Upload
zuccsi
View
233
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
1/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 1
From NONTEXT to TEXT
What is text?
Silvia IRIMIEA, PhD
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
2/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 2
According to Crombie Winifred (1985) a text represents an uninterrupted larger orsmaller group of clauses and sentences, which are within the domain of an overalltopic.
Halliday and Hasan (1976: I) offered a definition of text, that may well serve as a
point of departure for any prospective text exploration. They went further thanCrombie in their definition of text, suggesting that a text is any passage (oflanguage), spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole.
Therewith they overtly defined the text as a unified whole, introducing the concept oftexture, i.e. the quality or the property that distinguishes a text from a nontextandholds the clauses together.
Susanne Eggins (1996: 85) states that the
discoursepart of the discourse semantic label describes the different types of
texture that contribute to making text: the resources the language has forcreating text.
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
3/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 3
TEXTURE
In an attempt to clarify the concept of texture, Eggins supplies the following example
of conversation:
A: What time is it, love?
B: Julie left her car at the station today.
Despite the fact that the above quoted text makes little or no sense to others, itmakes perfect sense to the interactants or participants in the conversations, as
much of the text was omitted because of the participants familiarity with the topic
discussed and the shared situational context that provides for the missing
informational gap. Henceforth, Bs full answer would have made the text more
intelligible:
B: I know Julies late, but we shouldnt be worried because she left her car at thestation today and caught the train, instead of driving in to work.
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
4/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 4
Susanne Eggins quotes
the ethnomethodologists (Schegloff and Sacks 1973/74, Sacks, Schegloff andJefferson 1974, and Schegloff 1981) interest in conversations,
the claim that noempirically occurring utterance ever occurs outside, or external tosome specific sequence. Whatever is said will be said in some sequential context
(Atkinson and Heritage, 1984), and their notion of sequential implicativeness ((Schegloff and Sacks 1973/74), thus
explicating that language is inexorably tied to linear sequence,
wherebyone part of a text(a sentence or a turn at talk) must follow another
part of the text (the next sentence or turn at talk)(Eggins, 1991).
This leads to the conclusion that each part of the text creates the context within which thenext bit of the text is interpreted - thus, practically everything that is said/written will be
interpreted against the background of what was said/written previously.
Grammatical coherence and paragraph properties
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
5/38
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
6/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 6
As defined by Halliday and Hasan (1976: 23) coherencerefers to the way a group of
clauses or sentences relate to the context. Since context can be further expressed in
terms of two levels: context of culture(i.e. genre) and context of situation, i.e. register,
there are two recognizable types of coherence:
- situational or registerial coherence, and- generic coherence.
A text has situational coherencewhen the sentences and/clauses of the text could or
may occur within the framework of one thinkable or imaginable situation.
Similarly, a text has generic coherenceif or when it can be recognized as a particulargenre, i.e. when the text itself displays a structure that is recognizably and commonly
used as a standard structure, a schematic structure, and where each part/component of
the text represents an element in the unfolding of the communicative (linguistic) event.
Coherence
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
7/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 7
Cohesion
Eggins turns again to Halliday and Hasan, whom she quotes:
Cohesion occurs where the INTERPRETATION of one element in thediscourse is dependent on that of another. The one PRESUPPOSES the other,in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it.
When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, thepresupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integratedinto a text(1976: 4).
This explanation states clearly that there are elements in a text that are semantically tied,
and the existence of such semantic tieswill certify that a text is a text. The presence of
the tie makes at least one item in the text depend on another item for its interpretation. In
the event the clauses are self-contained and such ties are unnecessary or nonexistent,the clauses or sentences that hang together represent a nontext.
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
8/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 8
Despite its generic coherence, the example below is lacking both situational coherenceand internal cohesion:
1. Once upon a time there was a little white mouse called Tiptoe. 2. The boys livedin a large, red-brick house with a thatched roof at the end of the longest street in
town. 3. That morning, Mrs Smooks left her home in a great hurry. 4. But, too late,William realized that the car had no breaks. 5. So they ran and they ran them anymore[].
Reversibly, the sentences displaylexical links(cheese, dairy products, milk, calcium,
vitamins), which generate a lexical chain:
1. The little white mouse sniffed the cheese carefully. 2. Camembert is a soft,French cheese. 3. The French consume a lot of dairy products. 4. Isnt milk animportant source of calcium? 5. You know of course that vitamin deficiencies canlead to feelings of fatigue and listlessness.
