Food Terrorism

Term paper written by Dike Uzoamaka On the 25th of November 2015

Term paper presented to Collins A. Onodenalore, Ph.D.

Table of ContentsAbstract.......................................................................................................................................................2

1.0 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................2

1.1 Overt versus covert attacks.........................................................................................................3

2.0 Bioterrorism and Food Terrorism....................................................................................................3

2.1 Food as tool for terrorism............................................................................................................4

2.1.1 Food material accessibility...................................................................................................4

2.1.2 Required terminal treatment...............................................................................................4

2.1.3 Miscibility.............................................................................................................................5

2.1.4 Colour..................................................................................................................................5

2.1.4 Ability to preserve or support growth of agent.....................................................................5

2.1.5 Ability to be rapidly distributed...........................................................................................5

2.2 Categories of disease pathogen...................................................................................................5

2.2.1 Category “A”........................................................................................................................6

2.2.2 Category “B”.......................................................................................................................6

2.2.3 Category “C”........................................................................................................................6

2.3 Category “A” bioterrorist agents.................................................................................................6

2.3.1 Botulinum toxin as a bioterror weapon...............................................................................6

2.3.2 Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) as a bioterror weapon.................................................................7

3.0 Impacts of food terrorism................................................................................................................7

3.1 Disease and death........................................................................................................................7

3.2 Economic and trade impact.........................................................................................................8

3.3 Public health service....................................................................................................................8

3.4 Social and political implications...................................................................................................8

4.0 United states preparedness.............................................................................................................9

5.0 Canada’s preparedness....................................................................................................................9

4.0 Counter measures by food processors................................................................................................10

Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................11

References.................................................................................................................................................11

Appendix...................................................................................................................................................13

Abstract

Terrorism as a global challenge has resulted in the death of millions. Most countries especially

the United States are on a high alert for terrorist threats. The act of terrorism can be executed in

several ways which includes; the use of fire arms or explosives, the use of biological agents and

the use of chemical agents. Food has been used in several cases of terrorism to disseminate

harmful biological and chemical toxins. The high demand for food has made the spread of

deliberately contaminated food easier.

This paper seeks to explain the concept of terrorism and how food can be used as a tool to

achieve terrorist objectives. It also highlights the preparedness and measures put in place by the

United States and Canada in the fight against food terrorism.

1.0 Introduction

Terrorism is an important challenge to every country. It has accounted for a significant amount

of some country’s financial allocations. Counter-terrorism expenditures due to its high financial

burden, has caused countries such as the United States to withdraw funds from its productive

sectors as a means of support (Abadie and Gardeazabal, 2008)

Terrorism by definition of the United States government is the unlawful use of force and

violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian

population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives (The Federal

Bureau of Investigation, 2005). According to section 83.01 of the criminal code in Canada,

terrorism is an act committed in whole or in a part for a political, religious or ideological

purpose, objective or cause with the intention of intimidating the public. Criminal activities

within this context includes death and bodily harm with the use of violence; endangering a

person’s life; risk posed to health and safety of the public; significant property damage; and

interference or disruption of essential services, facilities or systems (Canada Department of

Justice, 2015)

A Terrorist attack can be overt or covert. Overt attacks are obvious attacks with immediate

impacts. Weapons used in overt attacks includes explosives, firearms and some chemical agents

[chemical agents absorbed into the body usually have immediate effects). Covert attacks are

usually less obvious with delayed impacts. Weapons used in covert attacks are mainly biological

(Gustin, 2004)

1.1 Overt versus covert attacks

Most plans put in place to deal with terrorist attacks have been designed to handle overt attacks

(Centre for Disease Control (CDC), 2000). The immediate impact of overt attack elicits quick

response from police, fire and emergency medical service. In contrast to overt attacks, a covert

attack presents a difficult challenge in planning due to its delayed impact. For example, a food

product deliberately contaminated with a biological or chemical toxin will not be discovered

until the first casualty is noticed. The time interval between an attack and its detection is enough

for a poisoned food product to spread and cause enough harm to consumers.

2.0 Bioterrorism and Food Terrorism

Bioterrorism1 has been defined by the Southern Illinois University School of Medicine (2009) as

the intentional use of a pathogen or biological product [viruses, bacteria or other germs] to cause

harm to a human, animal or plants with an intention either influencing the decisions of a

government or intimidating a civilian population.

