Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 1941–1959, 2020https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-1941-2020© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed underthe Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Terpenes and their oxidation products in the French Landes forest:insights from Vocus PTR-TOF measurementsHaiyan Li1, Matthieu Riva2, Pekka Rantala1, Liine Heikkinen1, Kaspar Daellenbach1, Jordan E. Krechmer3,Pierre-Marie Flaud4,5, Douglas Worsnop3, Markku Kulmala1, Eric Villenave4,5, Emilie Perraudin4,5, Mikael Ehn1,and Federico Bianchi11Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland2Univ. Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, IRCELYON, 69626, Villeurbanne, France3Aerodyne Research Inc., Billerica, Massachusetts 01821, USA4Univ. Bordeaux, EPOC, UMR 5805, 33405 Talence, CEDEX, France5CNRS, EPOC, UMR 5805, 33405 Talence, CEDEX, France

Correspondence: Haiyan Li (haiyan.li@helsinki.fi) and Matthieu Riva (matthieu.riva@ircelyon.univ-lyon1.fr)

Received: 18 August 2019 – Discussion started: 4 September 2019Revised: 12 January 2020 – Accepted: 19 January 2020 – Published: 21 February 2020

Abstract. The capabilities of the recently developed Vo-cus proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrome-ter (PTR-TOF) are reported for the first time based on ambi-ent measurements. With the deployment of the Vocus PTR-TOF, we present an overview of the observed gas-phase (oxy-genated) molecules in the French Landes forest during sum-mertime 2018 and gain insights into the atmospheric oxida-tion of terpenes, which are emitted in large quantities in theatmosphere and play important roles in secondary organicaerosol production. Due to the greatly improved detection ef-ficiency compared to conventional PTR instruments, the Vo-cus PTR-TOF identifies a large number of gas-phase signalswith elemental composition categories including CH, CHO,CHN, CHS, CHON, CHOS, and others. Multiple hydrocar-bons are detected, with carbon numbers up to 20. Particu-larly, we report the first direct observations of low-volatilityditerpenes in the ambient air. The diurnal cycle of diterpenesis similar to that of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes butcontrary to that of isoprene. Various types of terpene reac-tion products and intermediates are also characterized. Gen-erally, the more oxidized products from terpene oxidationsshow a broad peak in the day due to the strong photochem-ical effects, while the less oxygenated products peak in theearly morning and/or in the evening. To evaluate the impor-tance of different formation pathways in terpene chemistry,the reaction rates of terpenes with main oxidants (i.e., hy-droxyl radical, OH; ozone, O3; and nitrate radical, NO3) are

calculated. For the less oxidized non-nitrate monoterpene ox-idation products, their morning and evening peaks have con-tributions from both O3- and OH-initiated monoterpene ox-idation. For the monoterpene-derived organic nitrates, oxi-dations by O3, OH, and NO3 radicals all contribute to theirformation, with their relative roles varying considerably overthe course of the day. Through a detailed analysis of terpenechemistry, this study demonstrates the capability of the Vo-cus PTR-TOF in the detection of a wide range of oxidizedreaction products in ambient and remote conditions, whichhighlights its importance in investigating atmospheric oxida-tion processes.

1 Introduction

Organic aerosol (OA) constitutes a large fraction of at-mospheric particles, having significant impacts on climatechange, air quality, and human health (Maria et al., 2004;IPCC, 2013; Mauderly and Chow, 2008). On a global scale,secondary OA (SOA) is the largest source of OA, formedthrough the oxidation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)(Jimenez et al., 2009). Biogenic VOCs (BVOCs) are re-leased into the atmosphere in high amounts, with an annualglobal budget being 760 Tg C (Sindelarova et al., 2014). Onaverage, SOA production from biogenic precursors rangesfrom 2.5 to 44.5 Tg C annually, which is much larger than

Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union.

1942 H. Li et al.: Terpenes and their oxidation products from Vocus PTR-TOF measurements

that from anthropogenic sources (Tsigaridis and Kanakidou,2003). Over the past decades, a considerable number of stud-ies have been conducted to investigate the atmospheric chem-istry of BVOCs (Kanakidou et al., 2005; Henze and Seinfeld,2006; Hatfield and Huff Hartz, 2011; Calfapietra et al., 2013;Jokinen et al., 2015; Ng et al., 2017). However, an incom-plete understanding of BVOC characteristics and their oxi-dation processes in the atmosphere remains and yields largeuncertainties in quantitative estimates of air quality and cli-mate effects of atmospheric aerosols (Carslaw et al., 2013;Zhu et al., 2019).

Terpenes make up the main fraction of BVOCs (Guentheret al., 1995), encompassing isoprene (C5H8), monoterpenes(C10H16), sesquiterpenes (C15H24), diterpenes (C20H32), andeven larger compounds. With one or more C=C doublebonds in their molecular structures, terpenes are highly re-active. After entering the atmosphere, terpenes can undergooxidative chemistry with the common atmospheric oxidantsincluding hydroxyl radical (OH), ozone (O3), and nitrate rad-ical (NO3). These oxidation processes generate a large vari-ety of organic species, with volatilities covering gas-phasevolatile species (VOC), semivolatile and low volatility or-ganic compounds (SVOC and LVOC), extremely low volatil-ity organic compounds (ELVOC), and even ultra-low volatil-ity organic compounds (ULVOC), which irreversibly con-tribute to SOA formation (Donahue et al., 2012). Due to thechemical complexity and low concentrations of BVOC oxi-dation products, it remains extremely challenging to providea comprehensive understanding of terpene chemistry in theatmosphere.

With a high time response and sensitivity, proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) has been widely usedto study the emissions and chemical evolution of VOCs inthe atmosphere (Yuan et al., 2017). However, due to the rel-atively low sensitivity, previous PTR-MS instruments werenot optimized to detect low-volatility compounds. For exam-ple, only a few ambient PTR-MS observations of sesquiter-penes are available (Kim et al., 2009; Jardine et al., 2011).Correspondingly, it is not surprising that ambient observa-tions of diterpenes, which are generally considered to benon-volatile compounds, have never been reported. In addi-tion, the existing PTR-MS is often not sensitive enough toquantify terpene oxidation products at atmospherically rel-evant concentrations (Yuan et al., 2017). To address theseinstrumental limitations, two new versions of PTR spec-trometers were recently developed: the PTR3 (Breitenlech-ner et al., 2017) and the Vocus PTR-TOF (Krechmer et al.,2018), both coupled with a time-of-flight (TOF) mass an-alyzer. With the enhanced sensitivities by a factor of ∼ 10(Holzinger et al., 2019), these instruments are capable of de-tecting a broader spectrum of VOCs, where the detection oflow-volatility VOCs is significantly improved compared toconventional PTR-MS. Based on the laboratory evaluationby Riva et al. (2019a), the Vocus PTR-TOF is able to mea-

sure both monoterpenes and lots of monoterpene oxidationproducts containing up to six oxygen atoms.

