Tesla Motors

Tesla Motors, Inc. is an American automotive andenergy storage company[5] that designs, manufactures,and sells electric cars, electric vehicle powertrain com-ponents, and battery products.[6] Tesla Motors is a publiccompany that trades on the NASDAQ stock exchange un-der the symbol TSLA.[7] In the first quarter of 2013, Teslaposted profits for the first time in its history.[8]

Tesla first gained widespread attention following theirproduction of the Tesla Roadster, the first fully electricsports car.[9] The company’s second vehicle is the ModelS, a fully electric luxury sedan, and its next two vehi-cles are the Model X and Model 3.[10] Global cumulativeModel S sales passed the 75,000 unit milestone in June2015.[11]

Tesla also markets electric powertrain components, in-cluding lithium-ion battery packs to automakers in-cluding Daimler and Toyota.[12] CEO Elon Musk hassaid that he envisions Tesla Motors as an indepen-dent automaker,[13] aimed at eventually offering electriccars at prices affordable to the average consumer.[14][15]Pricing for the Tesla Model 3 is expected to start atUS$35,000 before any government incentives and deliv-eries are expected to begin by 2017.[16][17] In 2015, Teslaannounced the Powerwall, a battery product for homeuse.

1 Overview

Tesla Motors is named after electrical engineer andphysicist Nikola Tesla.[18][19] The Tesla Roadster uses anAC motor descended directly from Tesla’s original 1882design.[20] The Tesla Roadster, the company’s first ve-hicle, is the first production automobile to use lithium-ion battery cells and the first production EV with arange greater than 200 miles (320 km) per charge.[21]Between 2008 and March 2012, Tesla sold more than2,250 Roadsters in 31 countries.[22][23][24] Tesla stoppedtaking orders for the Roadster in the U.S. market inAugust 2011.[25] Tesla unveiled the Tesla Model S all-electric sedan onMarch 26, 2009.[26] In December 2012,Tesla employed almost 3,000 full-time employees.[4][27]By January 2014, this number had grown to 6,000employees.[28]

Early days: Marc Tarpenning (left) and Martin Eberhard (right),with a Tesla Roadster

2 History

Tesla Motors was incorporated in July 2003 by MartinEberhard and Marc Tarpenning who financed the com-pany until the Series A round of funding.[29] Both menplayed active roles in the company’s early developmentprior to Elon Musk’s involvement.[30][31] Musk led theSeries A round of investment in February 2004, joiningTesla’s Board of Directors as its Chairman. Tesla’s pri-mary goal was to commercialize electric vehicles, start-ing with a premium sports car aimed at early adopters andthen moving as rapidly as possible into more mainstreamvehicles, including sedans and affordable compacts.[32]

Musk took an active role within the company and over-saw Roadster product design at a detailed level, but wasnot deeply involved in day-to-day business operations;[33]Eberhard acknowledged that Musk was the person whoinsisted from the beginning on a carbon-fiber-reinforcedpolymer body and he led design of components rangingfrom the power electronics module to the headlamps andother styling.[34] In addition to his daily operational roles,Musk was the controlling investor in Tesla from the firstfinancing round, funding the large majority of the SeriesA capital investment round of US$7.5 million with per-sonal funds.From the beginning, Musk consistently maintained thatTesla’s long-term strategic goal was to create afford-able mass market electric vehicles.[35] Musk received theGlobal Green 2006 product design award for his design ofthe Tesla Roadster, presented by Mikhail Gorbachev,[36]and he received the 2007 Index Design award for his de-sign of the Tesla Roadster.[37]

1

2 2 HISTORY

The insignia of Tesla Motors as seen on a Tesla Roadster Sport

Musk’s Series A round included Compass TechnologyPartners and SDL Ventures, as well as many private in-vestors. Musk later led Tesla Motors’ Series B, US$13million, investment round that added Valor Equity Part-ners to the funding team. Musk co-led the third,US$40 million round in May 2006 along with Tech-nology Partners. Tesla’s third round included invest-ment from prominent entrepreneurs including Google co-founders Sergey Brin & Larry Page, former eBay Presi-dent Jeff Skoll, Hyatt heir Nick Pritzker and added theVCfirms Draper Fisher Jurvetson, Capricorn Managementand The Bay Area Equity Fund managed by JPMorganChase.[38] The fourth round in May 2007 added anotherUS$45 million and brought the total investments to overUS$105 million through private financing.In December 2007, Ze'ev Drori became CEO and Presi-dent. In January 2008, Tesla fired several key personnelwho had been involved from the inception after a perfor-mance review by the new CEO.[39] According to Musk,Tesla was forced to reduce the company workforce byabout 10% to lower its burn rate, which was out of controlin 2007.[40] InMay 2008, The Truth About Cars launcheda “Tesla Death Watch”, as Tesla needed another round offinance to survive. In October 2008, Musk succeededDrori as CEO. Drori became Vice Chairman, but thenleft the company in December. In December a fifth roundadded another US$40million avoiding bankruptcy.[41][42]

By January 2009, Tesla had raised US$187 million anddelivered 147 cars. Musk had contributed US$70 mil-lion of his own money to the company.[40][43] On May19, 2009, Germany’s Daimler AG, maker of Mercedes-Benz, acquired an equity stake of less than 10% of Teslafor a reported US$50 million.[44] In July 2009, Daimlerannounced that Abu Dhabi's Aabar Investments bought40% of Daimler’s interest in Tesla.[45]

The Tesla obelisk is used to identify the Supercharger networksites in California.

In June 2009 Tesla was approved to receive US$465 mil-lion in interest-bearing loans from the United States De-partment of Energy. The funding, part of the US$8 bil-lion Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing LoanProgram, supports engineering and production of theModel S sedan, as well as the development of commer-cial powertrain technology.[46] The low-interest loans arenot related to the “bailout” funds that GM and Chryslerreceived, nor are they related to the 2009 economic stim-ulus package. The loan program was created in 2007 dur-ing the George W. Bush administration.[47] Tesla repaidthe loan in May 2013. Tesla was the first car company tohave fully repaid the government, while Ford, Nissan andFisker had not.[48]

The company announced in early August 2009 that it hadachieved overall corporate profitability for the month ofJuly 2009.[49] The company said it earned approximatelyUS$1 million on revenue of US$20 million. Profitabilityarose primarily from improved gross margin on the 2010

3

Roadster, the second iteration of Tesla’s award-winningsports car. Tesla, which like all automakers records rev-enue when products are delivered, shipped a record 109vehicles in July and reported a surge in new Roadster pur-chases. In September 2009, Tesla announced an US$82.5million round to accelerate Tesla’s retail expansion.[50]Daimler participated in the round tomaintain equity own-ership from its initial investment.Tesla Motors signed a production contract on July 11,2005, with Group Lotus to produce “gliders” (com-plete cars minus powertrain).[51] The contract ran throughMarch 2011, but the two automakers extended the dealto keep the electric Roadster in production throughDecember 2011 with a minimum number of 2,400units,[52] when production ended, mostly because of tool-ing changes orchestrated by one of its suppliers.[53] InJune 2010, it was reported that Tesla sold a total ofUS$12.2 million zero emission vehicle credits to otherautomakers, including Honda, up to March 31, 2010.[54]

In October 2014, both Daimler and Toyota sold theirholdings of Tesla shares.[55][56]

2.1 2010 initial public offering

On January 29, 2010, Tesla Motors filed Form S-1 withthe U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission,[57] as apreliminary prospectus indicating its intention to file aninitial public offering (IPO) underwritten by GoldmanSachs, Morgan Stanley, J. P. Morgan, and Deutsche BankSecurities. On May 21, 2010, Tesla announced a “strate-gic partnership” with Toyota, which agreed to purchaseUS$50 million in Tesla common stock issued in a privateplacement[58][59] to close immediately after the IPO.[60]Executives at both companies said that they would co-operate on “the development of electric vehicles, parts,and production system and engineering support.”[59] Lessthan two months later, Toyota and Tesla confirmed thattheir first platform collaboration would be to build anelectric version of the RAV4 EV.[61]

On June 29, 2010, Tesla Motors launched its initial pub-lic offering on NASDAQ. 13,300,000 shares of commonstock were issued to the public at a price of US$17.00per share.[62] The IPO raised US$226 million for thecompany.[63] It was the first American car maker to gopublic since the Ford Motor Company had its IPO in1956,[64] and by 2014 Tesla had market value half that ofFord.[65] During November 2013, Tesla’s stock fell morethan 20 percent, following news of a third Model S fire.All Model S fires had developed several minutes after thecars had struck significant road debris at high speeds andall of the vehicles had provided warnings to the occupantsof serious battery damage, advising that an immediatestop was required. All three owners ordered new ModelS’s. In the following months Tesla developed a batteryprotection system as a no-cost retrofit to all Model S’s;no fires have been reported since.[66] Despite the drop,

Tesla was still the top performer on the Nasdaq 100 in-dex in 2013.[67] Tesla was seeking to sell 40,000 electricvehicles worldwide in 2014, adding China, Hong Kong,Japan, and Australia to the list of countries where it ex-ports cars,[68] but it later reduced its guidance on salesdown to 33,000 units for 2014 in November 2014.[69]

3 Corporate strategy

Tesla’s strategy has been to emulate typical technological-product life cycles and initially enter the automotive mar-ket with an expensive, high-end product targeted at afflu-ent buyers. As the company, its products, and consumeracceptance matured, it is moving into larger, more com-petitive markets at lower price points.[70][71]