The germs used as bio weapons can be naturally obtained however; they are sometimes modified

to be more harmful by increasing their ability to cause disease, spread, or resist medical

treatment (Medlineplus, 2014). Biological agents are usually conveyed in three ways which are;

air, water and food.

Bioterrorism and food terrorism share a binding relationship in the use of biological agents in

perpetuating harm to people however, the World Health Organization Food Safety Department

(2002), defines food terrorism as the deliberate contamination of food for human consumption

with biological, chemical or physical agents based on an aim of causing injury or death to a

population.

1 Bioterrorism and food terrorism will be used interchangeably in this literature

2.1 Food as tool for terrorism

Food and agriculture are the most critical infrastructure of every country considering the fact that

they provide products that are essential to life. Food supplies have been the main target of

bioterrorists considering the high food demands by population. Bio-warfare programs have been

developed by some countries to target crops and farm animals of enemies with the aims of

denying them food supply, causing economic damage and sapping public morale (Federation of

American Scientists, 2011).

Poison or harmful materials can be added to food in the form of biological agents [pathogenic

viruses, bacteria and parasites], physical agents [glass, needles, metal fragment] or chemical

agents [man-made or natural toxin] (World Health Organization [WHO] Food Safety

Department, 2002)

One important reason for the use of food as a terroristic tool is based on its ability to conceal a

poison while spreading among a target population. For example a poisoned raw material used in

the production of a fish burger will be difficult to detect considering the varieties of ingredients

required in its preparation.

There are several conditions and characteristics that determine the use of a food as a tool for

disseminating poisons. These conditions and characteristics includes; food material accessibility,

level of material treatment, material miscibility, material colour, availability of preserving or

growth supporting factors, time taken to distribute and time taken to consume

2.1.1 Food material accessibility

For a food material to be used as a tool to disseminate a poison, it needs to be accessible in

significant amounts. Contaminating a large amount of food supply will achieve a higher impact

on a population compared to contaminating a little amount of supply.

2.1.2 Required terminal treatment

The level of treatment a food material receives after contamination determines the viability of the

contaminant. For example a toxin destroyed by heat [E-coli] will not be effective after a product

goes through heat treatment hence a food terrorist will prefer to contaminate either an already

processed food product [example a vat of already pasteurized milk] or a food product that has

already gone through its treatment phase

2.1.3 Miscibility

It is important for a contaminant to mix well in food to be fully effective. For example; a less

viscous food material will be a preferred choice for disseminating contaminants compared to a

highly viscous food material. Contaminants will not spread evenly in viscous food materials and

can be easily noticed when they are not properly mixed in food. The contamination of solid or

highly viscous food materials will be effective only if contaminants are added before a

mechanical mixing process

2.1.4 Colour

Contaminants are more exposed in lightly coloured or clear food materials [e.g. milk, apple

juice] compared to dark colored food materials. Contaminants can also camouflage easily in food

products that have mixed ingredients of different colors [dried soup mix]. Food to be used in

dispersing a poison must share a similar colour with the harmful agent or must be able to conceal

the harmful agent.

2.1.4 Ability to preserve or support growth of agent

Biological agents require a source of nutrient to survive and reproduce in food. Increased

microbial growth in food will amount to the production of more toxins which consequently

makes a food material more deleterious.

The chemical nature of a food material will also determine its use as an agent. For example a

halophilic bacterium cannot be used in yoghurt contamination because of its acidic content.

2.1.5 Ability to be rapidly distributed

Food products on high demand and distribution are desirable targets for food terrorists. The

ability of a poisoned food product to be rapidly distributed determines the level of casualty it

may cause. Flour, sugar, milk etc. may distribute quickly due to high confectionery demands

2.2 Categories of disease pathogen

The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases in conjunction with the United States

Department of Homeland Security and Centres for Disease Control and Prevention has

categorized pathogens in order of priority from category2 “A” to “C” (National Institute of

Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), 2015)

2.2.1 Category “A”

Category “A” pathogens [priority pathogens] are Biological agents that pose the highest risk to

national security and public health. Category “A” pathogens possess the following

characteristics according to NIAID (2015)

Are easily transmittable

Result in high mortality rate

May instill panic and social disruption

Requires special action for public health preparedness.

2.2.2 Category “B”

The second highest priority agents are the category “B” pathogens. Category “B” pathogens have

the following characteristics according to NIAID (2015)

Are moderately easy to spread

Are responsible for a moderate amount of illness and low amount of death

Require specific enhancements for diagnostic capacity and enhanced disease

surveillance.