Known for strong monoterpene emitters (Simon et al.,1994), the Landes forest in southwestern France is a suit-able place to investigate atmospheric terpene chemistry. Aprevious study at this site reported a high nocturnal monoter-pene loading and suggested that monoterpene oxidationsplay an important role in the formation of new particlesand the consequent growth of atmospheric particles (Kam-mer et al., 2018). To better assess the roles of BVOCs inaerosol formation, the Characterization of Emissions and Re-activity of Volatile Organic Compounds in the Landes forest(CERVOLAND) campaign took place in July 2018. The re-cently developed Vocus PTR-TOF was deployed during theCERVOLAND campaign to characterize terpenes and theirgas-phase oxidation products, which provides the first VocusPTR-TOF measurements in a forested environment. In thiswork, we present a comprehensive summary of the identifiedgas-phase molecules and gain insights into terpene chemistryto demonstrate the Vocus PTR-TOF capabilities and the im-portance of its applications in atmospheric sciences. Char-acterizations of isoprene, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, andparticularly the rarely detected diterpenes are reported. Bycomparing the reaction rates of different formation pathways,we explore the formation mechanisms of terpene oxidationproducts, including both non-nitrate and organic nitrate com-pounds.

2 Experimental methods

2.1 Measurement site

The Vocus PTR-TOF measurements were performed from8 to 20 July 2018 in the Landes forest (44◦29′39.69′′ N,0◦57′21.75′′W), as part of the CERVOLAND field cam-paign. The sampling site is situated at the European Inte-grated Carbon Observation System (ICOS) station at Bilosin southwestern France along the Atlantic coast, ∼ 40 kmsouthwest from the nearest urban area of the Bordeauxmetropole. Both population density and industrial emissionsare low in this area. Due to the proximity of the AtlanticOcean, the site has a strong maritime influence. The for-est is largely composed of maritime pines (Pinus pinasterAiton) and has an average height of ∼ 10 m. Monoterpenesare known to be strongly emitted in the forest (Simon et al.,1994), which provides a good place for BVOC characteriza-tion. More detailed descriptions of the site have been pro-vided in earlier studies (Moreaux et al., 2011; Kammer et al.,2018; Bsaibes et al., 2019).

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2.2 Instrumentation

Compared to conventional PTR instrument, the Vocus PTR-TOF used in this study is mainly differentiated in the follow-ing aspects:

1. a new chemical ionization source with a low-pressurereagent-ion source and focusing ion–molecule reactor(FIMR);

2. no dependence of the sensitivity on ambient sample hu-midity due to the high water mixing ratio (10 % v/v–20 % v/v) in the FIMR;

3. employment of a TOF mass analyzer with a longer flighttube and faster sampling data acquisition card (mass re-solving power up to 15 000 m dm−1);

4. an enhanced inlet and source design that minimizescontact between analyte molecules and inlet or sourcewalls, enabling detection of semivolatile and low-volatility compounds in a similar manner as chemicalionization mass spectrometer (CIMS) instruments (Liuet al., 2019).

Details about the Vocus PTR-TOF are well described byKrechmer et al. (2018). Compared to the ionization in aconventional PTR-MS at 2.0–4.0 mbar, a nitrate CIMS atambient pressure or an iodide CIMS at around 100 mbar,the Vocus ionization source is generally operated at a lowpressure (Krechmer et al., 2018). In this work, we oper-ated the Vocus ionization source at a pressure of 1.5 mbar.During the campaign, the Vocus PTR-TOF measurementswere performed at around 2 m above ground level (a.g.l.),thus within the canopy. Sample air was drawn in through a1 m long PTFE tubing (10 mm o.d., 8 mm i.d.) with a flowrate of 4.5 L min−1, which helped to reduce inlet wall lossesand sampling delay. Of the total sample flow, only 150 sccmwent into the Vocus, while the remainder was directed tothe exhaust. The design of the FIMR consists of a glasstube with a resistive coating on the inside surface and fourquadrupole rods mounted radially on the outside. With anRF (radio frequency) field, ions are collimated to the cen-tral axis, improving the detection efficiency of product ions.The mass resolving power of the 1.2 m long TOF mass an-alyzer was 12 000–13 000 m dm−1 during the whole cam-paign. Data were recorded with a time resolution of 5 s.Background measurements using ultra-high-purity nitrogen(UHP N2) were automatically performed every hour.

The temperature, relative humidity (RH), wind speed,and ambient pressure were continuously monitored at3.4 m a.g.l., whereas the solar radiation was measured at15.6 m a.g.l. from a mast located at the site. The mixing ra-tios of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ozone (O3) were measuredat 4 m a.g.l. with UV absorption and chemiluminescence an-alyzers, respectively. All data are reported in CoordinatedUniversal Time (UTC).

2.3 Data analysis and quantification of multiplecompounds

Data analysis was performed using the software package“Tofware” (https://www.tofwerk.com/software/tofware/, lastaccess: 12 February 2020) that runs in the Igor Pro envi-ronment (WaveMetrics, OR, USA). Tofware enables time-dependent mass calibration, baseline subtraction, and assign-ment of a molecular formula to the identified ions by high-resolution analysis. Signals were averaged over 30 min be-fore mass calibration. Due to the high resolving power of theLTOF (long time of flight) mass analyzer, isobaric ions weremore clearly separated. Examples of peak identification aregiven in Fig. S1 in the Supplement.