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
9/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 9
The unconnectednessof clauses in a supposed text is also accounted for by a fewother factors as well, such as
participants/interactantsbrought in the text and
activities/actionsrecounted.
Another example given by Eggins shows how referential cohesion or reference
patternsare achieved at the level of participants.
1. Michael took the book out of the glovebox and gave it to Jane. 2.It had a terrible smell
about it. 3. He coughed and said: Thanks. 4.She asked if it was pretty. 5.Together they
cooked.
This example lacks lexical cohesion, as the lexical items used do not exhibit any closer
ties:
1 book glovebox take give
2 smell terrible
3 coughed said
4 asked pretty
5 cook
Unconnectedness
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
10/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 10
Referential cohesion or reference patterns, lexical links
Referential cohesion or reference patterns
Example
Michael Jane the book
it He it
she
they both
lexical links
Example
1. I had always wanted to see Paris. 2.However, you can imagine how
excited I was once we got there. 3.We had to do some sightseeing. 4. And
unfortunately it was cold and wet. 5. Meanwhile we went to the Louvre
instead. 6. Prior to that it had fined up. 7. In addition we were exhausted by 6
oclock.
Lexical links: Paris, sightseeing, the Louvre
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
11/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 11
Existence of a realistic (social) purpose
Eggins gives yet another example, which apparently fulfills all requirements the otherexamples have failed to meet.
Mark offered Lisa the box of chocolates. 2. She took two out of the box. 3.Placing down one on her saucer, 4. she started eating the other. 5. These aredelicious, sha said. 6. Are they? he replied. 7. Then why dont you takeanother? he suggested. 8. I will, she replied. 9. And so she did.
At the same time the example is defective in not having a (realistic) purpose.
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
12/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 12
(
Participants: Simon, Diana, Stephen, George, Sue)Si: How how did- have you given blood before?
Di: 36 times
St: It makes me go all funny just thinking about it
G: You have never done it, obviously
St: Oh no
Di: 1. No I do it because I had a daughter who when she was 2 days old needed bloodtransfusion cause she was getting sort of premature jaundice and things. 2. This wasin Geneva. 3. And they rang me up on the Sat- this was Saturday night and saidYouve got to come in and have your blood tested against donors. 4. And therewere these wonderful Swiss men whod left their dinner you know 8 oclockat nightand come in there to give blood to my daughter. 5. And I was really impressed andyou know how. 6.I had to give blood to be tested to see if it was compatible withtheirs. 7. And I had[]. 9. It was very exciting. 10. I stayed up all night and watchedthis um operation taking place. 11. And fortunately her umbilical artery hadntclosed
so because I mean all the other things would have been minute!S: So tiny!
Di: So they a could actually do it through the umbilical artery or whatever. 13. So I saidOK,you know, bea blood doner after that. 14. but in Switzerland they give you acognac. 15. Here they give you tea and bikkies.
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
13/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 13
Texture
This extract represents a text because it has texture, which in turn is recoverablethrough:
1. an identifiable narrative/recount structure on the pattern Abstract(once upon a time Ihad a sick daughter), Orientation(it happened in Geneva), Action(I had my bloodtested, the Swiss doners came and gave blood), Complicating action(they had tooperate on this tiny baby), Resolution(but they could still do the operation),
Evaluation(so I decided to be a blood doner), Coda(but its different in Switzerland.2. situational coherence3. cohesion accomplished through: participants, same lexical items that form lexical
links, semantic
links or reference ties, logical relations expressed through adequate conjunctions
4. the text has been assigned an entertaining function, suggested and indicated bythe participants
conventionalized remaining silent and listening to the speaker until the Coda isreached, which
signals the end of the recount.
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
14/38
At the end of the argumentation, Eggins admits that text is not a black-and-whitecategory, but rather a hardly definable one. In this respect she suggests acontinuum of textness along which any stretch of language/text/discourse to beexamined should be positioned.
text nontext
+texture -texture
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 14
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
15/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 15
COHESIONTypes of COHESION IN TEXTS
Sentences hang together= cohesive
Types of cohesion
Semantic cohesion: ties Lexical cohesion: lexical ties- chains
= semantically related words that run through the text (skin, soap, cleansing lotion,cleanser, water, after-cleansing astringent)
+ synonyms (fresher, cleaner)
+ antonyms (dirt- clean, under control-out of control)
+ substitution by one/ones
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
16/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 16
COHESIONTypes of COHESION IN TEXTS
Grammatical cohesion:
Reference:
In the text
Outside the text
Take it from us. Use Johnsons Clean and Clear as a one-step cleanser..(referenceto Johnsons
It actually tingles on your skin to tell you its working (refers to the reader)
The technical name for language that makes direct connection to thematerial world= deixis(adjective: deictic)
Substitution of clause elements, substitution-by-zero
Substitution:And whats even better, it does this without drying. (removes more of the
dirt, oil, and make-up that can lead up to spots)so and not- substitute for whole clauses, as in:
Will it rain?- I Think so. (I think it will rain)
Will it rain?- I Think not.