Tesla has a three step strategy, where the battery and elec-tric drivetrain technology for each new type would be de-veloped and paid for through sales of the former types,starting with Tesla Roadster and moving on to the TeslaModel S, Model X and Model 3 vehicles.[32][72] Step onewas making the Tesla Roadster high price, low volume.TheModel S is step two with mid price, mid volume. Thethird generation will be low price, high volume.[35][73]

Aiming premium products at affluent “thought leaders” isa very well-known business strategy in Silicon Valley andthe global technology industry, where prices for the firstversions of, for example, cellular phones, laptop comput-ers, and flat-screen televisions start high but drop withsubsequent products as the technology matures and pro-duction volumes increase.[74] According to a blog post byMusk, “New technology in any field takes a few versionsto optimize before reaching the mass market, and in thiscase it is competing with 150 years and trillions of dollarsspent on gasoline cars.”[75]

While the Roadster’s base price was US$109,000,[76]the Model S’s base price was US$57,400,[26][77] and theModel 3’s projected base price is near US$35,000.[17]

One of Tesla’s stated goals is to increase the number andvariety of electric vehicles (EV) available to mainstreamconsumers by:

• selling its own vehicles in company-owned show-rooms and online;[78]

• selling powertrain components to otherautomakers[79][80]

• serving as a catalyst and positive example to otherautomakers[81][82]

Tesla focuses on pure electric propulsion technology,even for larger vehicle segments and ranges beyond 200miles. Musk won the 2010 Automotive Executive ofthe Year Innovator Award for hastening the develop-ment of electric vehicles throughout the global automo-tive industry.[83]

4 3 CORPORATE STRATEGY

Tesla would like to disrupt the automotive industry in away that Tesla investor Peter Thiel (see PayPal Mafia)calls complex coordination, which means many innova-tive pieces fit together in just the right way and when as-sembled has tremendous advantages.[84]

3.1 Business model and US automotivedealership disputes

Tesla gallery in Austin, Texas.

Tesla operates stores or galleries[85][86]—usually locatedin shopping malls—in 22 U.S. states and Washing-ton DC. Customers cannot purchase vehicles from thestores,[87][88][89] but must order them on the Tesla Mo-tors website instead.[90] The stores act as showrooms thatallow people to learn more about Tesla Motors and itsvehicles. The galleries are located in states with morerestrictive dealership protection laws, which prevent dis-cussing prices, finances, and test drives, as well as otherrestrictions.Tesla’s strategy of direct customer sales and owning itsown stores and service centers is a significant depar-ture from the standard dealership model currently dom-inating the U.S. vehicle marketplace.[91] Tesla Motors isthe only automaker that sells cars directly to consumers,with all other automakers using independently owneddealerships[92][93] (partly due to an earlier conflict),[65][94]although some automakers provide online configurationand/or financing.[95][96][97] 48 states have laws that limitor ban manufacturers from selling vehicles directly toconsumers,[98][99][100] and even though Tesla Motors hasno independent dealerships, dealership associations inmultiple states have filed numerous lawsuits against TeslaMotors, trying to block the company from selling cars insome states. North Carolina and New Hampshire sidedwith Tesla Motors while Virginia and Texas have takenthe opposite position.[101]

This situation is unique to Tesla Motors’ US operations.Other countries do not have such regulatory laws deal-ing with car dealers and manufacturers. The FederalTrade Commission suggests allowing direct manufacturer

sales,[102][103] which analysts believe would save con-sumers an average of 8% on their car purchase.[65][104]The National Automobile Dealers Association states thatfranchises offer better value for customers than directsales.In August 2015, Tesla launched a wholesale revamp ofits stores worldwide as the company prepares to debut itsModel X. The stores will include interactive displays fo-cused on four major themes: safety, autopilot features,the company’s charging network and the dual motors thatpower each axle.[105]

3.1.1 Restrictive states

Texas

Texas currently has stringent dealership protection lawswhich make purchasing a vehicle from Tesla Motors inperson, at a Tesla Gallery, difficult. Thus, all Texas or-ders are taken via the internet or over the phone. Texasrequires all new cars to be purchased through third-partydealerships, effectively blocking Tesla from selling carsdirectly. A resident of Texas may still easily purchasea vehicle from Tesla Motors, but purchasing the vehi-cle is handled as an out-of-state transaction. This mayresult in the inability to include Texas state sales tax inthe loan, and new owners cannot take advantage of thepersonal delivery of their new Tesla at their home or of-fice, usually picking up their car at a Tesla Service Centerin a neighboring state instead. New owners must thenregister the vehicle with the state and pay the sales taxwhen license tags are ordered. In 2015 Tesla had lob-bied the Texas Legislature to modify Texas law [106] toallow Tesla to sell directly to consumers and specificallyallow Tesla employees to discuss “financing, leasing, orpurchasing options” at the firm’s existing stores in Austinand Houston.[107] Texas was considering passing legisla-tion to allow Tesla to operate in the state[108] but legisla-tion was not passed.[109]

New Jersey

On March 10, 2014, it was announced that New Jer-sey Motor Vehicle Commission and Governor ChrisChristie’s administration would be holding a meeting topass a new proposal into law. This new proposal, PRN2013-138, was announced one day before it was to beput into law. Tesla Motors responded by saying that theproposal “seeks to impose stringent licensing rules thatwould, among other things, require all new motor ve-hicles to be sold through middlemen and block Tesla’sdirect sales model,” and that "[Governor Christie’s] Ad-ministration has decided to go outside the legislative pro-cess by expediting a rule proposal that would completelychange the law in New Jersey.”[110] The meeting wasfor 2pm the next day. The law was passed, and “Tesla

5

will no longer [be able to] sell electric cars in New Jer-sey, effective April 1”. Diarmuid O’Connell, Tesla VicePresident of Business Development, said, “Worse, it hasdone so without any reasonable notice or even a pub-lic hearing.”[111] Forbes contributor Mark Rogosky said,“The state’s new rules protect its auto dealers from hav-ing to compete with Tesla’s direct sales model"; he goeson to point out that this is a direct contrast from whatChristie said earlier, “We are for a free-market societythat allows your effort and ingenuity to determine yoursuccess, not the cold, hard hand of the government.”[112]Kevin Roberts, a spokesman for the Christie administra-tion, responded by saying “it was the [Tesla Motors] com-pany, not the governor’s office, that was attempting to by-pass normal procedures.”.[110][113] InMarch 2015 the banon Tesla Motor’s operations in New Jersey was lifted, butwith restrictions (maximum of 4 locations, and 1 servicecenter).[114]

Michigan

On October 1, 2014, Michigan House Bill 5606, drafted“to keep automakers from forcing dealers to charge dif-ferent documentation fees to different customers,”[115]was amended with a section stating that a manufacturershall not “sell any new motor vehicle directly to a retailcustomer other than through its franchised dealers.” Theword “its” was removed, which assumed the manufac-turer already had dealerships. Both houses passed the re-vised bill the next day, with only one nay vote from TomMcMillin in either house of the Michigan Legislature.Tesla argued that the original law would have allowedthem to sell, because they didn't already have franchiseddealers.[116] On October 21, General Motors released astatement saying that governor Rick Snyder should signthe bill into law because “we believe that House Bill 5606will help ensure that all automotive manufacturers followthe same rules to operate in the State of Michigan.” Thesame day, Snyder signed the bill. Tesla responded to theGM statement by saying that “GM distorts the purposeof the franchise laws which are in place not to cementa monopoly for franchised dealers, but rather to preventcompanies with existing franchises from unfairly compet-ing against them.”[117] The law in Michigan goes so far asto ban a manufacturer from opening a service center forits cars, effectively banning Tesla Motors from openingeven a service center.[118]

Others

West Virginia does not allow Tesla-owned stores orshowrooms.[119]

3.1.2 Permissive states

In September 2014 Massachusetts allowed Tesla tosell directly.[120] Georgia has legislation favorable toTesla.[119][121]

In May 2015, the state of Maryland approved, throughHouse Bill 235,[122] direct Tesla sales to consumers be-ginning in October 2015, allowing 4 stores. The legisla-tion was crafted specifically for Tesla.[123][124]

3.1.3 Certified Pre-Owned program

Under a buyback program called Certified Pre-Owned(CPO) available in 37 states a Tesla Model S is sold withthe right to return it to Tesla after three years for a reim-bursement of between 43% and 50% of its initial price.This level of payment aims to match the trade-in valueof a German luxury car of the same age. In additionto supporting a high resale value of its cars, Tesla Mo-tors hopes to secure a steady supply of used cars. Thesecars will be refurbished and sold as second hand, imme-diately available from the Tesla stores with a certain war-ranty. According to Automotive News, the profit marginon used car sales in the USA is about triple that on newcars and since Tesla sells its cars directly to the end user,the prospect of selling the same car a second or third timeto a new segment of the market can potentially be veryprofitable for Tesla.[125] In May 2015 Tesla started sellingtheir refurbished Model S in the USA[126] and had by theend of that month sold 1600 cars to buyers younger, lesswealthy and to a lesser extent from California than thosewho bought a new one.[127] As of July 7, 2015 there were269 pre-owned Tesla Model S available for purchase inthe USA from Tesla with a four-year, 50,000 mile lim-ited warranty.[128]

4 Technology

Tesla Motors builds electric powertrain components forvehicles from other automakers, including the lowest-priced car from Daimler, the Smart ForTwo electricdrive, the Toyota RAV4 EV, and Freightliner’s CustomChassis Electric Van.