The Vocus was calibrated twice a day during the cam-paign with a mixture (70 ppb each) of terpenes (m/z 137:α-/β-pinene + limonene; m/z 135: p-cymene) that was di-luted using UHP N2. Similar to conventional PTR instru-ments, the sensitivities of different VOCs in the Vocus PTR-TOF are linearly related to their proton-transfer reaction rateconstants (k) when ion transmission efficiency and fragmen-tation ions are considered (Sekimoto et al., 2017; Krech-mer et al., 2018). Krechmer et al. (2018) have shown thatwithin the Vocus PTR-TOF, the transmission efficiencies ofions >m/z 100 Th (thomson units) reach up to 99 %. There-fore, the influence of fragmentation correction should be in-cluded in this study. According to terpene calibrations, theresidual fractions were on average 66 % and 55 % for proto-nated monoterpenes and p-cymene, respectively, after theirfragmentation within the instrument. Based on the correctedsensitivities for fragmentation and the k values of monoter-penes and p-cymene, an empirical relationship between thesensitivity and k was built from the scatter plots using lin-ear regression: sensitivity (cps ppb−1)= 828.9×k, where cpsrepresents counts per second (Fig. S2). Once k is available,the sensitivity of a compound can be predicted. It should benoted that the established relationship in this study is notapplicable to other conditions or instruments. Some studiesfound that isoprene may fragment significantly to m/z 41(Keck et al., 2008; Schwarz et al., 2009). However, with theambient data in this work, isoprene seems not to fragmentmuch to C3H+5 , and they correlate poorly with each other(Fig. S3). Therefore, the fragmentation of isoprene is notconsidered for its quantification. Sesquiterpenes and someterpene oxidation products were found to fragment to vary-ing degrees (Kim et al., 2009; Kari et al., 2018). Due to thelack of calibrations using other terpenes or terpene oxidationproducts, their fragmentation patterns within the Vocus PTR-TOF are not known in this work. Therefore, all the other ter-penes and terpene oxidation products were quantified with-out consideration of fragment ions, which should be regardedas the lower limit of their ambient concentrations.

Rate constants for the proton-transfer reactions have onlybeen measured for a subset of compounds. To quantify ter-penes and their oxidation products, we used the method pro-

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1944 H. Li et al.: Terpenes and their oxidation products from Vocus PTR-TOF measurements

posed by Sekimoto et al. (2017) to calculate the rate con-stants of different compounds with the polarizability and per-manent dipole moment of the molecule. According to Seki-moto et al. (2017), the polarizability and dipole moment ofa molecule can be obtained based on the molecular mass,elemental composition, and functionality of the compound.For a class of VOCs with the same number of electroneg-ative atoms, their polarizabilities can be well described us-ing their molecular mass (Sekimoto et al., 2017). For VOCscontaining a specific functional group, it is found that theirdipole moments are relatively constant based on results inthe CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (Lide, 2005).Since no isomer information is provided by mass spectrom-etry alone, it is challenging to figure out the functionality ofdifferent compounds. Therefore, the polarizability and dipolemoment of the compounds observed in this study were esti-mated only based on the molecular mass and elemental com-position. In this work, based on the physical properties of var-ious compounds in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics(Lide, 2005) and the results in Sekimoto et al. (2017), webuilt the functions between polarizability (α) and molecu-lar mass (MR) for different groups of VOCs and calculatedthe average dipole moment (µ) for each group. For exam-ple, the polarizabilities of hydrocarbons were approximatedas α = 0.142MR−0.3, and the dipole moment was approxi-mated to be zero. For the non-nitrate oxygenated compoundswith one oxygen, α = 0.133MR− 1.2, and the dipole mo-ment was averaged to be 1.6.

It should be noted that uncertainties are introduced to thecalculated sensitivities in the following factors. Firstly, thesmall difference between the rate coefficients of monoter-penes and p-cymene may lead to large uncertainty in the es-tablished linear regression function between sensitivity andk. Calibrations with more VOC compounds should be per-formed in future work to cover a larger range of k values.Secondly, as mentioned above, the theoretically calculatedsensitivities of sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, and terpene oxida-tion products may be underestimated to varying extents with-out the consideration of their fragment ions. Further, somelow-volatility compounds may experience wall losses insidethe inlet tubing and the instrument and therefore have worsetransmissions. The method in this work may overestimate thesensitivities of these low-volatility compounds. In addition toproton-transfer reactions, some VOCs can be ionized throughligand switching reactions with water cluster ((H2O)nH3O+)(Tani et al., 2004), thus increasing their sensitivity. How-ever, with the calibration standards used in this study, it ishard to estimate the effect of ligand switching ionization.Lastly, uncertainties come from the estimation of polarizabil-ity and dipole moment of a molecule. With the method usedin this study, the sensitivity is calculated to be within 50 %error when only the elemental composition of a compound isknown (Sekimoto et al., 2017).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Meteorology and trace gases

Figure 1 displays the time variations of meteorological con-ditions and trace gases during the observation period. Theweather was mostly sunny, with solar radiation varying from400 to 800 W m−2 during daytime, indicating strong pho-tochemical activity. The ambient temperature and RH var-ied regularly every day. On average, the temperature was22.8± 5.9 ◦C (mean±SE), ranging from 12.1 to 35.0 ◦C,which is favorable for BVOC emissions in the forest. Theaverage RH was 70.5%±19.0 % during the campaign. Gen-erally, the air masses were quite stable within the canopy.The wind speed never exceeded 1 m s−1, indicating the ma-jor influence of local sources on atmospheric processes inthis study.

The O3 levels fluctuated dramatically between day andnight during the campaign. The average O3 diurnal cycleshowed that O3 concentration peaked up to ∼ 50 ppb in thedaytime. However, during most of the nights, O3 concentra-tion dropped below 2 ppb. Considering the high nighttimeconcentration of terpenes observed by the previous study atthis site in the same season (Kammer et al., 2018), the lowO3 level at night suggests the large consumption of O3 by ter-penes. Such reactions of terpenes with O3 can produce low-volatility organic compounds, thus contributing to SOA for-mation (Presto et al., 2005; Jokinen et al., 2014). In addition,plant surface uptake is likely another important ozone sink inthe canopy (Goldstein et al., 2004).

The NO concentration was generally low during the cam-paign, below detection limit (i.e., < 0.5 ppb) most of thetime. However, clear NO plumes were sometimes observedin the early morning (Fig. 1e). The NO concentration peak at04:00 is probably the combination of local emission sourcesand a low boundary layer. With the increasing sunlight after-wards, the NO concentration started to decrease. A similardiel pattern of NO2 was observed by the previous study atthis site (Kammer et al., 2018). The lower NO2 concentrationduring daytime is likely explained by dilution with increas-ing boundary layer height and NO2 photolysis.

