

Public sentiment aroused by Public sentiment aroused by Michael Michael Harrington’s Harrington’s The OtherThe Other AmericaAmerica (1962) (1962) which showed 20% of US population and which showed 20% of US population and over 40% of blacks lived in povertyover 40% of blacks lived in poverty

– Republicans nominated Republicans nominated Barry Barry GoldwaterGoldwater, senator from Arizona, senator from Arizona

– Considered by many today as the "father of the Considered by many today as the "father of the modern conservatism" modern conservatism"

LBJ promises he would not expand LBJ promises he would not expand involvement in Vietnam; involvement in Vietnam; characterizes Goldwater as characterizes Goldwater as warmongerwarmonger

Results: Johnson d. Goldwater 486-52Results: Johnson d. Goldwater 486-52

The Great SocietyThe Great Society

War on PovertyWar on Poverty (after election of 1964): (after election of 1964): Office of Economic Opportunity Office of Economic Opportunity ("Equal Opportunity Act")("Equal Opportunity Act")– Appropriation doubled to nearly $2 billionAppropriation doubled to nearly $2 billion– Elementary and Secondary Education Elementary and Secondary Education

Act of 1965Act of 1965 Over $1 billion given to elementary and secondary Over $1 billion given to elementary and secondary

educationeducation

– Head StartHead Start prepared educationally prepared educationally disadvantaged children for elementary school disadvantaged children for elementary school

Medicare Act of 1965Medicare Act of 1965 passed for the elderly passed for the elderly– Provided medical care for the elderly who were not Provided medical care for the elderly who were not

coveredcovered Dept of Housing and Urban Development Dept of Housing and Urban Development

(HUD)(HUD) created in 1966 created in 1966– 1966, 1966, Robert C. WeaverRobert C. Weaver, HUD secretary, became , HUD secretary, became

first African American cabinet member in U.S. historyfirst African American cabinet member in U.S. history Immigration Act of 1965Immigration Act of 1965

– Discontinued national origins system from the 1920sDiscontinued national origins system from the 1920s– Immigration now based on first-come first-serve basisImmigration now based on first-come first-serve basis

Immigrants with families already in US had precedenceImmigrants with families already in US had precedence

– Immigration on things such as skills and political Immigration on things such as skills and political asylumasylum Artists, scientists and political refugees given preferenceArtists, scientists and political refugees given preference

CultureCulture– National Endowment for the ArtsNational Endowment for the Arts

(NEA)(NEA)– Public Broadcasting System created Public Broadcasting System created

(PBS)(PBS)

Triumph of civil rightsTriumph of civil rights

24th Amendment24th Amendment (1964): (1964): Abolished poll tax in federal elections Abolished poll tax in federal elections

Civil Rights Bill of 1964Civil Rights Bill of 1964– ProvisionsProvisions

Forbade segregation in hotels, motels, Forbade segregation in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and sporting arenas restaurants, theaters, and sporting arenas that did business in interstate commercethat did business in interstate commerce

– Equal Employment Opportunity CommissionEqual Employment Opportunity Commission created to enforce the lawcreated to enforce the law

Eliminated remaining restrictions on black Eliminated remaining restrictions on black votingvoting

Title VIITitle VII: Discrimination based on race, : Discrimination based on race, religion gender and national origin in the religion gender and national origin in the workplace was illegalworkplace was illegal

– Result: Most businesses in the South’s Result: Most businesses in the South’s cities and larger towns desegregated cities and larger towns desegregated immediately immediately

Voting Rights Act of 1965Voting Rights Act of 1965– 15th Amendment still not enforced 15th Amendment still not enforced – March from Selma (AL) to WashingtonMarch from Selma (AL) to Washington

Only 383 of 15,000 blacks were registered Only 383 of 15,000 blacks were registered to vote in Selmato vote in Selma

After 2 months of beatings, arrests, and one After 2 months of beatings, arrests, and one murder, civil rights leaders in Selma murder, civil rights leaders in Selma announced a climactic protest march from announced a climactic protest march from Selma to MontgomerySelma to Montgomery

In response Johnson promised to send a bill In response Johnson promised to send a bill to Congress that would extend voting rights to Congress that would extend voting rights to African Americans in the Deep South to African Americans in the Deep South

– Provisions:Provisions: Literacy tests unlawfulLiteracy tests unlawful If local registrars would not enroll African If local registrars would not enroll African

Americans, the president could send federal Americans, the president could send federal examiners who wouldexaminers who would

– This gave teeth to the Civil Rights Act of 1964This gave teeth to the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Result, 740,00 blacks registered to vote Result, 740,00 blacks registered to vote within three yearswithin three years

For first time since Reconstruction, For first time since Reconstruction, African Americans migrated into the African Americans migrated into the South South

Affirmative ActionAffirmative Action (part of (part of the Great Society)the Great Society)