4.1 Battery technology

Unlike other automakers, Tesla does not use single-purpose, larger format cells. Tesla uses thousands oflithium-ion 18650 commodity cells. 18650 cells aresmall, cylindrical battery cells, which are usually foundin laptops and other consumer electronics devices. TeslaMotors uses a unique version of these cells, designed tobe cheaper to manufacture and to be lighter than the stan-dard cells. The cost and weight savings were made byremoving some safety features which, according to TeslaMotors, are redundant because of the advanced thermalmanagement system and a protective intumescent chem-ical in the battery pack. This chemical is intended to pre-vent battery fires.[129] Currently Panasonic, a Tesla Mo-tors investor, is the sole supplier of the battery cells for

6 6 CAR MODELS

Tesla Electric Car Recharging Station (USA, 2014)

the car company.Tesla Motors may have the lowest rates for electric carbatteries; the estimated battery costs for Tesla Motors isaround US$200 per kWh.[129][130] Currently, Tesla Mo-tors charges US$10,000 more for the 85 kWh batterythan the 60 kWh battery, or US$400 per kWh. AtUS$200 per kWh, the battery in the 60 kWh ModelS would cost US$12,000, while the 85 kWh batterywould cost US$17,000. The price increase is closer toUS$8,000, as supercharging is included in the higherprice. It is a US$2,000 option for the 60 kWh version.In the Model S, Tesla Motors integrated the battery packinto the floor of the vehicle, unlike in the Roadster, whichhad the battery pack behind the seats. Because the bat-tery is integrated into the floor of the Model S, no interiorspace is lost for batteries, unlike in other electric vehicles,which often lose trunk space or interior space to batter-ies. The location of the battery pack and the lower rideof the Model S does put the battery at a higher risk of be-ing damaged by road debris or an impact. To protect thebattery pack, the Model S has 0.25 in (6 mm) aluminum-alloy armor plate.[131] The battery pack’s location allowsfor quick battery swapping. A battery swap can take aslittle as 90 seconds in the Model S.[132] Tesla’s first bat-tery swap station is located at Harris Ranch, California,and is operational as of December 22, 2014.[133]

4.2 Technology sharing

Tesla CEO Elon Musk announced in a press release andconference call on June 12, 2014, that the company willallow its technology patents be used by anyone in goodfaith.[135] Future agreements to be made are expected toinclude provisions whereby the recipients agree not tofile patent suits against Tesla, or to copy their designsdirectly.[136] Reasons expressed for this stance include at-tracting and motivating talented employees, as well asto accelerate the mass market advancement of electriccars for sustainable transport. “The unfortunate realityis, electric car programs (or programs for any vehicle

The Tesla Patent Wall at its headquarters was removed afterthe company announced its patents are part of the open sourcemovement.[134]

that doesn't burn hydrocarbons) at the major manufac-turers are small to non-existent, constituting an average offar less than 1% of their total vehicle sales,” Musk said.Tesla will still hold other intellectual property, such astrademarks and trade secrets, which would prevent directcopying of its vehicles.[137]

5 Competition

General Motors’ then-Vice Chairman Robert Lutz said in2007 that the Tesla Roadster inspired him to push GM todevelop the Chevrolet Volt, a plug-in hybrid sedan.[138]In an August 2009 edition of The New Yorker, Lutz wasquoted as saying, “All the geniuses here at General Mo-tors kept saying lithium-ion technology is 10 years away,and Toyota agreed with us—and boom, along comesTesla. So I said, 'How come some tiny little Californiastartup, run by guys who know nothing about the car busi-ness, can do this, and we can't?' That was the crowbar thathelped break up the log jam.”[139]

6 Car models

6.1 Tesla Roadster

Main article: Tesla RoadsterTesla Motors’ first production vehicle, the Tesla Road-ster, was an all-electric sports car. The Roadster was thefirst highway-capable all-electric vehicle in serial produc-tion for sale in the United States in the modern era. TheRoadster was also the first production automobile to uselithium-ion battery cells and first mass production BEVto travel more than 200 miles (320 km) per charge.[140]

Prototypes were introduced to the public in July 2006.The Tesla Roadster was featured on the cover of Time inDecember 2006 as the recipient of the magazine’s “BestInventions 2006—Transportation Invention” award.[141]The first “Signature One Hundred” set of fully equipped

6.2 Model S 7

Tesla began producing right-hand drive Roadsters in January2010 and sold them in the UK, Australia and parts of Asia.

Tesla Roadster Sport 2.5, the company’s fourth-generation Road-ster

Roadsters sold out in less than three weeks,[142] the sec-ond hundred sold out by October 2007, and general pro-duction began on March 17, 2008.[143] Since February2008 two new models were introduced, one in July 2009,and another in July 2010.[144][145][146]

In January 2010, Tesla began producing its first right-hand-drive Roadsters for the UK and Ireland, then be-gan selling them in mid-2010 in Japan, Singapore, HongKong and Australia.[147] Tesla produced the Roadster un-til early 2012, when its supply of Lotus Elise glidersran out, as its contract with Lotus Cars for 2,500 glid-ers expired at the end of 2011.[23][24] Tesla stopped tak-ing orders for the Roadster in the U.S. market in August2011.[148][149] Featuring new options and enhanced fea-tures, the 2012 Tesla Roadster was sold in limited num-bers only in Europe, Asia and Australia.[150][151] The nextgeneration is expected to be introduced in 2014, basedon a shortened version of the platform developed for theTesla Model S.[152] Tesla sold more than 2,400 Roadstersin 31 countries through September 2012.[153][154] Mostof the remaining Roadsters were sold during the fourthquarter of 2012.[155]

The car had an average range of 245 miles (394 km)per charge according to Tesla.[156] On October 27, 2009,the Roadster driven by Simon Hackett drove the entire313-mile (504 km) segment of Australia’s annual GlobalGreen Challenge on a single charge, at an average speed

of 25 mph (40 km/h).[157][158] The Tesla Roadster canaccelerate from zero to 60 mph (97 km/h) in under 4seconds and has a top speed of 125 mph (201 km/h).The base price of the car is US$109,000 (€84,000or £87,945).[26] The Roadster Sport price started atUS$128,500 in the United States and €112,000 (exclud-ing VAT) in Europe. Deliveries began in July 2009.MotorTrend reported that the Roadster Sport recordeda 0–60 mph of 3.70 seconds and a quarter-mile test at12.6 sec @ 102.6 mph (165.1 km/h), and stated “Teslais the first maker to crack the EV legitimacy barrier in acentury.”[159]

6.2 Model S

Main article: Tesla Model SThe Model S was announced in a press release on June

Tesla started production of its Tesla Model S sedan in 2012, anddeliveries to retail customers began in June 2012.

30, 2008.[160][161] The sedan was originally code-named“Whitestar”.[162] Retail deliveries began in the U.S. onJune 22, 2012.[163] The first delivery of a Model S to a re-tail customer in Europe took place onAugust 7, 2013.[164]Deliveries in China began on April 22, 2014.[165] Firstdeliveries of the right-hand-drive model destined for theUK, Australia, Hong Kong and Japan were delivered asscheduled in 2014.[166] The Model S was to have threebattery pack options for a range of up to 265 miles (426km) per charge,[167] but this was reduced to two, due tolack of demand for the shortest range vehicle. The UnitedStates Environmental Protection Agency range for the 85kW·h battery pack model, the first trim launched in theUnited States market, is 265 mi (426 km),[168] and 208mi (335 km) for the model with the 60 kW·h battery.[169]

A total of 2,650 Model S cars were sold in the NorthAmerican market during 2012, mostly in the UnitedStates.[155] Sales in Europe and North America totaled22,477 units in 2013.[170] During 2014 a total of 31,655units were delivered worldwide,[171] and about 21,552units were sold worldwide during the first half of 2015,of which, 11,532 were delivered during the second quar-ter alone, up about 52% over the same quarter the previ-ous year, and setting a new record for the most cars de-

8 6 CAR MODELS

Model S global sales by quarter (3Q 2012 to 2Q 2015)

livered in a quarter.[172][173][174] As of June 2015, globalModel S sales totaled 78,359 units since its introductionin June 2012.[173][175] The United States is the leadingmarket with over 50,000 units sold by early July 2015.[176]Norway is the Model S largest overseas market,[177] with8,697 new units registered through June 2015[178][179][180]Global sales are expected to pass 100,000 units milestonebefore the end of December 2015.[175]

The Tesla Model S was the top selling new car in Nor-way in September 2013, thus becoming the first electriccar to top the sales ranking in any country. The ModelS captured a market share of 5.1% of all new car salesthat month.[181][182][183] In December 2013, and with a4.9% market share, the Model S topped one more timethe best selling new car list in Norway.[184] InMarch 2014Tesla Model S became the best-ever selling car for overa period of one month in Norway, with 10.8% of all newcars registered in the country in March 2014 were TeslaModel S.[185] The Model S ranked as the third top sellingplug-in electric car in the U.S. after the Chevrolet Voltand the Nissan Leaf in 2013 and 2014.[186][187] Also in2013, the Model S was the top selling car in the full-size luxury sedan category in the U.S., ahead of theMercedes-Benz S-Class (13,303), the top selling car inthe category in 2012, and also surpassing the BMW 7 Se-ries (10,932), Lexus LS (10,727), Audi A8 (6,300) andPorsche Panamera (5,421).[188] The Model S ranked asthe world’s second best selling plug-in electric vehicle af-ter the Nissan Leaf in 2014,[171] and it was the top sellingplug-in electric car in the U.S. for the first half of 2015,with about 11,900 units delivered.[175]