3.2 Vocus PTR-TOF capabilities in the forest

While Krechmer et al. (2018) and Riva et al. (2019a) have de-scribed the novel setup and performance of the Vocus PTR-TOF and its application during a lab study, the instrumentcapability has not been fully explored in an ambient environ-ment. Based on the CERVOLAND deployment, we providehere the first overview of gas-phase molecules measured bythe Vocus PTR-TOF in the forest. For a better visualization ofthe complex data set from real atmosphere, mass defect plots(averaged over the whole campaign) are shown in Fig. 2 withthe difference between the exact mass and the nominal massof a compound plotted against its exact mass. With the addi-

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Figure 1. Variations of meteorological conditions and trace gases. (a) Time series of wind speed and solar radiation. (b) Time series oftemperature and relative humidity. (c) Time series of O3, NO, and NO2. (d) Diurnal cycles of O3 and solar radiation. (e) Diurnal cycles ofNO and NO2.

tion of hydrogen atoms, the mass defect increases, while theaddition of oxygen atoms decreases the mass defect. There-fore, changes in the mass defect plot help to provide infor-mation on chemical transformation such as oxidation.

The mass defect plot in Fig. 2a is colored according tothe retrieved elemental composition, with the black circleindicating unidentified molecules. The size of the markersis proportional to the logarithm of the peak area of themolecule. During the campaign, the Vocus PTR-TOF de-tected large amounts of (O)VOCs, with elemental compo-sition categories of CH, CHO, CHN, CHS, CHON, CHOS,and others. For hydrocarbons, multiple series with differ-ent carbon numbers were measured, especially those com-pounds containing 5 (“C5”) to 10 carbon atoms (“C10”), 15

carbon atoms (“C15”), and 20 carbon atoms (“C20”). Someof the C5–C9 ions can be fragments of terpenes and their ox-idation products (Tani et al., 2003; Tani, 2013; Kim et al.,2009; Kari et al., 2018). For ions < 35 Th, the detection ef-ficiency is much reduced due to a high-pass band filter ofthe big segmented quadrupole (BSQ; Krechmer et al., 2018).Compared to conventional PTR instruments, the observationof larger hydrocarbon molecules by the Vocus PTR-TOF ismainly caused by the much lower wall losses and increaseddetection efficiency. Hydrocarbon signals were largely con-tributed by monoterpene (C10H16H+) and its major fragment(C6H8H+), indicating the monoterpene-dominated environ-ment in the Landes forest (Kammer et al., 2018). Accord-ing to previous studies, monoterpene emissions in the Lan-

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1946 H. Li et al.: Terpenes and their oxidation products from Vocus PTR-TOF measurements

Figure 2. Mass defect plot of the ions identified by high-resolution analysis of the Vocus PTR-TOF data set. The x axis shows the mass-to-charge ratio and the y axis shows the mass defect, which is the deviation of the exact mass from the nominal mass. Data points in (a) arecolor coded by ion family (CH, CHO, CHN, CHS, CHON, CHOS) and sized by the logarithm of peak area. Data points in (b) are shownin pink when signals are higher during nighttime and in blue when daytime signal is higher. The symbol size corresponds to the differenceof daytime and nighttime signal for the molecule. It should be noted that ions < 35 Th are detected at a much reduced efficiency due to ahigh-pass band filter in the BSQ.

des forest are dominated by α-pinene and β-pinene (Simonet al., 1994; Kammer et al., 2018). The identified compoundwith the elemental composition of C4H+9 ranked the thirdlargest peak in hydrocarbons. A detailed discussion aboutC4H+9 ions can be found in the Supplement.

In addition to the emitted precursors, the Vocus PTR-TOFdetected various VOC reaction products and intermediates.Similar to the PTR3 measurements in the CLOUD (Cos-

mics Leaving OUtdoor Droplets) chamber (Breitenlechner etal., 2017), many oxygenated compounds from terpene reac-tions with varying degrees of oxidation were observed in thisstudy. However, as a potential limitation of the instrument, nodimers in the atmosphere were identified by the Vocus PTR-TOF, consistent with the results from a previous laboratorydeployment (Riva et al., 2019a).

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Figure 2b compares the daytime and nighttime variationsof different molecules, with the marker sized by the signaldifference between day and night. The daytime periods coverfrom 04:30 to 19:30, and the nighttime periods are from19:30 to 04:30 of the next day (both are UTC time; localtime equals UTC time+ 2). The data points are colored inpink when the nighttime signal of the compound is largerthan its daytime signal and in blue when the daytime signalis higher. Patterns in the figure clearly show the differencein the diurnal variations of gas molecules with different oxi-dation degrees. For example, most hydrocarbons are charac-terized with higher concentrations at night, which is largelycaused by the stable nocturnal boundary layer. The more ox-idized compounds with higher oxygen numbers are gener-ally more abundant during the day due to enhanced photo-chemistry, whereas the concentrations of the less oxidizedcompounds are mostly higher at night. Details on the diurnalprofiles of different oxidation products and their formationmechanisms are provided in Sect. 3.4.

3.3 Terpene characteristics

The characterizations of isoprene, monoterpenes, sesquiter-penes, and the rarely reported diterpenes are investigated inthis study (Figs. 3, 4). On the global scale, isoprene is themost emitted BVOC species. It has been well established thatphotooxidation of isoprene in the atmosphere contributes toSOA formation through the multiphase reactions of isoprene-derived oxidation products (Claeys et al., 2004; Henze andSeinfeld, 2006; Surratt et al., 2010). However, recent ad-vances in isoprene chemistry found that isoprene can im-pact both particle number and mass of monoterpene-derivedSOA by scavenging hydroxyl and peroxy radicals (Kiendler-Scharr et al., 2009; Kanawade et al., 2011; McFiggans etal., 2019). During the CERVOLAND campaign, the aver-age mixing ratio of isoprene was 0.6 ppb, consistent withthe mean value of 0.4 ppb reported for the LANDEX cam-paign during summer 2017 at the same site (Mermet et al.,2019). These values are much lower than that in the south-eastern United States (Xiong et al., 2015) and Amazon rain-forest (Wei et al., 2018) but higher than observations in theboreal forest at the SMEAR II station in Finland (Hellénet al., 2018). Isoprene emissions are strongly light depen-dent (Monson and Fall, 1989; Kaser et al., 2013). There-fore, a pronounced diurnal pattern of isoprene was observedwith maximum mixing ratios occurring during daytime andminima at night. It has been shown that the attribution ofC5H+9 ions to isoprene with PTR instruments can be influ-enced by the fragmentation of many other compounds, i.e.,cycloalkane and 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol (MBO) (Karl et al.,2012; Gueneron et al., 2015). For example, using an E/Nratio (the reduced electric field) of 106 Td (townsend units)in the PTR-MS with a quadrupole mass analyzer, 71 % ofthe parent MBO fragmented to C5H+9 ions (Warneke et al.,2003). However, in this study, the C5H+9 signal was around

