Text grammarText grammar

Structuring informationStructuring information

Cohesion and coherenceCohesion and coherence

Quick revisiondimensions of variation diaphasic: different communicative settings,

e.g.different levels of style/register, oral vs. written

diastratic: different social groups (according to age, sex, profession ...), different sociolects e.g. young people, hunters‘

Diatopic: different places and regions of the linguistic area, different dialects e.g.Cockney English, Saxonian German

diachronic: historical stages on the diachronic axis e.g.extinct, obsolete, old-fashioned, current, fashionable

Within a textDifferent dimensions give variants. Variation

can be seen at a number of levelsGraphicPhonological or graphologicalLexicalGrammaticalDiscourse

Patterns of text organisation are grounded in the details of the text.

Remember this?

A discourse analysis taskLook at the task in Worksheet 1 and the texts

in Texts 2013

Text Analysis Similarities and differences.

Texts and their textureTexts and their texture

• We looked at how certain language We looked at how certain language features run through a text and help us to features run through a text and help us to make sense of a textmake sense of a text

• Now we will look at details of cohesion: Now we will look at details of cohesion: overt identifiable features, which you can overt identifiable features, which you can learn to recognise and name, which make learn to recognise and name, which make up the texture of a text and contribute to up the texture of a text and contribute to its unityits unity

Cohesion

• _ "the way certain words or grammatical features of a• sentence can connect that sentence to its

predecessors• (and successors) in a text." (Hoey 1991, 3)• _ "The concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers

to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text.” (Halliday and Hasan 1976, 4)

• _ Phonological cohesion• _ Lexical cohesion• _ Grammatical cohesion

Phonological cohesion

Grammatical cohesion: referenceGrammatical cohesion: reference

• The idea of reference is that of having to look The idea of reference is that of having to look for the full meaning somewhere elsefor the full meaning somewhere else

• We can look for the information elsewhere in We can look for the information elsewhere in the text (endophoric reference) or outside the the text (endophoric reference) or outside the text (exophoric reference)text (exophoric reference)

• The grammatical items refer to something or The grammatical items refer to something or some one and the reader automatically some one and the reader automatically identifies what is being referred to (the identifies what is being referred to (the referent)referent)

Exophoric referenceExophoric reference

• First and second person pronouns• The writer is being self-referential using I• It is not always possible to identify exactly who

we refers to• Many advertisements address the reader

directly as you and companies refer to themselves as we

• In television news demonstrative reference like this, these, here often refer to elements outside the verbal text but are visible in the visual part of the text.

Who exactly?Who exactly?• WeWe can be inclusive or exclusive can be inclusive or exclusive• It can include the audience (or readers) or it can It can include the audience (or readers) or it can

refer to the speaker/writer and some other refer to the speaker/writer and some other people, to a nation or to a small group of peoplepeople, to a nation or to a small group of people

• “Now this is the scene right now in the City, just a few miles from where I am standing. We’ll bring you more on that in a moment.”

• he wanted the big economies to be pumping their own money into the system; we can’t do that because we haven’t got any money and that’s why his domestic political standing is what it is.

Exophoric youYou You can be specific, addressing the reader can be specific, addressing the reader

directly (look at the advertisements and the directly (look at the advertisements and the gardening manual for examples) or it can be gardening manual for examples) or it can be genericgeneric

I think in my walk of life you get attacks the entire time. That is part of the business and you should not complain about it normally. Indeed, if you did, you would spend your entire time complaining.

relationshipsrelationships

• TextText advertisementadvertisement

• Real writerReal writer advertising copywriteradvertising copywriter• Implied writerImplied writer narratornarrator• Implied readerImplied reader assumptions made in the text assumptions made in the text

about the personaabout the persona• Real readerReal reader the real personthe real person

Demonstrative referenceDemonstrative reference

• The difference between The difference between the the and and a a (definite (definite and indefinite articles, part of the and indefinite articles, part of the demonstrative reference system) are also a demonstrative reference system) are also a matter of different levels of specificity and matter of different levels of specificity and genericitygenericity

• Generic:Generic:• TheThe femur is the largest bone in the femur is the largest bone in the bodybody

• The family is a social institutionThe family is a social institution

Cohesion - grammatical• Reference:• Remember Exophoric (refers outside the text

to the context) • Endophoric (refers within the text)• Anaphoric reference (referring back to an

earlier part of the text)• Cataphoric reference (referring forwards to

something that comes later in the textTom said that he was going home.