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
17/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 17
Substitution can operate at the level of individual words as well: one/ones- stand fornouns or noun phrases
So-clause substitution:
Is it important that a gin comes from London? The ones that dont, seem to
think so. (The gins that dont come from London seem to thin that it s important that a gin comes from London.)
Substitution-by-zero= ellipsis (leaving out elements that can be retrieved fromelsewhere)
It actually tingles your skin to tell you its working. Not that it needs to. (the reader issupposed to fill in the blank)
Linkers (conjuncts)
Comparatives:And whats even better..(presupposes a previous mention-director indirect)
Tense:consistency in the use of tense
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
18/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 18
Rhetorical cohesion
Question-answer
Parallelism= where sentences echo one another (repetition)
Its not your music.
Its not your handshake.
Its not your clothes.
Its your watch that says most about who you are.
Contrast: in literary texts (three lines contrast with the last line-subversion)
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
19/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 19
ANALISING COHESION IN TEXTS
Reference
Referencerefers to how the writer/speaker introduces participants and then keepstrack of them once they are in the text.
I had a daughter who needed a blood transfusion when she was 2 days old causeshe was getting premature jaundice and things.
Whether known or not the presence of participants in a text must be signaled by the
writer/speaker. Therefore the participants in a text are either
presented(introduced as new to the text) or
presumed(in which case we need to presume their identity from somewhere
in the text) through:
the definite article: the
demonstrative pronouns: that , these, those
pronouns: he, she, it, they
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
20/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 20
The identity of a presuming reference item may be retrievable from a number ofcontexts:
a) the general context of culture. This is retrieved from shared context
homophoric reference
b) the immediate context of situationexophoric reference
c) from within the textendophoric referenceanaphoric reference(the referent has appeared at an earlier point)
cataphoric reference(the referent will be provided subsequently)
esphoric(the referent appears in the phrase immediately following
the presuming referent item (within the same
nominal group/noun phrase)
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
21/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 21
Nominalization
The use of certain nouns= nominalization
Nouns that are typically used to nominalize actions and events includeprocesses,
situation,and way.
Ideas can referred to by using words like idea, theory and viewpoint.
In addition, words like: explanation, criticism, proposal, suggestionetc are used torefer to what has been said or written.
Since we had come across the idea together we decided to write it together.
Much of that process seems vague now, but I remember the day before we
started.
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
22/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 22
Lexical relations
The cohesive resourc eof lexical relations refers to how the writer/speaker uses
lexical items(nouns, verbs, adjectives , adverbs) to relate the text to its area of focus
Lexical relations analysis derives from observing that there are certain expectancyrelations between words.
LRA is a way of systematically describing how words in a text relate to each other,
how they cluster together to build up lexical sets or lexical strings
LR represent an important element in creating text cohesion
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
23/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 23
Lexical relations
They operate between
open- class items(nouns, main verbs, adverbs, and adjectives)
closed-class items (prepositions, pronouns, articles, auxiliary verbs etc)
There are two main kinds of lexical relations that may exist between words:
taxonomicrelations between class/subclass, part/whole
- words that are taxonomically related may be related eitherthrough classificationor meronymy
classificationthe relationship between a superordinate termand its members, I.e. hyponyms
co-hyponomy- when two(or more) lexical items are bothmembers of the same superordinate class
class/subclasssubclassification
contrast- two or more items encode a contrastrelationship
similarity- the lexical items express the same meaning
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
24/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 24
similarity through:
synonymy(when two words restate each other)
repetition(when an item is repeated)
composition is the part/whole relationship between lexical items which
are:
meronymy
co-meronymy
expectancy - relations between the process verb and the doer/ affected
participant
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
25/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 25
LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS: Conjunctive relations
Halliday(1985: 302-9):
Elaborationa relation of re-statement or clarification
My daughter had jaundice. I mean she was as yellow as butter. Extension - a relation of either addition or variation
I have a daughter. And I have 3 sons.