Tesla manufactures the Model S in Fremont, California,in an assembly plant formerly operated by NUMMI, a de-funct joint venture of Toyota and General Motors, nowcalled Tesla Factory. Tesla purchased a stake in the sitein May 2010 for US$42 million,[189][190] and opened thefacility in October 2010.[189][191][192] For the Europeanmarket, Tesla assembles and distributes theModel S fromits European Distribution Center in Tilburg, the Nether-lands. Tesla chose Tilburg because of its location nearthe port of Rotterdam, where Models S components ar-rive from the U.S. The center also serves as a workshop

Robotic manufacturing of the Model S at the Tesla Factory inFremont, California

and spare parts warehouse. Cars are built and tested inFremont. Then, the battery pack, the electric motor andparts are disassembled and shipped separately to Tilburg,where the cars are reassembled.[193]

Among other awards, the Model S won the 2013 "MotorTrend Car of the Year",[194] the 2013 "World GreenCar",[195] Automobile Magazine's 2013 “Car of theYear”,[196] and Time Magazine Best 25 Inventions of theYear 2012 award.[197] In June 2015, three years after theModel S introduction and with almost 75,000 Model Ssedans delivered worldwide, Tesla announced that ModelS owners have accumulated over 1 billion electric miles(1.6 billion km) traveled.[198][199] The Tesla Model S isthe first plug-in electric vehicle fleet to reach the 1 billionelectric miles milestone. In October 2014 General Mo-tors reported that Volt owners had accumulated a totalof 629 million all-electric miles (over 1 billion kilome-ters) traveled; while Nissan reported in December 2014that Leaf owners had traveled 625 million miles (1 billionkilometers).[199]

In October 2014, Tesla announced the 85D andP85D dual-motor all-wheel drive variants of the ModelS.[200][201][202] The high-end P85D can accelerate from0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) in 3.2 seconds and has a topspeed of 155 miles per hour (249 km/h), compared to theModel P85’s 130 miles per hour (210 km/h).[201][202] TheModel S 85D can cruise at 65 mph (105 km/h) for 295miles (475 km) on a single charge, 10 miles more thanthe Model S 85.[203] The control system shifts power be-tween the motors, so each is always operating at its mostefficient point.[201]

In November 2014 Tesla Motors announced the comple-tion of upgrades to its Fremont, California factory. Thefactory shut down for two weeks in late summer to com-plete modifications to handle the addition of the all-wheeldrive Dual Motor Model S. The upgrades will help thecompany raise production by 50 percent in 2015.[204]

In April 2015 Tesla Motors announced a new 70D to re-place the 60. The 70D includes the Supercharger optionand is rated at 240miles (386 km) on a charge.[205] In July

6.4 Model 3 9

2015, they announced the 90 kW-h model, with the 90,90D, P90 and P90D, concomitant with the new battery, ahigher performance motor would be available, with Ludi-crous Mode, making the top-of-the-line variant have 762hp and a 1.1G acceleration rate.[206]

6.2.1 AutoPilot

Beginning with vehicles manufactured in late Septem-ber 2014, all new Model S come equipped with a cam-era mounted at the top of the windshield, forward look-ing radar in the lower grill, and ultrasonic sonar sen-sors in the front and rear bumpers—providing a 360 de-gree buffer zone around the car. This equipment allowsModel S to detect road signs, lane markings, obstacles,and other vehicles. In addition to adaptive cruise con-trol and lane departure warning, this system will enablesemi-autonomous drive and parking capabilities.[207][208]These features are not yet implemented, and are plannedto be activated via future over-the-air software updates.

6.3 Model X

Tesla Model X concept unveiled in Hawthorne, California

Main article: Tesla Model X

The Tesla Model X was unveiled at the company’s designstudios in Hawthorne, California February 9, 2012.[209]More than a thousand people attended the unveiling,at which Musk said the car would enter production in2013.[210] In February 2013 Tesla announced that pro-duction had been rescheduled to begin by late 2014 inorder to focus “on a commitment to bring profitabilityto the company in 2013” and to achieve their productiontarget of 20,000 Model S cars in 2013.[211][212] The com-pany began taking reservations for the vehicle in 2013and said that deliveries would begin in 2014.[213][214]

In November 2013, Tesla confirmed the company ex-pected to deliver the Model X in small numbers by end of2014, with high volume production planned for the sec-ond quarter of 2015.[215] However, Tesla announced inFebruary 2014 that in order to focus on overseas roll outs

of the Model S during 2014, the company expected tohave production design Model X prototypes in late 2014,and begin high-volume deliveries for retail customers inthe second quarter of 2015.[216] In November 2014 Tesladelayed one more time the start of deliveries to retail cus-tomers, and announced the company expected Model Xdeliveries to begin in the third quarter of 2015.[217] Re-tail deliveries of the Model X Signature series are sched-uled to begin on September 29, 2015. Pricing for thepremium special version of the Model X varies betweenUS$132,000 and US$144,000.[218]

6.4 Model 3

The Model 3 (stylized as "Ξ")[219] was previously calledthe Model E, and was codenamed Tesla BlueStar in theoriginal business plan;[72] its current namewas announcedon Twitter on July 16, 2014.[220] Tesla expects to unveil itin 2016.[221] The all-electric car will have a range of 200miles (320 km), with first deliveries expected to beginby late 2017,[222] and full production in 2018.[223] How-ever, according to Elon Musk, full production to fulfillexpected demand could take up to 2020.[16] Tesla is aim-ing for a US$35,000 starting price before any governmentincentives.[17][223]

According to design chief Franz von Holzhausen, theModel 3 will “be an Audi A4, BMW 3-series, Mercedes-Benz C-Class type of vehicle that will offer everything:range, affordability, and performance with a startingprice of US$30,000” that is targeted toward the mass-market.[224] While technology from Tesla’s Model S willbe incorporated into the Model 3,[225] it will be 20%smaller than the Model S[73] and have its own uniquedesign.[226] Although the Model S is generally a standardlooking car, the third generation vehicle will have a moredistinctive style.[227]

The company plans for the Model 3 are part of Tesla’sthree step strategy to start at high price and moving pro-gressively towards lower cost, where the battery and elec-tric drivetrain technology would be developed and paidfor through sales of the Tesla Roadster and Tesla ModelS vehicles.[32][72] Whereas the Roadster used carbon fiberand the Model S uses aluminum, the Model 3 will usesteel.[228]

6.5 Future models

Future vehicles may further advance autonomous drivingfeatures. In 2014, Tesla Motors CEO, Elon Musk offeredthe following prognosis for autonomous driving technol-ogy: The ability for drivers to let their cars do the drivingcould be ready in a six-year time frame, but it will takeseveral more years for governments to work out the indus-try guidelines for wide embrace of the innovation.[229]

Other vehicle types have been presaged. In June

10 8 FACILITIES

2009, Tesla announced plans for electric minivans,crossover SUVs and electric fleet vans for municipalgovernments.[230][231] In 2010, Tesla articulated ideas inaddition to theModel X crossover: a utility van and cabri-olet were discussed that, if built, would be based on thesecond generation platform shared with the Model S.[232]Other than the third generation platform to be first usedby the Model 3, the possibility of a truck was under dis-cussion in 2012.[233] In July 2015, it was announced thata successor to the Roadster would debut in 2019.[206]

Futuremodels may also reach a 400miles (640 km) rangebecause of a new patented battery system, pairing metal-air and lithium-ion batteries.[234]

7 Battery products

In April 2015, the company unveiled its Powerwall homeand industrial battery packs,[235][236][237] and quickly re-ceived orders to a total value of US$800 million.[238] Thetwo models included a 7 kilowatt-hour wall-mounted unitand 10 kWh unit that cost less than the going rate forlarge-scale batteries for summer delivery. The companyalso announced larger-scale battery blocks for industrialusers in units of 100 kWh. The company planned to opensource its patents for the entire range. First battery cus-tomers include GreenMountain Power, which plans to re-sell them to customers that already have solar power.[235]

Battery cells will initially be made by Panasonic. Whenproduction shifts to Reno (forecast for 2016 or 2017[239]),Tesla expects costs to drop by 30%.[235]

Some 62 megawatts-hours (MWh) of batteries and otherenergy-storage devices were installed in 2014 at 180properties, at a value of about US$128 million, up 40%from the previous year, with sales expected to more thantriple, to 220 MWh in 2015. In California, state rebatescover up to 60% of the battery price. Batteries that areconnected to solar panels are also eligible for federal taxcredits equal to 30% of the price.[235]

8 Facilities

Tesla Motors’ headquarters are located in Palo Alto,California. As of August 2013, Tesla operates over50[240] company-owned showrooms worldwide.[241] InJuly 2010, Tesla hired former Apple and Gap Execu-tive George Blankenship as Vice President of Design andStore Development to build Tesla’s retail strategy.[242] Heleft the company in November 2013.[243]

8.1 United States

Tesla was founded in San Carlos, California. In 2007,Tesla opened an office in Rochester Hills, Michigan.[244]