10 times as high as the C5H11O+ signal, and both ions cor-related poorly with each other (Fig. S4; r2

= 0.33). This in-formation demonstrates that the fragmentation of MBO doesnot likely have a significant influence on the attribution ofC5H+9 ions to isoprene in this work.

As expected, monoterpenes showed the highest mixingratios among all the terpenes, with an average value of6.0 ppb. On 9 July, a heavy monoterpene episode occurred atnight, with the monoterpene mixing ratio reaching as high as41.2 ppb. Comparatively, the average monoterpene level ob-served in this work is similar to the measurements performedin 2015 and 2017 at the same site (Kammer et al., 2018;Mermet et al., 2019) and more than 10 times higher thanthat observed in the boreal forest at SMEAR II in summer(Hakola et al., 2012; Hellén et al., 2018). The high concentra-tion of monoterpenes indicates the potential significance ofmonoterpene-related aerosol chemistry in the Landes forest.Unlike the light dependence of isoprene emissions, monoter-pene emissions are found to be mainly controlled by tem-perature (Hakola et al., 2006; Kaser et al., 2013). At night,monoterpenes can be continuously emitted and accumulatedwithin the boundary layer. Therefore, monoterpenes showedthe opposite diel pattern to isoprene and peaked during night-time. During daytime, the concentration of monoterpenesdropped to around 0.9 ppb, due to the increased atmosphericmixing after sunrise and the rapid photochemical consump-tions.

A study in Hyytiälä concluded that sesquiterpenes, dueto their higher reactivity, could play a more important rolein O3 chemistry than monoterpenes, even though the con-centration of sesquiterpenes was much lower (Hellén et al.,2018). However, the short lifetimes of sesquiterpenes alsomean that their concentrations will be highly dependent onthe sampling location at a given site. Some studies also pro-posed that sesquiterpene oxidation products are linked toatmospheric new particle formation (Bonn and Moortgat,2003; Boy et al., 2007). Despite the potential importanceof sesquiterpenes in aerosol chemistry, the available data onambient sesquiterpene quantification remains still quite lim-ited. In this work, the mixing ratios of sesquiterpenes werefound to vary from 8.9 to 408.9 ppt in the Landes forest,with an average of 64.5 ppt during the observations. Thissesquiterpene level is comparable to that reported by Mermetet al. (2019) in summer 2017 at the same site and observa-tions by Jardine et al. (2011) in Amazonia but higher thanprevious measurements at the SMEAR II station (Hellén etal., 2018). Kim et al. (2009) show that different sesquiter-penes fragment on monoterpene parent and fragment ions tovarying degrees inside PTR instruments. Without the con-sideration of sesquiterpene fragmentation, the quantificationof sesquiterpenes in this work may be underestimated. Asshown in Fig. 4, sesquiterpenes displayed a similar diurnalpattern with monoterpenes, consistent with observations inother areas (Jardine et al., 2011; Hellén et al., 2018).

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1948 H. Li et al.: Terpenes and their oxidation products from Vocus PTR-TOF measurements

Figure 3. Time series of (a) C5H8, (b) C10H16, (c) C15H24, and (d) C20H32.

While diterpenes are present in all plants in the form ofphytol, for a long time they have been thought to be not re-leased by vegetation due to their low volatility (Keeling andBohlmann, 2006). In 2004, von Schwartzenberg et al. (2004)reported for the first time the release of plant-derived diter-penes into the air. A recent study found that the emissionrate of diterpenes by Mediterranean vegetation was in thesame order of magnitude as monoterpenes and sesquiter-penes (Yáñez-Serrano et al., 2018). For the first time, thisstudy reports the ambient concentration of diterpenes in a for-est. According to the Vocus PTR-TOF measurements, the av-erage mixing ratio of diterpenes was around 2 ppt in the Lan-des forest. Considering the low volatility of diterpenes andtheir potential wall losses inside the inlet tubing and the in-strument, the diterpene concentration might be higher. Simi-lar to monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, diterpenes presentedpeak concentrations at night and lower levels during the day.Although the amounts of diterpenes in the atmosphere arehundreds to thousands of times lower than those of monoter-penes and sesquiterpenes, diterpenes potentially play a rolein atmospheric chemistry due to their unsaturated structureand high molecular weight (Matsunaga et al., 2012). Up tonow, there is no report on the possible atmospheric implica-tions of diterpenes, which should deserve more attention inthe future.

Considering the similar atmospheric behaviors ofmonoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes in this study,it is questioned if the observed sesquiterpenes and diterpenesare real signals in the atmosphere or generated by monoter-penes in the instrument. Bernhammer et al. (2018) haveshown that secondary association reactions of protonatedisoprene with isoprene can form monoterpenes withinthe PTR reaction chamber. Figure 5 illustrates the scatterplots among monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes,colored by time of the day. At night, both sesquiterpenesand diterpenes correlated well with monoterpenes. However,their correlation with monoterpenes got weaker duringdaytime as the data points became more scattered. Thissuggests that the observations of sesquiterpenes and diter-penes are real emissions in the atmosphere. Comparatively,sesquiterpenes and diterpenes showed a strong correlationwith each other through the whole day (r2

= 0.85).

3.4 Insights into terpene chemistry

3.4.1 Comparison with chamber results

Due to the diverse precursors and changing environmentalconditions in the ambient air, it is challenging to retrieveall the atmospheric chemical processes occurring within theLandes forest. To start with, we compare the ambient datawith those from α-pinene ozonolysis in the presence of

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Figure 4. Diurnal cycles of (a) C5H8, (b) C10H16, (c) C15H24, and (d) C20H32, with the 10th, 25th, 75th, and 90th percentiles shown in theshaded area.