2.2.3 Category “C”

Category “C” pathogens are the least priority pathogens. They consist of developing pathogens

engineered for future dissemination due to their availability, ease of production/ dissemination

and potential to cause high morbidity and mortality rate (NIAID, 2015)

2.3 Category “A” bioterrorist agents

2.3.1 Botulinum toxin as a bioterror weapon

Botulinum toxin is a toxin produced by a gram-positive anaerobic spore-forming bacterium

known as clostridium botulinum. Clostridium botulinum is classified as a category “A” disease

pathogen due to its virulent characteristics (NIAID, 2015).

2 List of category A, B, and C pathogens can be found in the appendix A

The virulent characteristic of botulinum toxin has made it a suitable food terror weapon. About

19,000 litre of botulinum toxin was claimed to have been produced by Iraq at the end of the Gulf

war in 1991. Such high amount of toxin is enough to kill the entire earth population (Hanson,

2004)

C. botulinum produces a toxin which is a simple di-chain polypeptide consisting of 100-kd heavy

chain held by a single disulfide bond to a 50-kd light chain. Its light chain consist of a Zn++ that

contains endopeptidase that have the potential to prevent acetylcholine containing vesicles from

bonding with terminal membrane of the motor neuron which causes flaccid muscle paralysis

(Institute of Medicine, 2006) [see appendix B for the Mechanism of Action of Botulinum Toxin].

2.3.2 Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) as a bioterror weapon

Anthrax disease is caused by a bacterium known as Bacillus anthracis. The bacterial cell

survives as a hardy spore in the soil (endures for decades under the harshest condition). Once in a

living body (animal or person) the spores will germinate into thriving colonies and lead to the

death of host. Example; when grazing animal consumes spores, spore will begin to grow and

spread in the living animal which will eventually kill the animal. The bacterium forms its spores

in the animal carcass and returns to the soil afterwards to infect other animals

What makes Bacillus anthracis a potent killer is its spore’s ability to survive in any condition

and also produce toxins (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 2015)

3.0 Impacts of food terrorism

3.1 Disease and death

The Indispensable nature of food makes it liable to cause a high amount of disease and death if

contaminated. If an unintentional contamination of food can result to a high amount of death or

illness then an intentional contamination will cause more deaths. For example, a salmonella

outbreak in 2010 caused nearly 2000 illness (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013).

A food terrorist attack with biological toxins will have the most critical effect on groups of

population such as the elderly, pregnant, infants and the immunocompromised. Approximately

one million children in South East Asia, under the age of five have been reported to die annually

from diarrheal disease from contaminated food (DeWaal and Robert, 2005). This shows how

vulnerable younger children are to food disease pathogens

3.2 Economic and trade impact

Food generates a significant amount of revenue for most countries. For example; The Canadian

agriculture and agri-food system generated around $103.5 billion in 2012 (Agriculture and Agri-

food Canada, 2015). Attacks on food have been shown through several studies to cause adverse

economic impacts on nations (Hui, 2006; World Health Organization (WHO), 2002). In a bid to

damage Israel’s economy in 1978, citrus fruit to be exported to Europe was contaminated with

mercury. This action led to a significant trade disruption between Israel and Europe (WHO,

2002). Another scenario can be drawn from Chilean grapes alleged contamination with cyanide

in 1989 which not only led to a recall from Canada and United States market but also a rejection

of all Chilean fruits from American and other consumers (WHO, 2002)

3.3 Public health service

A disease outbreak from a food terror act can paralyse a public health service. The health care

system of a country can be strained out by a high casualty population. Many countries do not

have the capacity to handle massive emergencies (WHO, 2002) and delayed health response can

lead to high mortality rate amongst victims.

Although most countries have designed plans for emergencies they often fail to incorporate plans

to deal will food threats (WHO, 2002). Such unpreparedness can weaken or deter effective

response to food sabotage

3.4 Social and political implications

One of the main objectives of a terror plan is to instill fear and panic in a population. A

successful attack on the food supply of a country will lead to fear and anxiety among an affected

population and this may cause them to doubt the credibility of a political system and government

which can consequently lead to political distabilization and disrupted civil order (WHO, 2002).

4.0 United states preparedness

The United states in its response against bioterrorism have devised an offensive prioritization

tool adapted for use in the food sector. The tool devised is known as “CAVER + SHOCK”. The

definition of the acronym “CAVER” according the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2009) is

explained below.