1965: requiring employers on federal 1965: requiring employers on federal contracts to take "affirmative action" contracts to take "affirmative action" to ensure underprivileged minorities to ensure underprivileged minorities and women were hiredand women were hired– Purpose: give preferences to minorities Purpose: give preferences to minorities

to make up for past discriminationto make up for past discrimination– Result: Black, Asian, and Hispanic Result: Black, Asian, and Hispanic

enrollment in universities increased enrollment in universities increased dramatically dramatically

1970s saw cries of 1970s saw cries of "reverse "reverse discriminationdiscrimination””

Bakke caseBakke case, 1978, 1978– Supreme Court ruled that Allan Bakke, a Supreme Court ruled that Allan Bakke, a

white medical student, was unfairly turned white medical student, was unfairly turned down to medical school because of an down to medical school because of an admissions program that favored minoritiesadmissions program that favored minorities

– Court declared preference in admissions Court declared preference in admissions could not be given to members of any could not be given to members of any group based on ethnic or racial identity group based on ethnic or racial identity alonealone Only if the minority applicant was equally Only if the minority applicant was equally

qualified could race be used as a factor qualified could race be used as a factor

1967, Johnson appointed 1967, Johnson appointed Thurgood Thurgood MarshallMarshall as first African American to as first African American to Supreme CourtSupreme Court

Forced busingForced busing– 1968, Supreme Court ordered end to 1968, Supreme Court ordered end to de factode facto

segregation of nation’s schoolsegregation of nation’s school– Court ordered school districts to bus children to Court ordered school districts to bus children to

achieve integration of schoolsachieve integration of schools African-American civil rights movement in African-American civil rights movement in

retrospectretrospect– Years between 1954 and 1968 seen as "2nd Years between 1954 and 1968 seen as "2nd

Reconstruction“Reconstruction“ Equality before the law largely achievedEquality before the law largely achieved

Rise of Black Power and racial Rise of Black Power and racial violence violence

Not all African Americans agreed Not all African Americans agreed with Martin Luther King’s non-violent with Martin Luther King’s non-violent methodsmethods– Blacks still continued to experience Blacks still continued to experience

poverty and discrimination in the poverty and discrimination in the nation’s inner-cities nation’s inner-cities

Black SeparatismBlack Separatism– Called for the separation of the races in Called for the separation of the races in

America by occupying an exclusive area of America by occupying an exclusive area of land in the U.S. supplied by the federal land in the U.S. supplied by the federal gov’tgov’t

– Inspired by ideas of Inspired by ideas of Marcus GarveyMarcus Garvey– Nation of IslamNation of Islam (black Muslim movement) (black Muslim movement)– Malcolm XMalcolm X

Preached religious justification for black Preached religious justification for black separatism and furthering of black rights separatism and furthering of black rights through through "any means necessary.“"any means necessary.“

– Advocated use of weapons for self-defense believing Advocated use of weapons for self-defense believing nonviolence encouraged white violencenonviolence encouraged white violence

– Feb., 1965, assassinated by three members of Nation Feb., 1965, assassinated by three members of Nation of Islam of Islam

SNCC and SNCC and Stokely CarmichaelStokely Carmichael– Influenced by Malcolm XInfluenced by Malcolm X– 1966, CORE and SNCC called for civil 1966, CORE and SNCC called for civil

rights movements to be staffed, rights movements to be staffed, controlled and financed by blacks, thus controlled and financed by blacks, thus rejecting interracial cooperationrejecting interracial cooperation Black nationalism replaced integration as Black nationalism replaced integration as

the goalthe goal

– Black PowerBlack Power: attempt to seize political : attempt to seize political power in an Alabama election and power in an Alabama election and advocated separatismadvocated separatism

– Black Panthers:Black Panthers: Revolutionary social movement to organize Revolutionary social movement to organize

African American men in northern and African American men in northern and western cities to fight for liberation- para-western cities to fight for liberation- para-militarymilitary

Racial violenceRacial violence– "Long Hot Summers""Long Hot Summers": throughout : throughout

summers of 1965, 1966 & 1967, racial summers of 1965, 1966 & 1967, racial disorders hitdisorders hit Watts Riots -- Los Angeles, August 11-16, Watts Riots -- Los Angeles, August 11-16,

19651965– 34 people dead, 1,072 injured, 4,000 arrested, 34 people dead, 1,072 injured, 4,000 arrested,

property loss nearly $40 millionproperty loss nearly $40 million– 1967, 7,000 arrested in Detroit1967, 7,000 arrested in Detroit

White businesses targetedWhite businesses targeted Snipers prevented fire-fighters from doing Snipers prevented fire-fighters from doing

their worktheir work

Kerner CommissionKerner Commission appointed by appointed by LBJ to investigate the riotsLBJ to investigate the riots– Conclusion:Conclusion:

Frustrated hopes of African Americans led to Frustrated hopes of African Americans led to violenceviolence

Blacks felt powerless in a society dominated Blacks felt powerless in a society dominated by whitesby whites

– Recommendations:Recommendations: Elimination of racial barriers in jobs, Elimination of racial barriers in jobs,

education & housingeducation & housing Greater public response to problems of Greater public response to problems of

racial minoritiesracial minorities Increased communication across racial lines Increased communication across racial lines