Figure 5. Scatter plots of (a) C15H24 vs. C10H16, (b) C20H32 vs. C10H16, and (c) C20H32 vs. C15H24, colored by time of the day.

NOx conducted in the COALA chamber (named after theproject for which it was constructed: Comprehensive molec-ular characterization of secondary Organic AerosoL forma-tion in the Atmosphere) at the University of Helsinki. A de-tailed description of the laboratory experiment is providedelsewhere (Riva et al., 2019a, b). According to literature,monoterpenes undergo some degree of fragmentation withinthe PTR instrument, producing dominant ions of C6H+9 ,C5H+7 , C7H+11, etc. (Tani et al., 2003; Tani, 2013; Kari etal., 2018). As illustrated in Fig. 6, C6H+9 is the largest frag-

ment produced by monoterpenes within the Vocus PTR-TOF.However, a clear difference in monoterpene fragmentationpattern is observed in the mass spectra of ambient observa-tions and chamber experiments. While the signal of C6H+9 islower than that of C10H+17 during the field deployment, theC6H+9 peak is higher than C10H+17 peak in the chamber study.Based on the monoterpene calibration data, the C6H+9 signalis around 40 % and 138 % of the protonated monoterpene sig-nal in ambient deployment and chamber experiment, respec-tively. The larger presence of the C6H+9 peak in the chamber

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Figure 6. Comparison of ambient average high-resolution mass spectra with those from α-pinene oxidation experiments in the COALAchamber. (a) Ambient observations in the Landes forest; (b) α-pinene ozonolysis with NOx .

study can be likely explained by the much higher concentra-tions of oxygenated terpenoids during the chamber experi-ments. Indeed, previous studies have shown that oxygenatedterpenoids, including linalool and pinonaldehyde, fragmentinside the PTR instrument and produce a dominant ion atm/z 81 (Maleknia et al., 2007; Tani, 2013). Different settingsof the instrument can also contribute to different fragmenta-tion patterns of monoterpenes (Tani et al., 2003; Tani, 2013;Kari et al., 2018). In our ambient and chamber studies, theE/N values of the Vocus PTR-TOF are quite similar, 118and 120 Td, respectively. In addition, the fragmentation pat-terns vary among individual monoterpene species due to theirdifferent physicochemical properties (Tani, 2013; Kari et al.,2018). Considering that α-pinene is the only monoterpenespecies injected in the chamber experiment, the combinationof various monoterpenes in the atmosphere likely introducesadditional differences in the fragmentation pattern.

Gas-phase ozonolysis of alkenes generates OH radicalsin high yields (Rickard et al., 1999). Without an OH scav-enger, both O3- and OH-initiated oxidations happened duringα-pinene ozonolysis in the chamber. Using the Vocus PTR-TOF, various oxidation products were identified in the cham-ber study, with the dominant species being C7H10,12O3−6,C8H14O3−6, C9H14O1−5, and C10H14,16O2−6. In compari-son, more oxygenated compounds which were directly emit-ted or from monoterpene reactions were observed in ambi-ent air due to complex environmental conditions, with theoxygen number ranging from one to seven. Therefore, theVocus PTR-TOF measurements provide the opportunity to

characterize both the emitted precursors and the resultingoxidation products. During the chamber experiments, NO2was injected and photolyzed using 400 nm LED lights togenerate NO. In the presence of NOx , organic nitrates wereformed from the reactions between NO and monoterpene-derived peroxy radicals (RO2). The major organic nitratesobserved were C9H13,15NO6−8 and C10H13,15NO3−8. Com-pared to the chamber study, more organic nitrates of C8, C9,and C10 from monoterpene reactions were identified in CER-VOLAND data. It is worth pointing out that the combinationof different monoterpene species in the ambient environmentmay result in various types of organic nitrates through differ-ent formation pathways.

3.4.2 Non-nitrate terpene oxidation products

Based on the ambient observations, the non-nitrate oxidationproducts from isoprene, monoterpenes, and sesquiterpenesare investigated in this study. Isoprene gas-phase productsare mainly represented by C4 and C5 compounds (Wennberget al., 2018). In this work, we consider C4H6,8On andC5H8,10,12On (n= 1–6) as the dominant non-nitrate prod-ucts from isoprene oxidations. The diurnal variations ofC5H8On are displayed in Fig. 7 and the others in Figs. S5–S7.Generally, all these oxidation products displayed an eveningpeak at around 20:00, which may come from the O3- orOH-initiated isoprene oxidations. Reaction with OH rep-resents the largest loss pathway for isoprene in the atmo-sphere and produces a population of isoprene peroxyl rad-icals (Wennberg et al., 2018). In the presence of NO, the

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Figure 7. Diurnal patterns of non-nitrate isoprene oxidation products: (a) C5H8O, (b) C5H8O2, (c) C5H8O3, (d) C5H8O4, (e) C5H8O5, and(f) C5H8O6.

Figure 8. Diurnal patterns of non-nitrate monoterpene oxidation products: (a) C10H16O, (b) C10H16O2, (c) C10H16O3, (d) C10H16O4,(e) C10H16O5, and (f) C10H16O6.

major products are methyl vinyl ketone (MVK, C4H6O) andmethacrolein (MACR, C4H6O). Globally, reactions with O3contribute a small fraction of approximately 10 % to isopreneremoval in the atmosphere (Wennberg et al., 2018). Whenisoprene reacts with O3, one carbon is always split off fromthe molecule (Criegee, 1975). Considering the peak concen-tration of isoprene at 20:00 and the relatively high O3 con-

centration at the moment (Figs. 1 and 4), isoprene ozonoly-sis is also likely contributing to the formation of C4 oxida-tion products. Because OH radicals can be efficiently pro-duced from alkene ozonolysis (Pfeiffer et al., 2001), the OH-initiated oxidation of isoprene can also be an important for-mation pathway of these oxidation products in the evening.For example, as a predominant product from the reactions of

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isoprene with OH, C5H10O3 (corresponding to isoprene hy-droxy hydroperoxide and/or isoprene epoxydiols) presenteda clear single peak in the evening. To determine the relativeimportance of O3- and OH-initiated oxidations in isoprenechemistry at night, the reaction rates (R) of isoprene with O3and OH radical were compared by Eqs. (1) and (2):

RISO+OH = kISO+OH[ISO][OH], (1)RISO+O3 = kISO+O3 [ISO][O3], (2)

where k is the reaction rate coefficient of isoprene with OHor O3, and [ISO], [OH], and [O3] is the concentration of iso-prene, OH radical, and O3, respectively.