C – Criticality: this measures the public health and economic impact an attack may pose

A- Accessibility: Ability to physically access and penetrate a target

R- Recuperability: The recovery ability of a system from an attack

V- Vulnerability: Ease of executing an attack

E- Effect: Amount of loss incurred from an attack

R- Recognizability: Easy identification of target

CAVER as a tool evaluates the impact of an attack which considers health, economic and

psychological effects that may arise from it. These effects are termed “SHOCK”

5.0 Canada’s preparedness

The Public Health Agency of Canada and Health Canada, play a major role in protecting the

health and safety of Canadians. They also work in affiliation with the Canadian Food Inspection.

The agency, according to Public Health Agency of Canada (2012) has the following

responsibility in dealing with bioterrorism;

Developing and maintaining national emergency response plans

Managing Quarantine service and enforcing the Quarantine Act at Canadian border

crossings

Developing laboratory protocols for testing for potential biologic terrorism agents. And

providing training for Canadian Public Health Laboratory in their use

Developing protocols and rapid diagnostic tests for bioterrorist agents

Making mobile equipment and microbiological response teams available for quick

deployment across Canada.

4.0 Counter measures by food processors

Operators of food establishments in Canada are encouraged to be aware of possible bio-terror

attacks. In the event of any suspicious activity, staffs are advised to call the attention of the

program specialists, regional veterinary officer, and/or the security officer. It is the final

responsibility of police officials or those trained and equipped to deal with hazardous materials,

to investigate the situation

According to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (2008), several components of a food establishment are required to be reviewed by plant management to prevent deliberate contamination of food. These components include;

Management of food security: Assigning responsibility for security to qualified individual(s) and encouraging staff to be alert to signs of tampering

Physical facility: controlled access to food storage areas using restrictions or appropriate deterrent materials e.g. fencing, doors, etc.

Employees: Screening new employees prior to employment and training employees on food security

Computer systems: Restricted access to process control systems and critical data systems

Raw material and Packaging: Use of only licensed or approved sources of raw materials and packaging materials

Operations: Secured access to sources of water and air, use of tamper evident connectors and valves and arranged periodic inspection of facilities

Finished products: Keeping track of all finished products and investigating missing or extra stock along with any irregularity.

Conclusion

Food terrorism has a critical impact on a nation and its population. It can lead to high mortality

rate, public unrest, paralyzed health service and negative impact on an economy. Food toxins can

be easily concealed in food and will only be discovered after most people have suffered

casualties.

Food terrorism can be controlled or avoided if food producers are more aware of threats and

develop control measures against deliberate food contamination. It is the duty of not only the

food producers but all consumers to be vigilant to any suspicious sign of food product tampering

or product contamination.

References Abadie, A., & Gardeazabal, J. (2008). Terrorism and the world economy. European Economic Review, 52(1), 1-27.

Canada Department of Justice. (2015). Memorializing the victims of terrorism: Definitions of Terrorism and the Canadian Context. Retrieved 24 November, 2015, from http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/cj-jp/victim/rr09_6/p3.html#ftn1

Centre for Disease Control. (2000). Biological and Chemical Terrorism:Strategic Plan for Preparedness and Response: Recommendations of the CDC Strategic Planning Workgroup. Retrieved 24 November, 2015, from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr4904a1.htm

Federation of American Scientists. (2011). Introduction: Agro-Terrorism and Food Safety. Retrieved 24 November, 2015, from http://fas.org/biosecurity/education/dualuse-agriculture/1.-agroterrorism-and-foodsafety/

Gustin, J. F. (2004). Disaster and recovery planning: A guide for facility managers. Crc Press.

Hanson, D. (2004). Botulinum toxin: a bioterrorism weapon. Emergency medical services, 33(4), 55-60.

Institute of Medicine (US). Forum on Microbial Threats. (2006). Addressing Foodborne Threats to Health: Policies, Practices, and Global Coordination: Workshop Summary. National Academies Press.