Assassination of Martin Luther King, Assassination of Martin Luther King, April 4, 1968April 4, 1968– Shot while standing on a balcony with Shot while standing on a balcony with

friends in Memphisfriends in Memphis

Rise of the "New Left“ and Rise of the "New Left“ and CountercultureCounterculture

New LeftNew Left– By mid-1960s majority of Americans By mid-1960s majority of Americans

were under age 30were under age 30– Students for a Democratic Society Students for a Democratic Society

(SDS)(SDS), headed by Tom Hayden called , headed by Tom Hayden called for "participatory democracy" in for "participatory democracy" in universities universities

Free Speech MovementFree Speech Movement– Students at U.C. Berkeley started sit-ins Students at U.C. Berkeley started sit-ins

in 1964 to protest prohibition of political in 1964 to protest prohibition of political canvassing on campuscanvassing on campus Police broke up a sit-in in December and Police broke up a sit-in in December and

protests spread to other campusesprotests spread to other campuses

– SDS become more militant during the SDS become more militant during the Vietnam War Vietnam War

Counterculture: Counterculture: “sex, drugs and “sex, drugs and Rock n’ Roll”Rock n’ Roll”– Like New Left, felt alienated by Like New Left, felt alienated by

bureaucracy, materialism, and the bureaucracy, materialism, and the Vietnam WarVietnam War Turned away from politics in favor of an Turned away from politics in favor of an

alternative societyalternative society "Hippies“"Hippies“

– Experimented with Eastern religions, drugs, and Experimented with Eastern religions, drugs, and sexsex

– Many involved in urban communes e.g. Haight-Many involved in urban communes e.g. Haight-Ashbury district in San Francisco; others in rural Ashbury district in San Francisco; others in rural areasareas

– Leading spokespeople: Timothy Leary, Theodore Leading spokespeople: Timothy Leary, Theodore RoszakRoszak

Music of the countercultureMusic of the counterculture– Music: Bob Dylan, Joan BaezMusic: Bob Dylan, Joan Baez– Beatles became influenced by Beatles became influenced by

Americans countercultureAmericans counterculture– WoodstockWoodstock, August, 1969, August, 1969

Featured Jimi Hendrix, Janis JoplinFeatured Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin– Unrestrained drug use and sexUnrestrained drug use and sex

The Warren CourtThe Warren Court

Chief Justice Earl Warren appointed to Chief Justice Earl Warren appointed to the Supreme Court by Eisenhower in the Supreme Court by Eisenhower in 19531953– His Court considered one of the two His Court considered one of the two

creative periods in US historycreative periods in US history John Marshall is considered to be the first of the John Marshall is considered to be the first of the

great creative periodsgreat creative periods

– Warren’s court stressed personal rights Warren’s court stressed personal rights (esp. 1st Amendment)(esp. 1st Amendment)

Brown v. Board of EducationBrown v. Board of Education (1954) (1954) most important of his court’s decisions most important of his court’s decisions

Rights of the accusedRights of the accused– Gideon v. WainwrightGideon v. Wainwright (1963): Established (1963): Established

that people accused of a crime have the right that people accused of a crime have the right to a lawyer, even if they cannot afford oneto a lawyer, even if they cannot afford one

– Escobedo v. IllinoisEscobedo v. Illinois (1964): Ruled that one (1964): Ruled that one has the right to a lawyer from the time of has the right to a lawyer from the time of arrest or when one becomes the subject of a arrest or when one becomes the subject of a criminal investigationcriminal investigation

– Miranda v. ArizonaMiranda v. Arizona (1966): Required that (1966): Required that accused people be informed of their right to a accused people be informed of their right to a lawyer and their right not to testify against lawyer and their right not to testify against themselvesthemselves

School Prayer: 1962, banned school prayer School Prayer: 1962, banned school prayer and religious exercises in public schools; and religious exercises in public schools; ruled it violated the establishment clause ruled it violated the establishment clause of the 1st Amendment of the 1st Amendment

Women’s Rights and the Women’s Rights and the Sexual RevolutionSexual Revolution

The Sexual Revolution (began in The Sexual Revolution (began in early 1960s)early 1960s)– Birth control pill- Birth control pill- promiscuity promiscuity

increased among younger Americansincreased among younger Americans– Challenged traditional values of pre-Challenged traditional values of pre-

marital sex as taboomarital sex as taboo Eleanor Roosevelt’s Commission on Eleanor Roosevelt’s Commission on

the Status of Women highlighted the Status of Women highlighted inequalities women facedinequalities women faced

Betty FriedanBetty Friedan– Feminine MystiqueFeminine Mystique (1963) considered (1963) considered

a classic of women’s protest literaturea classic of women’s protest literature Criticized plight of women with domestic Criticized plight of women with domestic

duties (cult of domesticity) who also had to duties (cult of domesticity) who also had to work full-time employment at jobs that paid work full-time employment at jobs that paid women less than menwomen less than men

– With other feminists founded the With other feminists founded the National Organization for Women National Organization for Women (NOW)(NOW) in 1966 in 1966 Called for equal employment opportunities Called for equal employment opportunities

and equal payand equal pay Sought legalization of abortion (most Sought legalization of abortion (most

controversial issue) controversial issue)