I couldn’t believe it – the house had been destroyed!

Grammatical Cohesion• _ Anaphoric reference (e.g. Tom said that he

was going home)• Used frequently, a normal part of text

texture avoids repetition and holds the text together

• _ Cataphoric reference (e.g.I couldn’t believe it – the house had been destroyed!)

• Used less frequently. Used for particular effect, more characteristic of literary texts, for example in building suspense… or in news texts as an opening.

Anaphoric referenceAnaphoric reference

• In many types of discourse we use In many types of discourse we use the the anaphorically to refer to something which has anaphorically to refer to something which has already been introduced by using already been introduced by using aa

• Once upon a time there wasOnce upon a time there was a a king in a king in a foreign land who had a great desire to foreign land who had a great desire to marry. marry. TheThe king looked high and low in king looked high and low in the land but in vainthe land but in vain

• TakeTake a a large pie dish and large pie dish and somesome peeled peeled and sliced apples; arrange and sliced apples; arrange thethe slices slices in concentric circles inin concentric circles in the the dishdish

ComparisonComparison

• Comparative reference tells the reader to Comparative reference tells the reader to look elsewhere with a particular aim in mind: look elsewhere with a particular aim in mind: to compare the items that are being linked as to compare the items that are being linked as sharing quantity or qualitysharing quantity or quality

• Comparison involves ideas about quantity and Comparison involves ideas about quantity and number using forms like number using forms like more, fewer, less, more, fewer, less, anotheranother and quality using expressions like and quality using expressions like suchsuch and and soso

Point of referencePoint of reference

• More cats prefer itMore cats prefer it• The milder tobaccoThe milder tobacco• Kinder to the environmentKinder to the environment• For a tastier mealFor a tastier meal• Gets your clothes whiterGets your clothes whiter• We bake a better biscuitWe bake a better biscuit

SubstitutionSubstitution

• Substitution means the writer has Substitution means the writer has substituted one item for another in a text. substituted one item for another in a text. Often a long phrase is substituted by a Often a long phrase is substituted by a short word like short word like oneone (to replace nouns and (to replace nouns and noun phrases) noun phrases) dodo (to replace verbs and (to replace verbs and verb phrases) or verb phrases) or soso or or notnot (to replace (to replace whole clauses). whole clauses). It avoids tedious It avoids tedious repetition.repetition.

• If you are not sure about phrases and If you are not sure about phrases and clauses look at WWT Unit 3clauses look at WWT Unit 3

EllipsisEllipsis

• Ellipsis involves omitting elements altogether. Ellipsis involves omitting elements altogether. It is very common in spoken language where It is very common in spoken language where participants know they have shared participants know they have shared knowledge and things do not need to be made knowledge and things do not need to be made explicit. In some written texts ellipsis can explicit. In some written texts ellipsis can create an illusion of closeness between writer create an illusion of closeness between writer and readerand reader

• See Subaru text p 213 WWTSee Subaru text p 213 WWT

ConjunctionsConjunctions

• These are words which express how words, These are words which express how words, phrases and sentences should be linked, phrases and sentences should be linked, whether the link is temporal, additive, causal, whether the link is temporal, additive, causal, continuative, alternative, adversative etc.continuative, alternative, adversative etc.

• Different types of writing use different types Different types of writing use different types of conjunction so conjunctions often help to of conjunction so conjunctions often help to identify a text typeidentify a text type

ConjunctionConjunction: refers to specific devices,

conjunctions which link sentences to each other.

Additive conjunctions add on information

Adversative conjunctions draw a contrast

Causal conjunctions make a causal linkTemporal conjunctions make a time

link between two sentences.

Spot the conjunctions"If the neutrinos have broken the speed of light,

then it would overturn a keystone theory from the last century of physics. That's possible, but it's far more likely that there is an error in the data. So let me put my money where my mouth is: if the Cern experiment proves to be correct and neutrinos have broken the speed of light, I will eat my boxer shorts on live TV. Now I'd love it if neutrinos really have exceeded the speed of light. But I'm not eating my shorts just yet. Because my money is still on Einstein. He was, after all, pretty smart. And I am not prepared to rewrite my lecture course on relativity just yet.