Taking the evening peak of isoprene oxidation products at20:00 as an example, we compared the roles of O3 and OHradicals in their formation. Laboratory studies have shownthat the reaction rate coefficient of isoprene with OH radicalis generally 107 times larger than that of isoprene with O3(Dreyfus et al., 2002; Karl et al., 2004). Based on the compe-tition between OH production and removal processes at night(Dusanter et al., 2008), the steady-state OH concentrationwas estimated to be 0.012 ppt. Details can be found in theSupplement. With an O3 concentration of ∼ 20 ppb at 20:00,the reaction rate of isoprene with OH radical was around 6times as high as that of isoprene with O3. For the more ox-idized compounds from isoprene oxidations, their concen-trations had a broad daytime presence from 10:00 to 20:00due to strong photooxidation processes. Similar diurnal vari-ations of C4H6,8O5,6 and C5H8,10,12O5,6 measured by nitrateCIMS have been observed in an isoprene-dominated environ-ment at Centreville, Alabama (Massoli et al., 2018).

The diurnal patterns of C8H12,14On, C9H14On, andC10H14,16,18On (n= 1–6) were illustrated to characterizemonoterpene oxidations in the Landes forest (Figs. 8, S8–S12). For the less oxidized compounds with oxygen num-bers from one to four, most of them were observed withclear morning and evening peaks, which can be producedfrom O3- and OH-initiated monoterpene oxidations. For themorning peak at around 07:00, the relative roles of O3-and OH-initiated monoterpene oxidation were evaluated us-ing a similar method as in Eqs. (1) and (2). The reactionrate coefficient of monoterpene+OH is approximately 106

times higher than that of monoterpene+O3 (Atkinson etal., 1990; Khamaganov and Hites, 2001; Gill and Hites,2002; Hakola et al., 2012). In the morning, typical tropo-spheric OH concentrations have been observed to be around1× 105 to 1× 106 molecule cm−3 (0.004–0.04 ppt) (Shirin-zadeh et al., 1987; Ren et al., 2003; Khan et al., 2008;Petäjä et al., 2009; Stone et al., 2012). For an OH concen-tration of 1× 105 molecule cm−3 (0.004 ppt), with the aver-age O3 concentration of 15 ppb at 07:00, the reaction rateof monoterpene+OH was about 0.25 times as high as thatof monoterpene+O3. If the OH concentration was up to1× 106 molecule cm−3 (0.04 ppt) at 07:00, the reaction rateof monoterpene with OH radical was 2.5 times higher than

that of monoterpene with O3 according to the calculations.In other words, both oxidants are likely to be of impor-tance at this time. For the evening peak of the less oxidizedmonoterpene oxidation products at 20:00, the relative im-portance of O3 and OH radical in monoterpene chemistrychanged due to the lower OH concentration. With the aver-age O3 concentration of ∼ 20 ppb and OH concentration of0.012 ppt at 20:00, the reaction rates of monoterpenes withO3 and OH radical were at a similar level. Compared toother compounds, the evening peak of C9H14O, C10H16O,C10H18O, and C10H18O2 extended over midnight. C9H14Ohas been found to be one of the main products formed in theozonolysis reactions of monoterpenes (Atkinson and Arey,2003). O3-initiated oxidation with extremely high monoter-pene levels might be responsible for the high concentration ofC9H14O at night. Camphor (C10H16O), linalool (C10H18O),and linalool oxide (C10H18O2) can be emitted by leaves andflowers (Corchnoy et al., 1992; Lavy et al., 2002). Therefore,direct emissions from vegetation in the Landes forest maycontribute to the high mixing ratios of these compounds dur-ing night. With strong photochemical oxidations during theday, the diurnal cycles of the more oxidized compounds werecharacterized with a broad daytime distribution peaking be-tween 14:00 and 16:00 UTC.

To date the oxidation processes of sesquiterpenes havebeen rarely investigated despite its potential significancein new particle formation and SOA formation (Bonn andMoortgat, 2003; Winterhalter et al., 2009). In this study,various sesquiterpene oxidation products were observed,mainly including C14H22On, C15H22On, and C15H24On (n=1–6), providing the possibility to explore the oxidationsof sesquiterpenes in the atmosphere. As shown in Fig. 9and Figs. S13–S14, with the increase of oxygen numbers,sesquiterpene oxidation products displayed similar variationsin their diurnal profiles with monoterpene oxidation prod-ucts. The less oxidized products with one to three oxygenspeaked both in the morning and in the evening, and the moreoxidized compounds had a broad presence throughout theday. These results indicate a similar oxidation processes ofsesquiterpenes with monoterpenes in the Landes forest.

3.4.3 Terpene-derived organic nitrates

Organic nitrates have been shown to represent a large frac-tion of submicron aerosol nitrate at both urban and ruralsites in Europe (Kiendler-Scharr et al., 2016). During day-time, the reaction of peroxy radicals with NO can lead to theformation of organic nitrates. At night, NO3 radicals fromthe oxidation of NO2 by O3 can also react with unsaturatedcompounds mostly coming from BVOCs to generate organicnitrates (Ayres et al., 2015). In this study, the less oxidizedorganic nitrates from monoterpene oxidations presented adistinct morning peak at 07:00 (Figs. 11, S17–S18), whichcan come from O3- and OH-initiated monoterpene oxida-tions in the presence of NOx . In addition, both isoprene-

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Figure 9. Diurnal patterns of non-nitrate sesquiterpene oxidation products: (a) C15H24O, (b) C15H24O2, (c) C15H24O3, (d) C15H24O4,(e) C15H24O5, and (f) C15H24O6.