– 1967, began advocating and 1967, began advocating and Equal Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)Rights Amendment (ERA) to the to the Constitution extending the same Constitution extending the same guarantees contained in the 14th guarantees contained in the 14th Amendment for racial and religious Amendment for racial and religious minorities (Alice Paul had started this minorities (Alice Paul had started this idea in 1923)idea in 1923) Never ratifiedNever ratified Failed to pass as movement limited to Failed to pass as movement limited to

middle class women and pro- life groups middle class women and pro- life groups argued against itargued against it

– Opposition spearheaded by Opposition spearheaded by Phyllis SchlaflyPhyllis Schlafly

GainsGains– 1972, federal gov’t required colleges receiving 1972, federal gov’t required colleges receiving

federal funds to establish "affirmative action" federal funds to establish "affirmative action" programs for women to ensure equal programs for women to ensure equal opportunityopportunity

– Roe v. WadeRoe v. Wade -- Legalized abortion in 1973-- Legalized abortion in 1973 Hitherto states had the right to determine legality of Hitherto states had the right to determine legality of

abortionabortion

– Several corporations forced to provide back Several corporations forced to provide back wages to female employees who had not wages to female employees who had not received equal pay for equal workreceived equal pay for equal work

– Title IXTitle IX guaranteed equal access for girls in guaranteed equal access for girls in high school/college sportshigh school/college sports

– Women began breaking important barriers Women began breaking important barriers Sandra Day O’ConnorSandra Day O’Connor: first female Supreme Court : first female Supreme Court

justicejustice Geraldine FerraroGeraldine Ferraro: first woman in 1984 to be on a : first woman in 1984 to be on a

presidential ticket (VP)presidential ticket (VP)

President Lyndon Johnson’s President Lyndon Johnson’s legacylegacy

No president had shown more No president had shown more compassion for the poor, the ill compassion for the poor, the ill educated, and minoritieseducated, and minorities– Achievements of first three years Achievements of first three years

compared with the successes of the New compared with the successes of the New DealDeal

– Poverty rate declined measurably in the Poverty rate declined measurably in the next decade next decade

No president since Lincoln had No president since Lincoln had worked harder or done more for civil worked harder or done more for civil rightsrights

"Great Society" programs heavily "Great Society" programs heavily criticized by conservatives in criticized by conservatives in subsequent yearssubsequent years

The Vietnam War siphoned off much The Vietnam War siphoned off much of the energy of the Great Societyof the energy of the Great Society

VIETNAM WAR: 1964-VIETNAM WAR: 1964-19731973

BackgroundBackground– Vietnam War spread across 5 presidencies and Vietnam War spread across 5 presidencies and

spanned 25 yearsspanned 25 years– Direct U.S involvement from 1964-1973Direct U.S involvement from 1964-1973

France lost control of Vietnam after the battle of France lost control of Vietnam after the battle of Dien Dien Bien PhuBien Phu in 1954 in 1954

– Ho Chi MinhHo Chi Minh leader of communists in North leader of communists in North Vietnam: Vietnam: VietminhVietminh

– Geneva Conference, 1954 -- Agreement reached Geneva Conference, 1954 -- Agreement reached to divide country into north and south along the to divide country into north and south along the 17th parallel until a 1956 unifying election 17th parallel until a 1956 unifying election

Domino TheoryDomino Theory – determined – determined Eisenhower’s policies in Southeast Eisenhower’s policies in Southeast Asia in the 1950s and continued into Asia in the 1950s and continued into the 1960sthe 1960s– If one country in Indochina fell to If one country in Indochina fell to

communism, other surrounding communism, other surrounding countries would also fall, one right after countries would also fall, one right after the other, like dominoesthe other, like dominoes

Vietnam’s Civil WarVietnam’s Civil War– The Ngo Dinh Diem Regime was backed The Ngo Dinh Diem Regime was backed

by the U.S.by the U.S. Nationalist and fiercely anti-communistNationalist and fiercely anti-communist

– VietcongVietcong were communist insurgents in were communist insurgents in the South supported by Ho Chi Minh and the South supported by Ho Chi Minh and the Vietminh in the Norththe Vietminh in the North Officially called the NLF (National Liberation Officially called the NLF (National Liberation

Front)Front) Supported by China and the Soviet UnionSupported by China and the Soviet Union Promised economic reform, reunification with Promised economic reform, reunification with

the north, and genuine independencethe north, and genuine independence **Goal: Topple pro-American gov’t from power**Goal: Topple pro-American gov’t from power NLF assassinated 2,000 gov’t officials during NLF assassinated 2,000 gov’t officials during