Identify the kind of conjunctionIf the neutrinos have broken the speed of light,

then it would overturn a keystone theory from the last century of physics. That's possible, but it's far more likely that there is an error in the data. So let me put my money where my mouth is: if the Cern experiment proves to be correct and neutrinos have broken the speed of light, I will eat my boxer shorts on live TV. Now I'd love it if neutrinos really have exceeded the speed of light. But I'm not eating my shorts just yet. Because my money is still on Einstein. He was, after all, pretty smart. And I am not prepared to rewrite my lecture course on relativity just yet.

Sort these conjunctions: additive, Sort these conjunctions: additive, contrastive, causal, or temporal?contrastive, causal, or temporal?

• Finally, anyway, in addition, or, of course, Finally, anyway, in addition, or, of course, furthermore, the next day, in other words, furthermore, the next day, in other words, yet, however, on the contrary, so, then, for yet, however, on the contrary, so, then, for this reason, as a result, one day, up to now, this reason, as a result, one day, up to now, well, surely, but, after all, and, though, well, surely, but, after all, and, though, consequently, now, likewise, it follows that, consequently, now, likewise, it follows that, thenthen

Lexical cohesionthe use of the same or similar or

related words in successive sentences, is of two types

Reiteration, where the same word is repeated.

Some writers try to avoid this by the use of what is called elegant variation, this will involve using such devices as

SynonymsSuperordinatesGeneral words

Similarity or synonymyIt is rare to find a true synonym, there are

usually differences in style or associationDenotation is the dictionary definition of a

word, connotation means the associations a word carries, the personal or emotional meanings that come from the kinds of encounters we have had with the word and the contexts we have found it in

Some words are found in particular text types or social or regional varieties

Synonyms and varietiesBeautiful: Beauteous, bonny, comely, fair, dishy,

exquisite, handsome, resplendent, splendid, splendiferous, gorgeous, lovely, picturesque, pretty, pulchritudinous, ravishing, scenic, stunning

Good: great, groovy, keen, neat, nifty, smashing,, acceptable, solid, superb, well-behaved

Fat: abdominous, chubby, plump,buxom, corpulent, obese, weighty podgy, pudgy, tubby, fleshy, heavy, overweight,gross, porcine, portly, stout

Lexical cohesionCan involve other semantic relations between

the lexical items in the text.For example contrast or antonymyHyponymyEvaluationFigurative tropes

Contrast or antonymy:different kinds:Complementarity: where the presence of one

excludes the other (e.g. dead/alive)Converseness: where there is some kind of

logical reciprocity (e.g. husband/wife; buy/sell)Incompatibility: words which are part of a set

(such as seasons, days of the week, colours)Antonymy: all of the above but also gradable

opposites such as hot/cold, good/bad, big/small

HyponymyAs we saw when we looked at lexical

cohesion there are also classification relationships such as subordination e.g. animal /cat,

coordinates apple/banana; bicycle/motorbike superordinates wheat/ cereal; vehicle/carHyponymy is where items are included in

another term, similar to the examples of sub and superordination

Father is a hyponym of manWoman is a hypernym of sister

Sets and fieldsBy field of discourse is meant the particular

activity, cultural feature, social institution or topic for which a particular set of ideationally related lexical items is evolved or adapted.

Each field has a specialised topic-related vocabulary which makes up the lexical set

Sets and fieldsBy field of discourse is meant the particular

activity, cultural feature, social institution or topic for which a particular set of ideationally related lexical items is evolved or adapted.

Each field has a specialised topic-related vocabulary which makes up the lexical set

Semantic features and fields

• _ Semantic features = components of meaning• _ sea = body of water, saline, large• _ Semantic fields = groups of words with

shared semantic features• _ sea• _ river• _ lake• _ stream• _ pond

Semantic fieldWays of looking:Glare, wink, blink, stare, glance, gaze,

scrutinize, look, survey, overlook, Use a dictionary to help youWhat have they got in common? What kinds

of meanings distinguish them?Ways of eating: gobble, slurp, chew, suck,

swallow, munch, crunch, nibble, savour, bite, Ways of walking: scuttle, hobble, stride, limp,

hop, skip, amble,

Semantic field Example: CookeryArtefacts etc.:Pot, jug, kettle, pan, frying pan, saucepan,

dish, jug, bowl, ladle, carving-knife, fork, spoon, rolling pin, breadboard, cooker, oven