Enhancementways by which one sentence can extend over the
meaning of another, in terms of time, comparison, cause, condition,
concession.
Diana donated blood. Whereupon her daughter recovered rapidly.
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
26/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 26
Enhancement relationships
Comparative conjunctions: likewise, similarly, in a different way
Causal conjunctions: so, then, therefore, consequently, henceConditional conjunctions: in that case, otherwise, under the
circumstances, if not
Concessive conjunctions: yet, still, though, despite this, however, even
so, all the same, nevertheless
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
27/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 27
Explicitly expressed relationships
Implicitly expressed relationships(through the juxtaposition of
sentences)
Diana donated blood. She wanted to help her daughter.
External logical relations- they may refer to external(real world)
logical relations
Internal (rhetorical) organization of events of the writer in the text
Martin(1992): conjunctive relations in a text form a conjunctive
reticulum
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
28/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 28
LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS:Conjunctive relations
1 Shares in Parmalat, the Italian
global food group, fell by more than
50% after a three-day suspension
A Pool, brook, stunning views, lush
groves. Comfort, privacy.
2 Doctor Foster went to Gloucester
in a shower of rain
B They may be recovered via the
lodge on payment of the current fee.
3 Magical Provence: modernisedfarmhous in medieval village.
C Add Spice Paste and stirr well.
4 Shockingly, 10 passengers on a
flight are at risk of DVT.
D The company had been plagued
by apparent balance sheet
discrepancies.
5 Bicycles parked other than in the
racks provided are liable to be
impounded.
E We are blocking the pavement.
Thank you.
6 Boil water in a saucepan. F Scoll flight socks can halp prevent
you being one of them.
7 To all smokers:Please cross the
road to smoke.
G He stepped in a puddle/Right up
to his middle/and never went there
again
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
29/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 29
LOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS: Conjunctive relations
According to Scott Thornbury there are
Additive: the second sentence gives details or specifies the statement in
the 1stsentence, as in 3-A
Adversative: the second sentence claims to solve the problem: 4-F, 5-B
Causal: 1-D, 7-E
Temporal: 2-G, 6-C
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
30/38
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
31/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 31
The topic
-becomes the launch pad of the message
-is typically realized by a noun phrase(grammatical subject)
The comment= the new information
-the tendency to place new information at the end= end-weight
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
32/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 32
Conversational structure
Spoken texts display texture
Patterns of lexical relationships
Conjunction(conjunctive relationships)
Reference Conversational structure
Conversational structure= how the interactants negotiate the exchange
of meanings in dialogue
- it involves:
- The choice of speech functions
- The type of exchange structure
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
33/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 33
Speech functions
Speech= Sequence of moves
Each move performs a speech function or a speech act
Basicinitiating speech functions are:
Offer (as in Would you like another chocolate?)
Command (Pass the chocolates, please.)Statement (I love chocolates.)
Question (Which chocolates do you like best?)
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
34/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 34
Responding speech functions either support or
confront the initiating SF
SF are:accepting vs declining
complying vs refusing to comply
acknowledging vs disagreeing
answering vs disavowing
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
35/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 35
Would you like another chocolate? Offer
Yes, please accept
No, thanks. Decline
Pass the chocolates, please command
Here you are. ComplyGet them yourself. Refuse
I love chocolates. Statement
Do you? Acknowledge
I bet you dont really disagree
Which chocolates do you like best? QuestionDark ones. Answer
Wouldnt have a clue. disclaim
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
36/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 36
Exchange structures
Sequences of speech functions constitute negotiated exchanges
The minimal exchange = two speech functions: offer- accept, question-
answerseveral move-structures - include:
preparatory moves
following-up moves
Some exchanges move directly to completion
Others include dynamic moves:
clarifications and
challenges
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
37/38
Text and discourse linguistics, 2008 37
Speech acts theory
Speech acts
Joan Mulholland(1991)
every time someone speaks three events take place: an utteranceis made(alocution), a speech act of discursive power or intendedinfluence over others occurs(with illocutionary force); and an effecton the listener is generated(perlocutionary effect)
Locution:
contributors: rhythm+
prosodic features(tone, pitch, loudness, pacing andpauses) related to the speakers personality andattitude
8/13/2019 TEXT vs NONTEXT_2.ppt
38/38
T t d di li i ti 2008 38
illocutionary force= the combination of
the denotative value of the words used
use of garmmatical forms
circumstances of the actroles and status of the speaker and hearer
prosodic features