19601960 Civil War resultedCivil War resulted

Kennedy and VietnamKennedy and Vietnam– Kennedy had to choose between Kennedy had to choose between

abandoning Ngo or deepening US abandoning Ngo or deepening US involvementinvolvement He increased US military advisors from 652 He increased US military advisors from 652

to 16,000to 16,000 Goal was to strengthen S. Vietnam Army Goal was to strengthen S. Vietnam Army

with US technologywith US technology

– Fall of Ngo Dinh DiemFall of Ngo Dinh Diem A Buddhist monk set himself on fire to A Buddhist monk set himself on fire to

protest Ngo’s regime (self-immolation); protest Ngo’s regime (self-immolation); photos changed world opinion overnightphotos changed world opinion overnight

Nov 1963, a coup by S. Vietnamese generals Nov 1963, a coup by S. Vietnamese generals overthrew Ngooverthrew Ngo

– Tacitly supported by US due to Ngo’s corruptionTacitly supported by US due to Ngo’s corruption– Three weeks later JFK was assassinatedThree weeks later JFK was assassinated

Johnson’s WarJohnson’s War– "I’m not going to be the president who "I’m not going to be the president who

saw Southeast Asia go the way China saw Southeast Asia go the way China went.“went.“

– President Johnson kept most of President Johnson kept most of Kennedy’s cabinet including:Kennedy’s cabinet including: Dean Rusk, Sec. of State: Major proponent of Dean Rusk, Sec. of State: Major proponent of

domino theorydomino theory Robert McNamaraRobert McNamara, Sec. of Defense: In , Sec. of Defense: In

effect, the architect of U.S. escalation policy effect, the architect of U.S. escalation policy in Vietnamin Vietnam

Johnson rejected any settlement in Vietnam Johnson rejected any settlement in Vietnam not guaranteeing a non-communist gov’t not guaranteeing a non-communist gov’t

Gulf of Tonkin ResolutionGulf of Tonkin Resolution, 1964, 1964– Beginning of the Vietnam War for the U.S.Beginning of the Vietnam War for the U.S.– Early Aug. 1964, Johnson announced Early Aug. 1964, Johnson announced

North Vietnamese torpedo boats had North Vietnamese torpedo boats had attacked two US destroyers off the coast attacked two US destroyers off the coast of North Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkinof North Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin "Attacks were unprovoked“"Attacks were unprovoked“

– Congress almost unanimously passed the Congress almost unanimously passed the Gulf of Tonkin ResolutionGulf of Tonkin Resolution Gave Johnson more authority to widen the Gave Johnson more authority to widen the

war effort without waiting for Congress to war effort without waiting for Congress to declare wardeclare war

– Johnson ordered a "limited" retaliatory Johnson ordered a "limited" retaliatory air raid against North Vietnamese air air raid against North Vietnamese air basesbases

– Johnson’s major error was using the Gulf Johnson’s major error was using the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution to justify his of Tonkin Resolution to justify his widening of the war without seeking widening of the war without seeking congressional and popular approvalcongressional and popular approval

EscalationEscalation– As situation unraveled, initial objective As situation unraveled, initial objective

in South Vietnam stabilization was no in South Vietnam stabilization was no longer viablelonger viable Vietnam became a “quagmire”Vietnam became a “quagmire”

– LBJ made fateful decision to escalate the LBJ made fateful decision to escalate the war on March 2, 1965war on March 2, 1965

Increase of US troopsIncrease of US troops– 1965: 184,000; 1968: 538,0001965: 184,000; 1968: 538,000

Operation Rolling ThunderOperation Rolling Thunder– LBJ ordered the 1st bombing of N. LBJ ordered the 1st bombing of N.

Vietnam which went nonstop for 3 yearsVietnam which went nonstop for 3 years Bombing aimed at bases, roads, and Bombing aimed at bases, roads, and

railways in North Vietnamrailways in North Vietnam Also targeted the "Ho Chi Minh Trial”Also targeted the "Ho Chi Minh Trial” Raids failed to cut off N. Vietnamese aid to Raids failed to cut off N. Vietnamese aid to

the NLFthe NLF

U.S. forces in Vietnam led by U.S. forces in Vietnam led by General General William C. WestmorelandWilliam C. Westmoreland

Air WarAir War– Air strikes were preferred because it cost less Air strikes were preferred because it cost less

US livesUS lives– To flush out the enemy Napalm was used to To flush out the enemy Napalm was used to

burn out heavy jungle areas where the burn out heavy jungle areas where the Vietcong and Vietminh operatedVietcong and Vietminh operated

– Agent OrangeAgent Orange used as a defoliant to kill used as a defoliant to kill jungle vegetationjungle vegetation Many U.S. soldiers exposed and later developed Many U.S. soldiers exposed and later developed

cancer cancer

Fighting the Vietnam WarFighting the Vietnam War

Ground WarGround War– Search & destroy missionsSearch & destroy missions against against

guerrilla tacticsguerrilla tactics Just finding the enemy (“Charlie”) was Just finding the enemy (“Charlie”) was

difficultdifficult Dense, humid, hot hostile jungle terrainDense, humid, hot hostile jungle terrain

– Vietcong knew the terrain and had much Vietcong knew the terrain and had much better peasant supportbetter peasant support

– "Pacification" programs -- Villages were "Pacification" programs -- Villages were uprooted by US and people moved to uprooted by US and people moved to citiescities