New Tesla Model S cars at the Tesla Factory in 2012

The office was later closed due to the mounting lossesat the time, most of the remaining employees went backto California while some moved into a smaller office inAuburn Hills.[245] Tesla opened its first retail store inLos Angeles, California on Santa Monica Blvd in theWestwood neighborhood,[246] in April 2008 and a sec-ond in Menlo Park, California, in July 2008.[247] Thecompany opened a display showroom in New York City’sChelsea art district in July 2009.[248] It also opened aSeattle, Washington store in July 2009. Tesla subse-quently opened stores in Washington, D.C.; New YorkCity; Chicago; Dania Beach, Florida; Boulder, Colorado;Orange County, California; San Jose, California andDenver, Colorado.[78] In 2010 Tesla moved its corpo-rate headquarters and opened a powertrain developmentfacility at 3500 Deer Creek Road, in the Stanford Re-search Park in Palo Alto. Tesla financed the project inpart through US$100 million of the federal low-interestloans. The new facility occupies 369,000 sq ft (34,300m2) on a 23-acre (93,000 m2) parcel previously occupiedby Agilent Technologies. About 350 employees were ex-pected to be based at the Stanford site initially, poten-tially increasing to 650.[249] In August 2014 the com-pany announced it, in conjunction with Panasonic, wouldestablish a "gigafactory" battery manufacturing plant inthe Southwest or Western United States by 2020. TheUS$5 billion plant would employ 6,500 people, and re-duce Tesla’s battery costs by 30 percent.[250] On Septem-ber 4, 2014, Tesla announced that Nevada would be thesite for the battery factory;[251] as of September 10, theNevada legislature was debating US$1.3 billion of incen-tives for the factory.[252] Two days later, state lawmak-ers unanimously approved the plan.[253] The factory, nearReno, Nevada was slated to start up in 2016 or 2017.[239]

The company is known for its outreach efforts to hireAmerican military veterans.[254]

8.2 Supercharger network 11

8.1.1 Tesla Factory

Main article: Tesla Factory

Tesla built its Model S assembly plant in California with afully ramped-up annual output of 20,000 sedans.[255][256]Tesla partnered with Toyota to produce the Model S atthe former NUMMI plant in Fremont, California, whichopened on October 27, 2010 and was renamed the TeslaFactory.[257]

In June 2015, Tesla signed a lease to occupy a manufac-turing building at 901 Page Avenue. The location is veryclose to its existing car plant in Fremont. The building ismore than 500,000 sq ft (46,500 m2) and was formerlyused by Solyndra.[258]

8.2 Supercharger network

See also: List of Tesla Superchargers

In 2012, Tesla Motors began building a network of480-volt fast-charging Supercharger stations to facilitatelonger distance journeys in the Model S. As of 9 July2015 there were 462 stations operating globally.[259] Asof 11 May 2015 there were 203 stations in North Amer-ica, 150 in Europe, and 76 in the Asia/Pacific region.[260]

The initial network was planned to be available in high-traffic corridors across North America, followed by net-works in Europe and Asia in the second half of 2013.The first Supercharger corridor in the U.S. opened withfree access in October 2012. This corridor included sixstations placed along routes connecting San Francisco,Lake Tahoe, Los Angeles, and Las Vegas.[261][262] A sec-ond corridor was opened in December 2012 along theNortheast megalopolis, connecting Washington, D.C.,Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York City, and Boston; itincludes three stations located in highway rest areas, onein Delaware and two adjacent ones in Connecticut.[263]

Tesla Model S charging at the Supercharger network station inDelaware

The Supercharger is a proprietary direct current (DC)fast-charging station that provides up to 135 kW of

power, depending upon location, giving the 85 kWhModel S an additional 170 miles (270 km) of rangein about 30 minutes and a full charge in around 75minutes.[264] The electricity used by the Supercharger inthe West Coast corridor comes from a solar carport sys-tem provided by SolarCity. Eventually, all Superchargerstations are to be supplied by solar power. The network isexclusive to compatible Model S sedans. Supercharginghardware is standard on Model S vehicles equipped withan 85 kWh battery and optional (with a one-time pay-ment of US$2,000) on Model S vehicles equipped with a60 kWh battery. The Roadster is not equipped to chargefrom the Superchargers, but according to the automaker,all future Tesla models will be.[261][262][263] According toMusk, "...we expect all of the United States to be coveredby the end of next year [2013]". He also said that Teslaowners’ use of the network would be free forever.[265]

The number of supercharger stations grew dramatically in2013 and 2014—to 280 by the end of 2014 this numbergrew further through 2015 totaling 439 superchagers inMay[264]—but the 2012 promise of net-energy-positivesolar-powered supercharger stations has not been met.Only two of the supercharger stations built by December2014 are solar powered.[266]

In early 2015, a supercharger in Køge, Denmark becamethe first European supercharger to be upgraded with a 'so-lar canopy' (a carport with solar cells on the roof).[267]According to the person responsible for Tesla’s super-chargers in the Nordic countries, Christian Marcus, theKøge supercharger has 300 m2 solar cells with a pro-jected annual production of about 40 MWh and is orwill be equipped with its own battery bank for temporarystorage of excess production. Unlike other European su-percharger stations, Tesla Motors has bought the land onwhich the Køge supercharger stands.[268]

By 2015, the European supercharger network is plannedto allow a Model S to drive from the North Cape in Nor-way to Istanbul or Lisbon.[268] As of August 2015, thesupercharger closest to Istanbul is the one in Ljubljana.

8.2.1 Battery swapping

Main article: Tesla stationTesla designed its Model S to allow fast battery swap-

Panoramic view of Tesla Supercharger rapid charging station inTejon Ranch, California

ping. This feature facilitated the assembly process at thefactory, as well as future distributed battery swaps for cars

12 8 FACILITIES

during their operational life.[269]

In June 2013, Tesla announced a long-term goal to deploya battery swapping station in each of its existing super-charger stations. Musk demonstrated a 90-second bat-tery swap operation.[270][271][272] Each swapping stationwas projected to cost approximately US$500,000. Earlyplans called for each station to initially have about 50 bat-teries available and not require reservations. The servicewas to be offered for the price of about 15 US gallons(57 l; 12 imp gal) of gasoline at the current local rate,around US$60 to US$80 at June 2013 prices. Ownerscan pick up their original battery pack fully charged onthe return trip for the same price as the pack swap. Teslaalso indicated it would offer the option to keep the packreceived in the swap for the difference in price if thebattery received is newer. Alternately, Tesla would re-turn the original pack to the owner’s location for a trans-port fee.[270] As of 17 December 2014, 18 months af-ter the initial announcement, no battery swapping stationshave yet opened to the public,[266] although October 2014pronouncements by the company were that the first pub-lic battery swap station was scheduled to become oper-ational in December 2014, located somewhere betweenSan Francisco and Los Angeles.[273] On 19 December2014, Tesla announced that they would initially build onlya single battery-swapping station, and that they would in-stitute a “Battery Swap Pilot Program” there to “assessdemand.” Only invited Model S owners may participatein the pilot battery swaps. “Tesla will evaluate relative de-mand from customers ... to assess whether it merits theengineering resources and investment necessary for thatupgrade.” [274]

8.3 Canada

Tesla Motors Store in Toronto

Tesla opened its first “new design” store in Canada onNovember 16, 2012 in the Yorkdale Shopping Centre inToronto, Ontario. The store features interactive displaysand design studios which allow customers to customizethe Model S and view the results on an 85-inch wall.[275]As of August 2015, there are seven Tesla stores/galleriesin Canada: one in Montreal, one in Waterloo, one in Ot-

tawa, one in Quebec City, two in Toronto, and two inVancouver.[276]

8.4 Europe

Tesla showroom in Munich, Germany

Tesla opened its first store in Europe in June 2009 inLondon’s Knightsbridge district,[277] followed by Munichin September.[278] The London store relocated to theWestfield London Shopping Centre in October 2013.[279]Tesla has 24 “galleries” and stores around Europe bythe start of 2014. Tesla’s European headquarters are inAmsterdam, the Netherlands.[280] The Roadster’s chas-sis was assembled by Lotus Cars in Hethel, Norfolk,England.[281] The 62,000 sq ft (5,800 m2) European dis-tribution center and final assembly facility was estab-lished in 2013 in Tilburg in the Netherlands. Tesla’s CEOconfirmed in June its long-term plans to build a plant inEurope.[282] Slovakia is a contender, with the carmakeralready involved in talks with the Slovak Agency for De-velopment of Investments and Trade (SARIO).[283]

8.5 Asia

Tesla Motor’s Japanese showroom in Aoyama, which was thefirst showroom opened in the country

Tesla opened its first Japanese showroom in Aoyama

9.1 Daimler AG 13

on November 2010.[284] Another showroom was subse-quently opened in Osaka.[285] Roadsters sold in Japanwere either in left- or right-hand drive configurations,[286]although Model S vehicles will only be available inright-hand drive configurations by 2014.[285] Accordingto Kevin Yu, the director of Tesla Motors Asia Pa-cific, Roadsters in Japan sell at an average price of be-tween ¥12.8million (about US$103,702) and ¥20million(about US$162,035).[287]

Tesla Motors established a Hong Kong branch andshowroom in 2011.[288] Roadsters were previously soldin Hong Kong for HK$1.2 million.[289] The HongKong showroom consists of a “Design Studio” whereprospective buyers can design their vehicle on a largetouchscreen.[290] The official Hong Kong service centeropened in September 2011.[291]

A Tesla branch existed in Singapore from July 2010 toFebruary 2011, but the company ceased its operationsin the country due to a lack of tax exemptions.[292][293]Without tax breaks, the Roadster retailed betweenS$400,000 and S$500,000 rather than the much lowerprice of S$250,000.[293]

Tesla’s Chinese website was launched on December 16,2013 to sell the Model S and Model X and set a February2014 date for the distribution of both vehicles in China.The launch followed the opening of a Tesla showroom inBeijing in November 2013.[294]

