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Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Testing of ChildrenLegal Aspects
Jonathan Montgomery
Thanks to Wellcome Trust and BUPA Foundation for funding
Working with Anneke, Angela, Gill, Nina and Ingrid
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
BSHG Report
• Authorisation (consent)– Help ensure valid authorisation secured
• Liability (legal and professional)– Acceptable practice– Good practice
• Consistent with existing guidance– Generally defer testing unless benefits
during childhood– But ‘broad’ view of benefit
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Gillick v W Norfolk AHA [1985] 3 All ER 402
1. Children’s welfare is the foundation of parental authority
2. Competent children’s autonomy should prevail over parental control
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Legal Principles 1
• Foundation of parental rights in children’s interests (Gillick)
• Courts must assess objectively children’s interests– NOT whether parental views
‘reasonable’, ‘rational’, ‘understandable’
• Professionals expected to act as advocates, defining scope of choice
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Who Decides - Theory
No one can dictate the treatment to be given to any child, neither court, parents
nor doctors. . .
Re J [1991] 3 All ER 930, 934
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
The doctors can recommend treatment A in preference to treatment B. They can also refuse to adopt treatment C on the grounds that it is medically contra‑indicated or for some other reason is a treatment which they could not conscientiously administer.
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
The court or parents for their part can refuse to consent to treatment A or B or both, but cannot insist on treatment C. The inevitable and desirable result is that choice of treatment is in some measure a joint decision of the doctors and the court or parents.
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Welfare
• Distinction European and BHSG Guidelines on whether best interests a narrowly medical test or wider one
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Children Act 1989, s.1
(1) When a court determines any question with respect to—
(a) the upbringing of a child…
the child’s welfare shall be the court’s paramount consideration.
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
J v C [1970] AC 668,
per Lord MacDermott 710
“I think they connote a process whereby, when all the relevant facts, relationships, claims and wishes of parents, risks, choices and other circumstances are taken into account and weighed, the course to be followed will be that which is most in the interests of the child's welfare.”
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Welfare checklist
(Children Act 1989, s1(3)
… a court shall have regard in particular to— (a) the ascertainable wishes and feelings of the child concerned (considered in the light of his age and understanding); (b) his physical, emotional and educational needs; (c) the likely effect on him of any change in his circumstances;
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
(d) his age, sex, background and any characteristics of his which the court considers relevant; (e) any harm which he has suffered or is at risk of suffering; (f) how capable each of his parents, and any other person in relation to whom the court considers the question to be relevant, is of meeting his needs; (g) [the range of powers available]
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Re MB [2006] para 16
‘Best interests are used in the widest sense and include every kind of consideration capable of impacting on the decision. These include, non-exhaustively, medical, emotional, sensory (pleasure pain and suffering) and instinctive (the human instinct to survive) considerations.
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Legal Principles 2
• Children’s autonomy rights – Gillick and since
• Children’s participation rights– Article 12 UN Convention on the Rights of
the Child 1989
• Guidance assumes value of preserving autonomy to be exercised in future
• How important is autonomy in law?
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Retreat from Gillick
• Donaldson as denying autonomy and reinforcing welfare– Consent but not refusal– Tail wagging dog problem– Fragility – dependence on competence– Weakness – liable to be overridden by parents
or court
Re R [1991] 4 All ER 177 Re W [1992] 4 All ER 627
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
• Child’s competence– Re R: Fluctuation– Re W: impaired competence
• Concurrent consents (Re W)– Parental control or medicalisation?
• Supervisory jurisdiction of the court– Welfare principle
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Reaffirmation of Children’s Rights?
Axon [2006] EWHC 37 (Admin)
Parents not entitled to be informed about family planning advice and treatment (including abortion)
Firmly based on Gillick
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
A Battle Won?
• Axon did not consider the Donaldson cases
• It turned on an interpretation of a key paragraph in Gillick that Donaldson had specifically rejected
• Arguably inconsistent with the CA decisions
• Is only the decision of one High Court judge
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Consistency in Law?
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Human Tissue Act 2004
• Research on tissue (human cells other than hair, nail, embryos)
• Children with their consent (s 2)– Parental consent only if incompetent or
have not taken a decision– Public display & anatomical examination
only with written witnessed consent of child
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Data Protection (Subject Access Modification)
(Health) Order
• parents can normally seek information • child may veto access
– Where they are able to appreciate the nature of the application for access
• Not bound to allow the parents access if it would cause serious harm to the physical or mental health or condition of the child
• Access cannot be given to any part of the record that would disclose information provided by a child in the expectation that it would not be disclosed to the applicant
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
The Medicines for Human Use (Clinical Trials) Regulations
2004
• Parental interview and consent– Objectives, risks, inconveniences– Represent child’s ‘presumed will’ (para 13)
• Child to be informed• Child’s objection to be ‘considered’ by
investigator• NB ‘adult’ here is 16 years and above
SI 2004 No 1031 Schedule 1,
Children Part 4
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine
• Additional protection of those unable to consent (art 17(1))– results of research potential real and
direct benefit to subject– research cannot effectively be carried
out on individuals capable of giving consent
– proxy consent– no objection
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine
• Exceptionally, research on those not competent to consent and not directly benefiting (art 19(2))– indirect benefit to person of others in
same category– only minimal risk and
minimal burden
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Some Models
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Modelling the dispute: family
privacy?
Child
Parent
Doctor (State?)
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Modelling the dispute: agency
Child
Parent
Doctor
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Modelling the dispute: conflict
Child
Parent
Doctor
Shaping tomorrow’s thinking
Modelling the dispute: property
Child
Parent
Doctor (State?)