Tet Offensive,Tet Offensive, 1968: beginning of 1968: beginning of the end to U.S. involvement in the end to U.S. involvement in VietnamVietnam– Tet New Year, Jan 30. 1968, massive Tet New Year, Jan 30. 1968, massive

coordinated strike by North Vietnamcoordinated strike by North Vietnam 67,000 Vietcong attacked 100 cities, bases, 67,000 Vietcong attacked 100 cities, bases,

and embassyand embassy

– Tet Offensive not militarily successful for Tet Offensive not militarily successful for North Vietnam but psychologically North Vietnam but psychologically destroyed American hopes of winning destroyed American hopes of winning

Critics of US policy Critics of US policy

New LeftNew Left– Massive student protests began focusing Massive student protests began focusing

on the Vietnam waron the Vietnam war Antiwar movementAntiwar movement

– Started with 1965 bombing escalation; Started with 1965 bombing escalation; grew greatly thereaftergrew greatly thereafter

– Draft perhaps the biggest cause for protestDraft perhaps the biggest cause for protest NY and San Francisco saw hundreds of NY and San Francisco saw hundreds of

thousands of marchers yelling "Hell no, we thousands of marchers yelling "Hell no, we won’t go," and "Hey, hey, LBJ, how many kids won’t go," and "Hey, hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?"did you kill today?"

Draft numbers increased from 5,000 Draft numbers increased from 5,000 per month in 1965 to 50,000 per per month in 1965 to 50,000 per month in 1967month in 1967– Poor were twice as likely to be drafted Poor were twice as likely to be drafted

than the middle class who used college than the middle class who used college deferments (until lottery instituted in deferments (until lottery instituted in 1970)1970)

– Thousands of draft dodgers fled to Thousands of draft dodgers fled to Canada; others burned their draft cardsCanada; others burned their draft cards

PressPress– Technology allowed Vietnam to be brought into Technology allowed Vietnam to be brought into

American’s living rooms with very little American’s living rooms with very little censoring of the presscensoring of the press

– After Tet Offensive media grew increasingly After Tet Offensive media grew increasingly critical of the warcritical of the war Walter Cronkite: "What the hell is going on. I thought Walter Cronkite: "What the hell is going on. I thought

we were winning the war. It seems now more certain we were winning the war. It seems now more certain than ever that the bloody experience in Vietnam is to than ever that the bloody experience in Vietnam is to end in a stalemate. The only rational way out is to end in a stalemate. The only rational way out is to negotiate.“negotiate.“

Johnson: "If I’ve lost Walter, then it’s over, I’ve lost Johnson: "If I’ve lost Walter, then it’s over, I’ve lost Mr. Average Citizen“Mr. Average Citizen“

– Editorials in Newsweek, Time, and Wall Street Editorials in Newsweek, Time, and Wall Street called for negotiated settlementcalled for negotiated settlement

– Body counts of total enemy kills had been used Body counts of total enemy kills had been used to show the U.S. was killing far more Vietcong to show the U.S. was killing far more Vietcong and Vietminhand Vietminh

– Public support for the war eventually plunged Public support for the war eventually plunged from 40% to 26%. from 40% to 26%.

Hawks and Doves argued over US Hawks and Doves argued over US rolerole– HawksHawks defended president’s policy and defended president’s policy and

drew on Truman’s containment policydrew on Truman’s containment policy John Birch SocietyJohn Birch Society

– Doves: Doves: Vietnam a civil war in which US Vietnam a civil war in which US should not get involvedshould not get involved

– Tet Offensive changed public opinion Tet Offensive changed public opinion dramaticallydramatically Hawks decreased from 62% to 22% from Jan Hawks decreased from 62% to 22% from Jan

1968 to March 1968; Doves from 22% to 1968 to March 1968; Doves from 22% to 42% 42%

Democratic party challengers for Democratic party challengers for 1968 nomination1968 nomination– Johnson’s popularity dropped from 48% Johnson’s popularity dropped from 48%

to 36%to 36%– Eugene McCarthy ran an antiwar Eugene McCarthy ran an antiwar

campaigncampaign– Robert Kennedy launched antiwar Robert Kennedy launched antiwar

campaigncampaign– March 31: Johnson announced he would March 31: Johnson announced he would

not seek another termnot seek another term Tet, McCarthy, and Kennedy contributed to Tet, McCarthy, and Kennedy contributed to

LBJ’s decisionLBJ’s decision

NomineesNominees– Democrats:Democrats:

Robert Kennedy assassinated after winning Robert Kennedy assassinated after winning California primaryCalifornia primary

Assured Vice President Hubert Humphrey of Assured Vice President Hubert Humphrey of the nominationthe nomination

Election of 1968Election of 1968

– Republicans nominated Republicans nominated Richard M. Richard M. NixonNixon Nixon’s Nixon’s “Southern Strategy”“Southern Strategy”

– Spiro Agnew was vice presidential running mate, Spiro Agnew was vice presidential running mate, aimed to appeal to Southern votersaimed to appeal to Southern voters