Southern Illinois University School of Medicine. (2009). Overview of Potential Agents of Biological Terrorism. Retrieved 24 November, 2015, from http://www.siumed.edu/medicine/id/bioterrorism.htm

Medlineplus. (2014). Biodefence and Bioterrorism. Retrieved 24 November, 2015, from https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/biodefenseandbioterrorism.html

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. (2015). NIAAD Emerging Infectious Diseases/Pathogens. Retrieved 25 November, 2015, from http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/biodefenserelated/biodefense/pages/cata.aspx

The Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2005). Terrorism 2002 - 2005. Retrieved 24 November, 2015, from https://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/terrorism-2002-2005

World Health Organization. Food Safety Dept. (2002). Terrorist threats to food: guidance for establishing and strengthening prevention and response systems. World Health Organization.

Appendix

Appendix A: List of Category A, B, and C pathogens

Category A Priority Pathogens Bacillus anthracis (anthrax)

Clostridium botulinum toxin (botulism)

Yersinia pestis (plague)

Variola major (smallpox) and other related pox viruses

Francisella tularensis (tularemia)

Viral hemorrhagic fevers

o Arenaviruses

Junin, Machupo, Guanarito, Chapare (new in fiscal year (FY) 14), Lassa, Lujo (new in FY 14)

o Bunyaviruses

Hantaviruses causing Hanta Pulmonary syndrome, Rift Valley Fever, Crimean Congo Hemorrhagic Fever

o Flaviruses

Dengue

o Filoviruses

Ebola

Marburg

Category B Priority Pathogenso Bacteria

Diarrheagenic E.coli

Pathogenic Vibrios

Shigella species

Salmonella

Listeria monocytogenes

Campylobacter jejuni

Yersinia enterocolitica

o Viruses

Caliciviruses

Hepatitis A

o Protozoa

Cryptosporidium parvum

Cyclospora cayatanensis

Giardia lamblia

Entamoeba histolytica

Toxoplasma gondii

Naegleria fowleri (new in FY 14)

Balamuthia mandrillaris (new in FY 14)

o Fungi

Microsporidia

Mosquito-borne encephalitis viruses

o West Nile virus (WNV)

o LaCrosse encephalitis (LACV)

o California encephalitis

o Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE)

o Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE)

o Western equine encephalitis (WEE)

o Japanese encephalitis virus (JE)

o St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV)

Category C Priority Pathogens

Nipah and Hendra viruses

Additional hantaviruses

Tickborne hemorrhagic fever viruses

o Bunyaviruses

Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome virus (SFTSV), Heartland virus

o Flaviruses

Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever virus, Alkhurma virus, Kyasanur Forest virus

Tickborne encephalitis complex flaviviruses

Yellow fever virus

Tuberculosis, including drug-resistant TB

Influenza virus

Rabies virus

Prions

Source: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. (2015)

Appendix B: Mechanism of Action of Botulinum Toxin

Release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction is mediated by the assembly of a synaptic fusion complex that allows the membrane of the synaptic vesicle containing acetylcholine to fuse with the neuronal cell membrane. The synaptic fusion complex is a set of SNARE proteins, which include synaptobrevin, SNAP-25, and syntaxin. After membrane fusion, acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft and then bound by receptors on the muscle cell.

Botulinum toxin binds to the neuronal cell membrane at the nerve terminus and enters the neuron by endocytosis. The light chain of botulinum toxin cleaves specific sites on the SNARE proteins, preventing complete assembly of the synaptic fusion complex and thereby blocking acetylcholine release. Botulinum toxins types B, D, F, and G cleave synaptobrevin; types A, C, and E cleave SNAP-25; and type C cleaves syntaxin. Without acetylcholine release, the muscle is unable to contract. SNARE indicates soluble NSF-attachment protein receptor; NSF, N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein; and SNAP-25, synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kd.

Source: Institute of Medicine (US). Forum on Microbial Threats, (2006)

Appendix C: Cases of food terror act

Yea

r

Country Case Casualty

1984 United States

(Oregon)

Salad bars deliberately infected with

Salmonella by Rajneesh cult

More than 700 people

sickened

1952 Kenya Insurgents poison cattle

1978 Israel Palestinian commando contaminates

citrus with mercury

1985 Sri Lanka Tea exports threatened by Tamil Rebels

1989 United States

(California)

Breeders claim releasing fruit flies

1989 Chile Grapes contaminated with cyanide

United States

(Michigan)

Former supermarket employee poisons

ground beef with insecticide

Sickening more than 40

people

2003 Italy Mystery poisoner injecting a soap liquid

to mineral water

Nearly a dozen people

including 2 small

children

1960 Japan Typhoid and dysentery outbreaks traced

to deliberate action of research biologist

Source: World Health Organization. Food Safety Dept. (2002).