Processes: boil, roast, bake, stew, simmer, poach, grill, cut, dice, slice, chop, carve, peel, skin, mix, stir, beat, whip, fold, strain

The field of cookeryProperties: tender/ tough (meat), fresh (fish,

bread), stale (bread), sour (milk, cream), light (pastry, cakes), well-done, under-done, rare (steaks), hard-boiled, soft-boiled (eggs)

Phrases, collocations etc: boil over, off the boil, carve a joint, bake bread, chop parsley, slice meat, bread, tomatoes; spoon out, leave to set.

Semantic field Example: air travelArtefacts etc. fuselage, landing-gear, wing,

cockpit, check-in, boarding-pass, lounge, gate, tickets, cabin, airline, aircraft, crew, pilot, steward, route

Processes: take off, land, stack, taxi, check-in, book, upgrade,

Properties: low cost, long-haul, short-haul, first-class, business class, economy, domestic, intercontinental

Phrases, collocations: in mid-flight, air traffic control, hand-luggage, cabin-luggage, air-miles, flight attendant, cabin crew, (un)fasten your seatbelts, on board

Nouns labelling technical features, artefacts, equipment, structures etc

Verbs identifying and distinguishing between processes, types of event methods etc.

Adjectives and adverbs indicating conventional properties of the above

Phrases and conventional collocations that may expand, modify or combine any of the aboveFigurative extensions of the terms may be used

outside the field of discourse to general usage

Cohesion and coherenceCohesion and coherence

• Cohesion is provided by overt lexical or Cohesion is provided by overt lexical or grammatical markers in the textgrammatical markers in the text

• Coherence is a term which is difficult to Coherence is a term which is difficult to define but it is concerned with our define but it is concerned with our expectations and our knowledge of the world expectations and our knowledge of the world and the way things fit togetherand the way things fit together

CoherenceCoherence

• CoherenceCoherence is concerned with logical links is concerned with logical links which mean that the text makes sense as a which mean that the text makes sense as a whole. whole.

• Making sense:Making sense:• A. “That’s the phone!”A. “That’s the phone!”• B. “I’m in the bath!”B. “I’m in the bath!”• A. “Ok”A. “Ok”• We try to find coherence even when there We try to find coherence even when there

are few overt signsare few overt signs

Reading between the lines

In what way can B be seen as an answer to A.

A. We were thinking of going to see that new film in Sinalunga on Sunday.

B. I’ve got an exam on Monday

Textual structureTextual structure• English texts have their own

characteristic textual structure, which not only distinguishes them from texts in other languages, but also helps to make them coherent.

* In other words, an English text will read like a genuine piece of English writing, only if it conforms to the normal structural patterns of an English text. That is, it structures its information in a particular way , paragraphs, topic sentences etc.

Text patternsText patterns

• Texts have typical patterns which we are Texts have typical patterns which we are accustomed to and we fill in the logical link even accustomed to and we fill in the logical link even when there is no obvious cohesive tie. when there is no obvious cohesive tie.

• As we have seen there exist sets of texts, text As we have seen there exist sets of texts, text types, which have similar features and are types, which have similar features and are usually linked to similar purposes – these are usually linked to similar purposes – these are called called genresgenres

• They can usually be recognised by a number of They can usually be recognised by a number of conventional featuresconventional features

• They are linked to discourse communitiesThey are linked to discourse communities• When we read an article we usually have When we read an article we usually have

expectations based on our familiarity with the expectations based on our familiarity with the genregenre

• Most texts meet the expectations of their readersMost texts meet the expectations of their readers

Look at these two texts. Which is more Look at these two texts. Which is more effective in getting your interest? Why?effective in getting your interest? Why?