– Nixon committed to continuing war until enemy Nixon committed to continuing war until enemy settled for "honorable peace.“settled for "honorable peace.“

– George WallaceGeorge Wallace of Alabama: American of Alabama: American Independent PartyIndependent Party Appealed to southernersAppealed to southerners Advocated bombing North Vietnam "back to Advocated bombing North Vietnam "back to

the Stone Age" the Stone Age"

ResultResult– Nixon defeated Humphrey by only 1% of Nixon defeated Humphrey by only 1% of

popular vote but by 301 to 191 in popular vote but by 301 to 191 in electoral voteselectoral votes

– Congress remained Democratic; Congress remained Democratic; Democrats got 95% of black voteDemocrats got 95% of black vote

1968: 1968: “The Year of Shocks”“The Year of Shocks”

Tet OffensiveTet Offensive Martin Luther King, Jr. assassinatedMartin Luther King, Jr. assassinated Robert Kennedy assassinatedRobert Kennedy assassinated Riot outside the Democratic National Riot outside the Democratic National

Convention in ChicagoConvention in Chicago Nixon’s victory ushered in an era of Nixon’s victory ushered in an era of

political conservatismpolitical conservatism Stokely Carmichael becomes leader of Stokely Carmichael becomes leader of

Black Panthers and urges the exclusion of Black Panthers and urges the exclusion of whites in the black liberation movement whites in the black liberation movement

Nixon and Vietnam Nixon and Vietnam

1969, Nixon publicly claimed he had 1969, Nixon publicly claimed he had secret plan for ending the warsecret plan for ending the war– He didn’t; it continued 4 more years; cost He didn’t; it continued 4 more years; cost

1000s of US lives.1000s of US lives. Lottery draftLottery draft replaced previous system replaced previous system

– Beginning in Dec. 1969 the new draft method Beginning in Dec. 1969 the new draft method for men between ages 18 and 25for men between ages 18 and 25

– Designed to be a fairer system; draftees could Designed to be a fairer system; draftees could no longer get deferments (such as for college)no longer get deferments (such as for college)

"Vietnamization“"Vietnamization“– Nixon called for gradual withdrawal of Nixon called for gradual withdrawal of

US troops from VietnamUS troops from Vietnam– S. Vietnam would receive US money, S. Vietnam would receive US money,

weapons & training so they could weapons & training so they could gradually take over the burden of gradually take over the burden of fighting the Vietcongfighting the Vietcong By 1973, number of US soldiers reduced By 1973, number of US soldiers reduced

from 500K to 25Kfrom 500K to 25K

– Nixon Doctrine: Asians and others would Nixon Doctrine: Asians and others would now have to fight own wars without now have to fight own wars without support of significant numbers of US support of significant numbers of US ground troopsground troops

““Silent Majority” SpeechSilent Majority” Speech– Large-scale protests continuedLarge-scale protests continued

Doves wanted an immediate withdrawalDoves wanted an immediate withdrawal

– Mylai MassacreMylai Massacre, 1968 (revealed to , 1968 (revealed to public in 1969)public in 1969) Lt. William Calley massacred 350 civilians in Lt. William Calley massacred 350 civilians in

a small villagea small village Calley convicted of murder in his court Calley convicted of murder in his court

martial & sentenced to life in prisonmartial & sentenced to life in prison Calley claimed to follow direct orderCalley claimed to follow direct order

– Public outraged and hundreds of Public outraged and hundreds of thousands protestedthousands protested

– By October 1969, 2 million people By October 1969, 2 million people across the U.S. protested Nixon’s across the U.S. protested Nixon’s policies policies

– November 3, Nixon televised his appeal November 3, Nixon televised his appeal to the great "silent majority," who to the great "silent majority," who presumably supported the warpresumably supported the war Aimed largely at middle class Americans Aimed largely at middle class Americans

who sought law and order; Nixon denounced who sought law and order; Nixon denounced doves and protestersdoves and protesters

One of most important political speeches of One of most important political speeches of late 20th centurylate 20th century

– Symbolized the rise of a conservative backlash Symbolized the rise of a conservative backlash against liberalism and the acrimonious divisions against liberalism and the acrimonious divisions that resultedthat resulted

Politically divisive as Nixon verbally attacked Politically divisive as Nixon verbally attacked the protestors and media for not supporting the protestors and media for not supporting gov’t policiesgov’t policies

NegotiationsNegotiations– Talks had begun in 1968Talks had begun in 1968

US position: all N. Vietnam forces should US position: all N. Vietnam forces should withdraw from S. Vietnam and Thieu gov’t withdraw from S. Vietnam and Thieu gov’t should remainshould remain

N. Vietnam: US troops withdraw; coalition N. Vietnam: US troops withdraw; coalition gov’t including Vietcong should replace gov’t including Vietcong should replace ThieuThieu

– Secretary of State Henry KissingerSecretary of State Henry Kissinger began secret negotiations with North began secret negotiations with North Vietnam Vietnam

CambodiaCambodia– Nixon ordered secret bombing of Nixon ordered secret bombing of