8.6 Australia

Tesla Motors opened a showroom in Sydney in2010.[295][296] A Roadster was driven by Country Man-ager Jay McCormack along the entire eastern seaboardcovering a distance of more than 2,500 miles (4,000 km),the longest distance traveled by an electric vehicle in Aus-tralia at the time.[297]

Tesla Motors Australia opened its first Melbourne Storein Chadstone Shopping Centre in December 2014.[298] ASignature Model S was driven by Shiny Things founderMat Peterson from his home in Sydney to the MarriottHotel in Melbourne, covering a distance of 436 miles(702 km), the longest documented distance traveled bya Model S at the time in Australia.[299]

Tesla Motors Australia opened its second Melbournestore and first service center/Showroom in Melbourne atRichmond, Victoria in May 2015.[300]

9 Partners

Unlike many traditional manufacturers, Tesla operatesas an original equipment manufacturer (OEM), manu-facturing powertrain components for other automakers.Tesla has confirmed partnerships with Daimler and Toy-ota. Tesla also works closely with Panasonic as a part-

ner in battery research and development. The companyalso supplies battery packs for Freightliner Trucks' Cus-tom Chassis electric van.[301]

9.1 Daimler AG

Starting in late 2007, Daimler AG and Tesla beganworking together. The two companies were expectedto collaborate further, including on the Tesla Model Ssedan. On May 19, 2009, Daimler acquired an equitystake of less than 10% in Tesla for a reported US$50million.[44][302] As part of the collaboration, HerbertKohler, Vice President E-Drive and Future Mobility atDaimler, took a seat on Tesla’s board of directors.[303]On July 13, 2009, Daimler AG sold 40% of their May ac-quisition to Aabar Investments PJSC. Aabar is an invest-ment company controlled by the International PetroleumInvestment Company (IPIC), which is wholly owned bythe Government of Abu Dhabi.[304][305] In March 2009,Aabar purchased a 9% stake in Daimler for €1,95 bil-lion. In October 2014, Daimler sold their remainingholding.[306]

9.1.1 Mercedes-Benz A-Class

Main article: Mercedes-Benz A-Class E-CellTesla, in collaboration with Mercedes-Benz, is build-

The Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive uses a battery packdeveloped by Tesla.[307]

ing electric powertrain components for the Mercedes-Benz A-Class E-Cell, an electric car with a range of200 km (124 mi) and 290 N·m (214 ft·lbf) of torque.The 36 kWh battery pack would contain approximately4,000 individual lithium-ion cells.[308] Daimler was notexpected to lease the electric version outside of Europe.The Mercedes-Benz A-Class E-Cell was unveiled at the2010 Paris Motor Show. Only 500 cars would be builtfor trial purposes in Europe beginning in September2011.[309][310]

14 9 PARTNERS

9.1.2 Mercedes-Benz B-Class ED

Main article: Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive

9.1.3 Smart Fortwo

Main article: Smart electric drive

In January 2009, Tesla announced that it would producethe battery packs and chargers for an initial 1,000-unittest fleet of Smart EVs.[311]

9.2 Toyota

On May 20, 2010, Tesla and Toyota announced apartnership to work on electric vehicle development,which included Toyota’s US$50 million future condi-tional investment[59] in Tesla and Tesla’s US$42 mil-lion purchase of a portion of the former NUMMIfactory.[189][191][312] Tesla cooperated on the developmentof electric vehicles, parts, and production system and en-gineering support. It was announced that an electric ver-sion of the Toyota RAV4 would be mass-produced in2012 at Toyota’s Woodstock, Ontario plant.[313]

9.2.1 Toyota RAV4 EV

Main article: Toyota RAV4 EV Second generationTesla Motors and Toyota announced in July 2010 an

Toyota RAV4 EV second generation

agreement to develop a second generation of the com-pact Toyota RAV4 EV. At the time, Toyota planned tointroduce the model into the market by 2012.[314] A sec-ond generation RAV4 EV demonstrator was unveiled atthe October 2010 Los Angeles Auto Show. Toyota built35 of these converted RAV4s (Phase Zero vehicles) fora demonstration and evaluation program that ran through2011. The lithium metal-oxide battery and other power-train components were supplied by Tesla Motors.[315][316]In August 2012, the production version RAV4 EV was

unveiled; the battery pack, electronics and powertraincomponents are similar to those used in the Tesla ModelS sedan launched in June 2012, and the Phase Zero vehi-cles used components from the Tesla Roadster.[317][318]

9.2.2 Freightliner Electric Van

The company is supplying battery packs for FreightlinerTrucks' Custom Chassis electric van.[301]

9.3 Panasonic

Panasonic Energy Company President Naoto Noguchi presentedTesla CTO JB Straubel with the first production run of lithium-ioncells from Panasonic’s facility in Suminoe, Japan.

On January 7, 2010, Tesla and battery cell makerPanasonic announced that they would together developnickel-based lithium-ion battery cells for electric vehi-cles. Naoto Noguchi, President of Panasonic’s EnergyCompany, said that the Japanese firm’s cells will beused for Tesla’s “current and next-generation EV bat-tery pack.”[319] The partnership was part of Panasonic’sUS$1 billion investment over three years in facilities forlithium-ion cell research, development and production.Tesla disclosed that the new cell resulting from its collab-oration with Panasonic will allow Tesla to continue usingcells from multiple suppliers.[320]

In April 2010, Noguchi presented Tesla Chief Tech-nology Officer J. B. Straubel with the first productioncells manufactured at the new facility in Suminoe, Japan.The Suminoe factory produced 3.1Ah battery cells, thehighest energy density cells in the market. The facilityproduces more than 300 million cells per year.[321] OnNovember 5, 2010, Panasonic invested US$30 millionfor a multi-year collaboration on next generation cells de-signed specifically for electric vehicles.[322]

In July 2014, it was announced that Panasonic hasreached a basic agreement with Tesla Motors to par-ticipate in the Gigafactory, the huge battery plant thatthe American electric vehicle manufacturer is building inNevada.[323]

10.3 Top Gear 15

9.4 Airbnb

In August 2015, Tesla partnered with Airbnb to providechargers at certain host houses, firstly in California.[324]

10 Lawsuits and Controversies

10.1 Fisker Automotive

On April 14, 2008, Tesla Motors sued Fisker Auto-motive, alleging that Henrik Fisker “stole design ideasand confidential information related to the design of hy-brid and electric cars” and was using that informationto develop the Fisker Karma, which was announced atthe North American International Auto Show in January2008. Tesla had hired Fisker Coachbuild to design theWhiteStar sedan but dropped the design that Musk con-sidered “substandard”.[325][326] On November 3, 2008,Fisker Automotive Inc. issued a press release indicat-ing that an arbiter had issued an interim award findingin Fisker’s favor on all claims.[327] Tesla said the rulingwas binding and that it would not pursue the case.[327]

10.2 Founder dispute

The founding of the company was the subject of alawsuit that was later dropped after an out-of-courtsettlement.[328][329] OnMay 26, 2009, Eberhard filed suitin San Mateo County, California, against Tesla and Muskfor slander, libel and breach of contract.[330] Musk wrotea lengthy blog post that included original source docu-ments, including emails between senior executives andother artifacts demonstrating that Eberhard was unani-mously fired by Tesla’s board of directors.[75] On July 29,2009, a judge in San Mateo County, California, Supe-rior Court struck down a claim by former CEO Eber-hard, who asked to be declared one of only two com-pany founders.[331] Tesla said in a statement that the rulingis “consistent with Tesla’s belief in a team of founders,including the company’s current CEO and Product Ar-chitect Elon Musk, and Chief Technology Officer JBStraubel, who were both fundamental to the creationof Tesla from inception.”[332] In early August, Eber-hard withdrew the case,[333] and the parties reached afinal settlement on September 21. One public provi-sion stated that the parties will consider Eberhard, Musk,Straubel, Tarpenning, and Wright to be the five co-founders. Eberhard also issued a statement about Musk’sfoundational role in the company: “As a co-founder ofthe company, Elon’s contributions to Tesla have beenextraordinary.”[334]

10.3 Top Gear

Tesla unsuccessfully sued British television show TopGear for their review of the Roadster in a 2008 episode inwhich Jeremy Clarkson could be seen driving one aroundthe Top Gear test track, complaining about a range ofonly 55 miles (89 km), before showing workers pushingit into the garage, supposedly out of charge. Tesla fileda lawsuit against the BBC for libel and malicious false-hood, claiming that two cars were provided and that atany point, at least one was ready to drive. In addition,Tesla claimed that neither car ever dropped below 25%charge, and that the scene was staged.[335][336][337][338] OnOctober 19, 2011, the High Court in London rejectedTesla’s libel claim.[339] The falsehood claims were alsostruck out by February 2012, with Justice Tugendhat de-scribing Tesla’s malicious falsehood claim as “so 'gravelydeficient' it too could not be allowed to proceed.”[340] TheTop Gear website posted a favorable review of the ModelS in 2015.[341]

10.4 Ecotricity

In early 2014, Tesla reportedly tried to break the exclu-sivity agreement their charging partner in the UK had forlocations along the UK’s highways; Ecotricity replied bytaking an injunction against them.[342][343] The disputewas resolved by an out of court settlement.[344]

10.5 Cold Weather

In early 2013, Tesla approached the New York Timesto publish a story “Focused on future advancements inour Supercharger technology.”[345] In February 2013,the Times published an account on the newly installedSupercharger network on the I-95 highway betweenBoston and New York City. In it, the author describesfundamental flaws in the Model S sedan, primarily thatthe range was severely lowered in the below freezing tem-peratures of the American Northeast, and at one pointthe vehicle died completely and needed to be towed to acharging station.[346]