Figure 10. Diurnal patterns of isoprene-derived organic nitrates:(a) C5H7NO3, (b) C5H7NO4, (c) C5H7NO5, and (d) C5H7NO6.

and monoterpene-derived organic nitrates showed eveningpeaks at around 20:00 (Figs. 10, S15–S16). Using monoter-penes as an example, the relative roles of O3, OH radical,and NO3 radical in the nighttime formation of monoterpene-derived organic nitrates were evaluated by calculating thecorresponding reaction rate (R):

RMT+O3 = kMT+O3 [MT][O3], (3)RMT+OH = kMT+OH[MT][OH], (4)RMT+NO3 = kMT+NO3 [MT][NO3], (5)

where k is the reaction rate coefficient of monoterpenes withO3, OH radical, or NO3 radical, and [MT], [O3], [OH], and[NO3] represent the concentrations of monoterpenes, O3, OHradical, and NO3 radical, respectively.

Taking the peak concentration of monoterpene-derivedorganic nitrates at 20:00 as an example, the concentra-tion of NO3 radical was calculated by assuming a steadystate between its production from O3 and NO2 and its re-moval by oxidation reactions and losses. The details havebeen described by Allan et al. (2000) and Peräkylä etal. (2014). With the high O3 scavenging by monoterpenesin the evening, the estimated concentration of NO3 radicalwas 0.017 ppt. Using kMT+O3 = 6.9×10−17 and kMT+NO3 =

7.5× 10−12 cm3 molecule−1 s−1 taken from Peräkylä etal. (2014), the reaction rate of monoterpenes with O3 was∼ 10 times higher than that of monoterpenes with NO3 rad-icals. However, while ozonolysis was likely to dominate theoverall oxidation of monoterpenes, the organic nitrate for-mation from O3-initiated oxidation may still be much lowerthan those from NO3-initiated oxidations, depending on whatfraction of RO2 radicals were reacting with NOx . The relativeimportance of O3 and OH radical in monoterpene chemistryat this time was the same as discussed in Sect. 3.4.2.

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1954 H. Li et al.: Terpenes and their oxidation products from Vocus PTR-TOF measurements

Figure 11. Diurnal patterns of monoterpene-derived organic nitrates: (a) C10H15NO3, (b) C10H15NO4, (c) C10H15NO5, (d) C10H15NO6,(e) C10H15NO7, and (f) C10H15NO8.

4 Conclusions

This work presented the deployment of the new state-of-the-art Vocus PTR-TOF in the French Landes forest duringthe CERVOLAND campaign. The Vocus PTR-TOF capabil-ities are evaluated for the first time in the actual ambientenvironment by the identification of the observed gas-phasemolecules. With the improved detection efficiency and mea-surement precision compared to conventional PTR instru-ments, multiple hydrocarbons with carbon numbers varyingfrom 3 to 20 were observed as well as various VOC oxidationproducts. Hydrocarbon signals were dominated by monoter-penes and their major fragment ions (e.g., C6H8H+) withinthe instrument, consistent with high monoterpene emissionsin the Landes forest. In general, most hydrocarbon moleculesand the less oxidized compounds were characterized withhigh signals at night, whereas the more oxidized compoundsexhibited elevated intensity during the day.

To demonstrate the importance of the Vocus PTR-TOF ap-plication in atmospheric science study, the characteristics ofterpenes and their oxidation products were investigated. Inaddition to the observation of isoprene, monoterpenes, andsesquiterpenes, this study presented the ambient characteris-tics of the rarely recorded diterpenes, which are traditionallyconsidered non-volatile species in the atmosphere. On aver-age, the concentration of diterpenes was 1.7 ppt in the Lan-des forest, which was 100 to 1000 times lower than that ofmonoterpenes (6.0 ppb) and sesquiterpenes (64.5 ppt). How-ever, considering their low vapor pressure and high reac-tivity, diterpenes may potentially play an important part inatmospheric chemistry. The diurnal variations of diterpenes

showed the maximum peak at night and low levels during theday, similar to those of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes.

With strong photochemical oxidations of terpenes duringthe day, the more oxidized terpene reaction products wereobserved with a broad daytime peak, whereas the less oxi-dized terpene reaction products showed peak concentrationsin the early morning and/or in the evening. By calculating thereaction rates of terpenes with the main oxidants, OH radical,O3, and NO3 radical, the contributions of different formationpathways to terpene oxidations were evaluated. The morn-ing and evening peaks of non-nitrate terpene reaction prod-ucts were contributed by both O3- and OH-induced terpeneoxidations. For the formation of terpene-derived organic ni-trates, the relative importance of O3-, OH-, and NO3-drivenoxidation pathways was more difficult to evaluate. Overall,we have shown that the Vocus PTR-TOF is able to detecta very broad coverage of compounds from VOC precursorsto various oxidation products. Therefore, the application ofthe Vocus PTR-TOF in atmospheric sciences will be funda-mental to understand the chemical evolution of VOCs in theatmosphere and their roles in air quality and climate issues.

Data availability. Data used in this study are available from thecorresponding author upon request. Please contact Haiyan Li(haiyan.li@helsinki.fi).

Supplement. The supplement related to this article is available on-line at: https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-1941-2020-supplement.

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H. Li et al.: Terpenes and their oxidation products from Vocus PTR-TOF measurements 1955

Author contributions. ME and MR conceived the study. MR, LH,PMF, EV, and EP conducted the field measurements. HL carriedout the data analysis. MR, PR, KD, JEK, DW, MK, ME, and FBparticipated the data analysis. HL wrote the paper with inputs fromall coauthors.

Competing interests. Jordan E. Krechmer and Douglas Worsnopboth work for Aerodyne Research Inc.

Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank the PRIME-QUAL program for financial support (ADEME, convention#1662C0024). This study has also been carried out with financialsupport from the French National Research Agency (ANR) in theframe of the “Investments for the Future” program, within the Clus-ter of Excellence COTE (ANR-10-LABX-45) of the University ofBordeaux. Special thanks to Elena Ormeño-Lafuente (IMBE) forthe loan of the BVOC calibration gas cylinders and ChristopheChipeaux and Denis Loustau (ISPA-INRA) for their precious helpin providing meteorological data and access to the ICOS station fa-cility.

Financial support. This research has been supported by the H2020European Research Council (grant nos. ATM-GTP (742206),COALA (638703), and CHAPAs (850614)) and the Academy ofFinland (grant nos. 317380, 320094).

Open access funding provided by Helsinki University Library.

Review statement. This paper was edited by Alex B. Guenther andreviewed by two anonymous referees.

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