• 9a) Newspaper text9a) Newspaper text• JET Crash kills 160JET Crash kills 160• A Chinese airliner crashed yesterday, killing all 160 people A Chinese airliner crashed yesterday, killing all 160 people

on board, following a mid-air explosion. The Russian built on board, following a mid-air explosion. The Russian built Tupolev-154, with 146 passengers and a crew of 14, Tupolev-154, with 146 passengers and a crew of 14, plunged to the ground just after take-off from the tourist plunged to the ground just after take-off from the tourist resort of Xianresort of Xian

• 9b)(student’s writing) 9b)(student’s writing) • Plane crashPlane crash• At 7.30 the Boeing 747 of Air France took off from the At 7.30 the Boeing 747 of Air France took off from the

airport in Paris to New York. When the plane was flying the airport in Paris to New York. When the plane was flying the passengers were reading, listening to music and sleeping – passengers were reading, listening to music and sleeping – also the air hostesses were serving dinner, when suddenly also the air hostesses were serving dinner, when suddenly a bomb exploded and the plane crashed.a bomb exploded and the plane crashed.

A co-operative processA co-operative process

• ““reader and writer are like dancers following reader and writer are like dancers following each others’ steps” (Hoey 2001:43)each others’ steps” (Hoey 2001:43)

• If the writer takes the trouble to anticipate If the writer takes the trouble to anticipate what the reader might be needing the what the reader might be needing the reader’s task is made easierreader’s task is made easier

• This is one of the reasons why we find regular This is one of the reasons why we find regular patterning in different genrespatterning in different genres

signalssignals

• non-fiction texts contain many signals to non-fiction texts contain many signals to guide the reader through by means of the guide the reader through by means of the creation of expectationscreation of expectations

• Some narrative texts contain preview Some narrative texts contain preview statements that function as signals about statements that function as signals about the nature of the text to comethe nature of the text to come

• Writers anticipate our needs by presenting Writers anticipate our needs by presenting information in the order we need itinformation in the order we need it

• Sometimes our expectations become Sometimes our expectations become clearer once a text is underwayclearer once a text is underway

Patterns and expectationsPatterns and expectations

• See Aesop textSee Aesop text• As soon as we come to the second episode we As soon as we come to the second episode we

have expectationshave expectations• Matching relations of similarity and contrast Matching relations of similarity and contrast

can be set up through parallelism and can be set up through parallelism and repetition across episodesrepetition across episodes

patternspatterns

• Parallelism:Parallelism: a mixture of constants and a mixture of constants and variablesvariables

• One dayOne day a traveller a traveller askedaskedhimhim

• A few hours laterA few hours later another traveller askedanother traveller askedAesopAesop

• Constants:Constants: same day/ a traveller same day/ a traveller• Variables:Variables: different time of day/different different time of day/different

travellertraveller

Understanding and producing textsUnderstanding and producing texts

• As we have seen then texts have structure. As we have seen then texts have structure. One of the One of the goals of text analysis goals of text analysis is to is to examine how the reader or user of a text examine how the reader or user of a text recognises that the recognises that the words/phrases/sentences must be co-words/phrases/sentences must be co-interpreted, that parts of the text are interpreted, that parts of the text are dependent on others. dependent on others.

• To be able to understand how texts are To be able to understand how texts are produced and understood we need produced and understood we need discourse competence.discourse competence.

Grammar and discourseGrammar and discourse

• Discourse decisions have grammatical Discourse decisions have grammatical implications and every grammatical decision implications and every grammatical decision has potential discourse implicationshas potential discourse implications

• Patterns of text organisation are grounded in Patterns of text organisation are grounded in the detail of the textthe detail of the text

ExamplesDemonstratives can signal how near or close

to the writer an element is, this positioning can be understood both physically but also metaphorically in terms of attitude

Sometimes that or those mean thing/s person/people we all know about (‘those strimmers’) that Monday morning feeling

Kellog’s Puffed Wheat and Ovaltine texts in Working with TextsWhat part do demonstrative and personal

reference play in positioning the readers of the texts?

What pattern do the texts illustrate?What questions are the readers expected to

ask and get answers to?What semantic fields can you identify?

intercityLook at the Intercity texts (p242-244),

ask the same questions and try to identify further patterns

Try to link the patterns with the titles (e.g. inside vs outside , flat out vs laid back )

Try to link the details with the overall purpose (what do they want you to do what problem of yours are they offering to solve)

Things to look for or consider

Genre/fieldAddresser/Addressee relationship – shared

social meaningVoice Register- tenorIllocutionary intent /purposeCritical social meaning (representation of a

culture’s established imagery, values)