Tesla CEO Elon Musk responded immediately,[347] call-ing the article “fake,” and followed up with a lengthy blogpost disputing several of the claims of the original fea-ture. He called it a “salacious story” and provided data,annotated screenshots, andmaps obtained from recordingequipment installed in the press vehicle as evidence thatthe New York Times fabricated much of the story.[345]

[...] Instead of plugging in the car, hedrove in circles for over half a mile in a tiny,100-space parking lot. When the Model Svaliantly refused to die, he eventually pluggedit in.— Elon Musk, A Most Peculiar Test Drive —

16 11 PRODUCT ISSUES

Tesla Blog

The author of the original piece John Broder quickly is-sued a rebuttal in which he clarified and refuted many ofthe accusations made by Musk.[348]

[...] I drove around the Milford serviceplaza in the dark looking for the Supercharger,which is not prominently marked. I was nottrying to drain the battery. (It was alreadyon reserve power.) As soon as I found theSupercharger, I plugged the car in.— John Broder, That Tesla Data: What It Saysand What It Doesn’t — The New York Times

Further investigation was made by the media. Muskclaimed “the Model S battery never ran out of energyat any time, including when Broder called the flatbedtruck.” Auto blog Jalopnik contacted Rogers Automo-tive & Towing, the towing company Broder used. Theirrecords showed that “the car’s battery pack was com-pletely drained.”[349] In his follow-up blog post, Broderstated “The car’s display screen said the car was shuttingdown, and it did. The car did not have enough power tomove, or even enough to release the electrically operatedparking brake.”In the days that followed, NYT public editor MargaretSullivan published an opinion piece titled “ProblemsWithPrecision and Judgment, but Not Integrity, in Tesla Test”.She concludes “In the matter of the Tesla Model S and itsnow infamous test drive, there is still plenty to argue aboutand few conclusions that are unassailable.”[350] No legalaction was pursued by either entity.

10.6 Web site and Twitter account com-promised

On 25 April 2015 the website of Tesla Motors was com-promised and defaced. At about the same time alsoTesla’s Twitter account was momentarily compromised,both in an apparent “unsophisticated prank”.[351][352]

11 Product issues

11.1 Recalls

In May 2009, Tesla issued a safety recall for 345 Road-sters manufactured before April 22, 2009. Tesla senttechnicians to customers’ homes to tighten the rear, in-ner hub flange bolts. Using wording from the NationalHighway Traffic and Safety Administration, Tesla toldcustomers that without this adjustment, the driver couldlose control of the car.[353] The problem originated at the

Lotus assembly line, where the Roadster glider was built.Lotus also recalled some Elise and Exige vehicles for thesame reason.[354]

On October 1, 2010, Tesla issued a second product safetyrecall in the USA affecting 439 Roadsters. The recallinvolved the 12V low-voltage auxiliary cable from a re-dundant back-up system. The recall followed an incidentwhere the low voltage auxiliary cable in a vehicle chafedagainst the edge of a carbon fiber panel, causing a short,smoke, and a possible fire behind the right front head-lamp. This issue was limited to the 12V low-voltage aux-iliary cable and did not involve the main battery pack ormain power system.[355]

11.2 Crashes and fires

See also: Tesla Model S fire incidents

On October 1, 2013 a Model S caught fire after the ve-hicle hit metal debris on a highway in Kent, Washing-ton. A Tesla spokeswoman confirmed the fire began inthe battery pack and was caused by the “direct impact ofa large metallic object to one of the 16 modules withinthe Model S battery pack.” The company spokeswomansaid that, “Because each module within the battery packis, by design, isolated by fire barriers to limit any poten-tial damage, the fire in the battery pack was contained toa small section in the front of the vehicle.”[356] The carowner was able to exit the highway, stop and leave thevehicle without injury, as instructed by the onboard alertsystem.[357] Tesla’s share price lost about 12% within twodays and decreased the company’s market capitalizationby about US$3 billion.[358] However, the share price in-creased about 4.5% three days after the crash.[359]

Tesla said that a curved section fell off a semi-trailer andimpaled the vehicle with a peak force on the order of 25tons, creating a three-inch hole through the quarter-incharmor plate under the vehicle. A fire began in the frontbattery module, one of 16 such modules, but was con-tained within the front section by internal firewalls. Bat-tery pack vents directed the flames down toward the roadand away from the vehicle, and the passenger compart-ment was undamaged.[357]

The company also said that conventional gasoline-powered cars were much more vulnerable to such a situa-tion, because they have less underbody protection. It alsonoted that the battery pack holds only about 10% of theenergy contained in a gasoline tank and is spread across16 firewalled modules, meaning that the combustion po-tential is only about 1% as much. Elon Musk postedon his blog that, based on U.S. automobile miles-per-firestatistics from the National Fire Protection Association,a driver is “5 times more likely to experience a fire in aconventional gasoline car than a Tesla.”[357]

On November 6, 2013, a Tesla Model S on Interstate 24

11.4 Hacking 17

near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, caught fire after it strucka tow hitch on the roadway, causing damage beneaththe vehicle. Tesla stated that it would conduct its owninvestigation,[360] and as a result of these incidents, an-nounced its decision to extend its current vehicle warrantyto cover fire damage.[361]

On November 18, 2013, Tesla released a software updateto the air suspension system to increase the ground clear-ance at highway speeds and requested that the NHTSAconduct an investigation into the fire incidents.[362] OnNovember 19, 2013, NHTSA opened a preliminary eval-uation to determine “the potential risks associated withundercarriage strikes on model year 2013 Tesla ModelS vehicles.” An estimated population of 13,108 ModelS cars were part of this initial investigation.[363][364] An-other fire incident took place in Toronto, Canada, in earlyFebruary 2014. The Model S was parked in a garage andit was not plugged in or charging when the fire started.As of February 14, 2014, the origin of the fire was stillunknown.[365] According to Tesla

“In this particular case, we don’t yet knowthe precise cause, but have definitively deter-mined that it did not originate in the battery,the charging system, the adapter or the electri-cal receptacle, as these components were un-touched by the fire.”[366]

On March 28, 2014, the NHTSA announced that it hadclosed the investigation into whether the Model S de-sign was making the electric car prone to catch fire, af-ter the automaker said it would provide more protec-tion to its lithium-ion batteries.[367] All Model S carsmanufactured after March 6 have the .25-inch (6.4 mm)aluminum shield over the battery pack replaced with anew three-layer shield designed to protect the batteryand charging circuitry from being punctured even in veryhigh speed impacts.[368] The new shielding features a hol-low aluminum tube to deflect impacting objects, a tita-nium shield to protect sensitive components from punc-ture damage, and an aluminum extrusion to absorb im-pact energy.[369] The new shields, which decrease vehiclerange by 0.1%, will be installed free-of-charge in exist-ing Model S vehicles by request or during the next sched-uled maintenance.[370] According to the NHTSA, the ti-tanium underbody shield and aluminum deflector plates,along with increased ground clearance, “should reduceboth the frequency of underbody strikes and the resultantfire risk.”[367]

11.3 Delays

Tesla has been criticized for overpromising and underde-livering in a number of areas. Delivery dates for new ve-hicles and new vehicle features have slipped on the Road-ster, the Model S and the Model X. Advanced technolo-gies like the prospect of a large network of solar-powered

supercharger stations (2012; only two are solar poweredas of late 2014) and of a growing number of battery-swapping stations (2013; none operational by 17 Decem-ber 2014) are substantially behind and auto-industry me-dia sources have written about it.[266]

11.4 Hacking

On August 6, 2015, it was reported that two researchersclaimed to be able to take control of a Tesla Model S byhacking into the car’s entertainment system.[371] The hackrequired the researchers to first physically access the carto gain control over the infotainment system.[372] Teslahas issued a security update for theModel S after securityresearchers discovered six flaws that allowed them to con-trol its entertainment software and hijack the vehicle.[373]

12 Board of directors

As of 2014, the Tesla Motors board of directors consistsof:[374]

• Elon Musk—Chairman of the board of directors,CEO and Product Architect of Tesla; former Presi-dent of PayPal, founder, CEO and CTO of SpaceX;Chairman of the board, SolarCity

• Brad Buss—CFO of Cypress Semiconductor Corp

• Ira Ehrenpreis—General Partner, Technology Part-ners

• Antonio J. Gracias—CEO and Chairman of the In-vestment Committee at Valor Equity Partners

• Steve Jurvetson—Managing Director, DraperFisher Jurvetson.

• Harald Kroeger—Mercedes-Benz Vice President,responsible for electrics and electronics

• Kimbal Musk—CEO of Medium, Inc., Co-founderZip2

• Robyn Denholm—Chief Financial Officer andExecutive Vice President, Juniper Networks

13 See also

• Battery electric vehicle

• Gigafactory

• List of production battery electric vehicles

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[323] “Panasonic, Tesla agree to partnership for US car batteryplant”. Nikkei Inc. 2014-07-29. Retrieved 2014-08-01.

[324] Kaufman, Alexander C. (2015-08-24). “Tesla Wants ToTake Stress Out Of Vacationing With An Electric Car”.Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-08-26.

[325] Korzeniewski, Jeremy (2008-04-15). “Tesla files suitagainst Fisker Automotive”. Autoblog. Retrieved 2015-04-12.