Cambodia, Laos, & N. Vietnam in March, Cambodia, Laos, & N. Vietnam in March, 19691969 Purpose: cut off communist supply lines; Purpose: cut off communist supply lines;

ultimately failedultimately failed

– April 1970, Nixon announced on TV he April 1970, Nixon announced on TV he was sending troops into Cambodia to was sending troops into Cambodia to clear out communistsclear out communists

– New wave or protests over CambodiaNew wave or protests over Cambodia Kent StateKent State incident (May 3, 1970, Ohio) incident (May 3, 1970, Ohio)

– Students at Kent State protested; burned the Students at Kent State protested; burned the ROTC buildingROTC building

– National Guard fired into crowd killing 4 (innocent National Guard fired into crowd killing 4 (innocent bystanders) & wounding 11bystanders) & wounding 11

– Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Resolution

"Pentagon Papers""Pentagon Papers", 1971, 1971– Former defense analyst Former defense analyst Daniel EllsbergDaniel Ellsberg

leaked classified war-related gov’t documents leaked classified war-related gov’t documents of Johnson’s presidency to the of Johnson’s presidency to the New York TimesNew York Times

– Revealed that the government had misled the Revealed that the government had misled the Congress and the public regarding its Congress and the public regarding its intentions in Vietnam during the mid-1960sintentions in Vietnam during the mid-1960s Primary reason for fighting was not to eliminate Primary reason for fighting was not to eliminate

communism but to "avoid a humiliating political communism but to "avoid a humiliating political defeat.“defeat.“

Gulf of Tonkin truth revealedGulf of Tonkin truth revealed

– White House tried to block publicationWhite House tried to block publication Supreme court overruled NixonSupreme court overruled Nixon

– Government’s credibility received another Government’s credibility received another heavy blow heavy blow

Ending the WarEnding the War

South Vietnam gov’t proved unable to South Vietnam gov’t proved unable to defeat the communists defeat the communists

US withdrew from Cambodia in early 1972US withdrew from Cambodia in early 1972 Spring 1972, North Vietnam equipped with Spring 1972, North Vietnam equipped with

foreign tanks burst through the DMZ foreign tanks burst through the DMZ separating the two Vietnamsseparating the two Vietnams– Nixon ordered massive bombing of N. Vietnam; Nixon ordered massive bombing of N. Vietnam;

mined its portsmined its ports– Détente: Détente: Nixon’s diplomacy with China and Nixon’s diplomacy with China and

USSR paid dividends as neither retaliated USSR paid dividends as neither retaliated against the U.S.against the U.S.

October 1972, Paris Peace Talks October 1972, Paris Peace Talks reopenedreopened– US would allow N. Vietnamese troops to US would allow N. Vietnamese troops to

remain in S. Vietnamremain in S. Vietnam– Draft agreement included a cease-fire, Draft agreement included a cease-fire,

return of American POW’s, and US return of American POW’s, and US withdrawal from Vietnamwithdrawal from Vietnam

– With election of 1972 approaching, With election of 1972 approaching, Nixon wanted a settlementNixon wanted a settlement Kissinger announced "peace is at hand“Kissinger announced "peace is at hand“

– Settlement fell apartSettlement fell apart

Paris Accords (1973)Paris Accords (1973)– North Vietnam agreed to same deal North Vietnam agreed to same deal

reached in October of 1972reached in October of 1972 North Vietnam retained control over large North Vietnam retained control over large

areas of the Southareas of the South Agreed to release US POWs within 60 daysAgreed to release US POWs within 60 days US would withdraw its forces after prisoners US would withdraw its forces after prisoners

were releasedwere released

– Nixon: "Peace with honor“Nixon: "Peace with honor“– Critics: "Could have come to this Critics: "Could have come to this

agreement 4 years earlier.“agreement 4 years earlier.“– March 29, 1973, the last American March 29, 1973, the last American

combat troops left South Vietnam combat troops left South Vietnam

Fall of South Vietnam to communists Fall of South Vietnam to communists occurred in April 1975occurred in April 1975– S. Vietnam capital city of Saigon renamed Ho S. Vietnam capital city of Saigon renamed Ho

Chi Minh CityChi Minh City Costs of the WarCosts of the War

– 58,000 dead Americans, 300,000 wounded; MIA 58,000 dead Americans, 300,000 wounded; MIA -2,583-2,583

– Over 2 million Vietnamese dead; MIAs - 300,000Over 2 million Vietnamese dead; MIAs - 300,000– Derailed Johnson’s “Great Society”: $150 billion Derailed Johnson’s “Great Society”: $150 billion

spent on the war rather than on social programsspent on the war rather than on social programs– A large percentage of Americans came to A large percentage of Americans came to

distrust their government distrust their government

1973, Nixon abolished the draft and 1973, Nixon abolished the draft and established an all-volunteer armyestablished an all-volunteer army

26th Amendment (ratified in 1971)26th Amendment (ratified in 1971)– Voting age lowered from 21 to 18 years Voting age lowered from 21 to 18 years

of ageof age– If soldiers were old enough to die for If soldiers were old enough to die for

their country, they were old enough to their country, they were old enough to vote vote