[326] Migliore, Greg (2008-04-16). “Tesla sues Fisker, allegestheft of trade secrets”. AutoWeek: News & Views. Re-trieved 2008-04-16.

[327] LaMonica, Martin (2008-11-04). “Tesla Motors losestrade secrets case against Fisker”. CNET News. Retrieved2009-09-27.

[328] Eberhard v. Musk, Case No.: CIV-484400 (SuperiorCourt of the State of California County of San Mateo2009-07-29) (“From defendand’s filing: “During a con-versation with Musk in 2003, JB Straubel (“Straubel”),who later became Tesla’s Chief Technology Officer,learned of Musk’s interest in the development of an all-electric automobile. Following this conversation, he in-troduced Musk to Tom Gage and Al Ciccone at ACPropulsion, a company that had built an all-electric con-cept sports car call the Tzero. Musk was enthusiastic andencouraged Gage and Ciccone to put the Tzero conceptinto production. Though Musk was unable to persuadeAC Propulsion to mass produce the Tzero, Gage offeredto give Musk’s contact information to two groups whodid have such an interest, one of which included Eber-hard, Marc Tarpenning (“Tarpenning”), and Ian Write(“Wright”).”).

[329] Fehrenbacher, Katie (2009-06-14). “Tesla Lawsuit: TheIncredible Importance of Being a Founder”. Earth2tech.Retrieved 2009-08-01.

[330] Martin Eberhard lawsuit (PDF), San Mateo County, CA(146 pages)

[331] “Superior Court of California”. County of San Mateo.2009-07-17. Retrieved 2009-08-01.

[332] “Judge Strikes Claim onWho Can Be Declared a Founderof Tesla Motors”. Business wire. Retrieved 2009-08-01.

[333] Squatriglia, Chuck (2009-08-19). “Eberhard Says ‘Uncle’in Tesla Lawsuit”. Wired.com. Autopia. Retrieved 2009-09-14.

[334] “TeslaMotors founders: Now there are five”. CNet. 2009-09-21. Retrieved 2009-09-21.

[335] “Tesla sues Top Gear for libel, New Stig unavailable forcomment (update: BBC responds)". Engadget. 2011-03-30. Retrieved 2011-11-20.

[336] Wilman, Andy (2011-04-02). “Tesla vs Top Gear: AndyWilman on our current legal action”. Top Gear. Trans-mission. Retrieved 2011-11-20.

[337] “BBC denies rigging Top Gear Tesla Roadster car race”.Newsbeat. BBC. 2011-03-30. Retrieved 2011-11-20.

[338] Vaughan, Adam (2011-03-30). “Tesla sues Top Gear over'faked' electric car race”. The Guardian. Environment(London). Retrieved 2011-11-20.

[339] “Tesla losing Top Gear court challenge”. The Indepen-dent. 2011-10-21. Retrieved 2011-10-21.

[340] Plunkett, John (2012-02-23). “Top Gear libel case overTesla electric sports car struck out”. The Guardian (Lon-don). Retrieved 2015-04-12.

[341] Philip, Sam (2015-05-11). “First drive: Tesla Model SP85D”. BBC Top Gear. Retrieved 2015-05-21.

[342] Vaughan, Adam (2014-05-23). “Tesla Motors accused ofbullying to grab key car charging sites in the UK”. TheGuardian (UK). Retrieved 2014-06-14.

[343] Green, Chris (2014-06-12). “Misdirected email sparkselectric car war between Tesla and Ecotricity”. The Inde-pendent (UK). Retrieved 2014-06-14.

[344] Bennett, Peter (2015-06-17). “Tesla and Ecotricity reachout of court settlement over Electric Highways dispute”.Next Energy News. Retrieved 2015-06-18.

[345] “A Most Peculiar Test Drive — Tesla Blog”. Retrieved2015-02-19.

[346] Broder, John M. (2013-02-08). “Stalled Out on Tesla’sElectric Highway — The New York Times”. Retrieved2015-02-19.

[347] “Twitter”. Retrieved 2015-02-19.

[348] Broder, John M. (2013-02-14). “That Tesla Data: WhatIt Says and What It Doesn’t — The New York Times”.Retrieved 2015-02-19.

[349] “Towing Company: The NYT Tesla Model S Was DeadWhen It Was On The Flatbed”. Retrieved 2015-02-19.

28 15 EXTERNAL LINKS

[350] Sullivan, Margaret (2013-02-18). “Problems With Preci-sion and Judgment, but Not Integrity, in Tesla Test”. TheNew York Times. Retrieved 2015-02-19.

[351] Smith, Dave (2015-04-25). “Tesla’s website has beenhacked”. uk.businessinsider.com. Retrieved 2015-04-25.

[352] Plaugic, Lizzie (2015-04-25). “Hackers temporarily takecontrol of Tesla’s website, Elon Musk’s Twitter account”.The Verge. Retrieved 2015-04-26.

[353] Ashe, Suzanne (2009-05-28). “Tesla Motors recalls elec-tric Roadster”. CNET. Retrieved 2013-01-11.

[354] “2009 Lotus Elise Recalls—2009 Lotus Elise Recall Re-ports — Motor Trend Magazine”. Motortrend.com. Re-trieved 2009-10-25.

[355] “Tesla Initiates Voluntary Recall After Single CustomerIncident” (Press release). Tesla Motors. 2010-10-01. Re-trieved 2010-10-20.

[356] Christopher Jensen (2013-10-02). “Tesla Says Car FireStarted in Battery”. The New York Times. Retrieved2013-10-07.

[357] Steven Russolillo (2013-10-04). “Musk Explains WhyTesla Model S Caught on Fire”. The Wall Street Journal.Retrieved 2013-10-05.

[358] Jensen, Christopher (2013-10-02). “Forbes: The TeslaFire Is A Textbook PR Problem— And They Should FixIt”. The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-10-06.

[359] “Tesla Motors Inc: NASDAQ:TSLA". Google Finance.2013-10-06. Retrieved 2013-10-06.

[360] Jaclyn Trop (2013-11-07). “Another Fire Raises Ques-tions for Tesla”. The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-11-10.

[361] John Voelcker (2013-11-19). “Tesla Fires: NHTSA WillProbe, Warranty To Cover Fire Damage, Ride-HeightTweak”. Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2013-11-24.

[362] Musk, Elon (2013-11-18). “The Mission of Tesla”. TeslaBlog. Tesla Motors. Retrieved 2014-03-31.

[363] Eric Loveday (2013-11-19). “NHTSA Opens Formal In-vestigation Into 13,108 Model Year 2013 Tesla Model SSedans Sold in US (Update)". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved2013-11-24.

[364] Bill Vlasic and Jaclyn Trop (2013-11-19). “After 3 Fires,Safety Agency Opens Inquiry Into Tesla Model S”. TheNew York Times. Retrieved 2013-11-24.

[365] Linette Lopez (2014-02-13). “Another Tesla Caught OnFire While Sitting In A Toronto Garage This Month”.Business Insider. Retrieved 2014-02-16.

[366] Alan Ohnsman (2014-02-14). “Tesla Investigating Causeof Fire in Toronto With Model S”. Boomberg. Retrieved2014-02-16.

[367] Danielle Ivory (2014-03-28). “Federal Safety AgencyEnds Its Investigation of Tesla Fires”. The New YorkTimes. Retrieved 2014-03-31.

[368] George, Patrick (2014-03-28). “The Tesla Model S:Now With Road Debris-Crushing Titanium!". Jalopnik.Gawker Media. Retrieved 2014-03-31.

[369] Musk, Elon (2014-03-28). “Tesla Adds Titanium Under-body Shield and Aluminum Deflector Plates to Model S”.Tesla Blog. Tesla Motors. Retrieved 2014-03-31.

[370] Blanco, Sebastian (2014-03-28). “Tesla adds free tita-nium underbody shields to Model S to prevent fires”. Au-toblog Green. AOL Inc. Retrieved 2014-03-31.

[371] Masunaga, Samantha (2015-08-06). “Researchers hacka Tesla Model S, bring car to stop”. Los Angeles Times.Retrieved 2015-08-10.

[372] Mahaffey, Kevin (2015-08-06). “The new assembly line:3 best practices for building (secure) connected cars”.Lookout. Retrieved 2015-08-13.

[373] O'Connor, Fred (2015-08-07). “Tesla patches Model Safter researchers hack car’s software”. Wired. Retrieved2015-08-11.

[374] “Board of Directors”. Tesla Motors. Retrieved 2014-01-14.

15 External links• Official website

• Tesla Motors Official Vimeo page

• TeslaMotors / The Future of Electric Cars, NationalGeographic, January 2015

29

16 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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16.2 Images• File:2013_Tesla_Model_S_(11322176214)_cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/2013_

Tesla_Model_S_%2811322176214%29_cropped.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: This file was derived from 2013Tesla Model S (11322176214).jpg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2013_Tesla_Model_S_(11322176214).jpg'class='image'><img alt='2013 Tesla Model S (11322176214).jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/2013_Tesla_Model_S_%2811322176214%29.jpg/50px-2013_Tesla_Model_S_%2811322176214%29.jpg' width='50' height='33'srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/2013_Tesla_Model_S_%2811322176214%29.jpg/75px-2013_Tesla_Model_S_%2811322176214%29.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/2013_Tesla_Model_S_%2811322176214%29.jpg/100px-2013_Tesla_Model_S_%2811322176214%29.jpg 2x' data-file-width='2888' data-file-height='1924'

30 16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

/></a>Original artist: Niels de Wit from Lunteren, The Netherlands

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