Tempo - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

18/04/2015 TempoWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempo 1/13

ThefirsttwomeasuresofMozart'sSonataK.331,whichindicatesthetempoas"Andantegrazioso"(Italianfor"atwalkingpace,graceful")andamoderneditormarking:"=120". Play

TempoFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Inmusicalterminology,tempo("time"inItalianplural:tempi)isthespeedorpaceofagivenpiece.

Contents

1Measuringtempo2Musicalvocabularyfortempo3Understoodtempo4Beatsperminute

4.1Extremetempos4.2Beatmatching

5Measuresperminute6Italiantempomarkings

6.1Basictempomarkings6.1.1Additionalterms

6.2Commonqualifiers6.3Moodmarkingswithatempoconnotation6.4Termsforchangeintempo

7Tempomarkingsinotherlanguages

7.1Frenchtempomarkings7.2Germantempomarkings7.3Englishtempomarkings

8Tempomarkingsasmovementnamesandcompositionswithatempoindicatorname9Seealso10References



Electronicmetronome,Wittnermodel

11Sources12Externallinks

Measuringtempo

Apieceofmusic'stempoistypicallywrittenatthestartofthescore,andinmodernWesternmusicisusuallyindicatedinbeatsperminute(BPM).Thismeansthataparticularnotevalue(forexample,aquarternote,orcrotchet)isspecifiedasthebeat,andthattheamountoftimebetweensuccessivebeatsisaspecifiedfractionofaminute.Thegreaterthenumberofbeatsperminute,thesmallertheamountoftimebetweensuccessivebeats,andthusfasterapiecemustbeplayed.Forexample,atempoof60beatsperminutesignifiesonebeatpersecond,whileatempoof120beatsperminuteistwiceasrapid,signifyingonebeatevery0.5seconds.Mathematicaltempomarkingsofthiskindbecameincreasinglypopularduringthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury,afterthemetronomehadbeeninventedbyJohannNepomukMlzel,althoughearlymetronomesweresomewhatinconsistent.Beethovenwasoneofthefirstcomposerstousethemetronomeintheeighteenteenshepublishedmetronomicindicationsfortheeightsymphonieshehadcomposeduptothattime.[1]

Withtheadventofmodernelectronics,BPMbecameanextremelyprecisemeasure.MusicsequencersusetheBPMsystemtodenotetempo.

Insteadofbeatsperminute,some20thcenturycomposers(e.g.,BlaBartk,AlbertoGinastera,andJohnCage)specifythetotalplayingtimeforapiece,fromwhichtheperformercanderivetempo.

Tempoisascrucialincontemporarymusicasitisinclassical.Inelectronicdancemusic,accurateknowledgeofatune'sBPMisimportanttoDJsforthepurposesofbeatmatching.

Musicalvocabularyfortempo

Somemusicalpiecesdonothaveamathematicaltimeindication.Inclassicalmusicitiscustomarytodescribethetempoofapiecebyoneormorewords.MostofthesewordsareItalian,becausemanyofthemostimportantcomposersofthe17thcenturywereItalian,andthisperiodwaswhentempoindicationswerefirstusedextensivelyandcodified.

Beforethemetronome,wordsweretheonlywaytodescribethetempoofacomposition.Yet,afterthemetronome'sinvention,musicianscontinuedtousethesewords,oftenadditionallyindicatingthemoodofthepiece.Thisblurredthetraditionaldistinctionbetweentempoandmoodindicators.Forexample,prestoandallegrobothindicateaspeedyexecution(prestobeingfaster),butallegroalsoconnotesjoy(fromitsoriginalmeaninginItalian).Presto,ontheotherhand,simplyindicatesspeed.AdditionalItalianwordsalsoindicatetempoandmood.Forexample,the"agitato"intheAllegroagitatoofthelastmovementofGeorgeGershwin'spianoconcertoinFhasbothatempoindication(undoubtedlyfasterthanausualAllegro)andamoodindication("agitated").

Understoodtempo



BPMof120

120BPMtempo

Exampleofabasic4/4,120BPMtempo

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Insomecases(quiteoftenuptotheendoftheBaroqueperiod),theconventionsthatgovernedmusicalcompositionweresostrongthatcomposersdidn'tneedtoindicatetempo.Forexample,thefirstmovementofBach'sBrandenburgConcertoNo.3hasnotempoormoodindicationwhatsoever.Toprovidemovementnames,publishersofrecordingsresorttoadhocmeasures,forinstancemarkingtheBrandenburgmovement"Allegro","(Allegro)","(Withoutindication)",andsoon.

InRenaissancemusic,performersunderstoodmostmusictoflowatatempodefinedbythetactus(roughlytherateofthehumanheartbeat).Themensuraltimesignatureindicatedwhichnotevaluecorrespondedtothetactus.

Oftenaparticularmusicalformorgenreimpliesitsowntempo,socomposersneedplacenofurtherexplanationinthescore.Thus,musiciansexpectaminuettobeatafairlystatelytempo,slowerthanaViennesewaltzaperpetuummobilequitefast,andsoon.Genresimplytempos.Thus,LudwigvanBeethovenwrote"Intempod'unMenuetto"overthefirstmovementofhisPianoSonataOp.54,thoughthatmovementisnotaminuet.Popularmusicchartsusetermssuchasbossanova,ballad,andLatinrockinmuchthesameway.

Notethatnotonlydidtemposchangeoverhistoricaltimeandevenindifferentplaces,butsometimeseventheorderingoftermschanged.Forexample,amodernlargoisslowerthananadagio,butintheBaroqueperioditwasfaster.[2]

Beatsperminute

Beatsperminute(BPM)isaunittypicallyusedasameasureoftempoinmusicandheartrate.TheBPMtempoofapieceofmusicisconventionallyshowninitsscoreasametronomemark,asillustratedtotheright.Thisindicatesthatthereshouldbe120crotchetbeats(quarternotes)perminute.Insimpletimesignaturesitisconventionaltoshowthetempointermsofthenotedurationonthebottom.Soa4/4wouldshowacrotchet(orquarternote),asshowntotheright,whilea2/2wouldshowaminim(orhalfnote).

Incompoundtimesignaturesthebeatconsistsofthreenotedurations(sothereare3quavers(eighthnotes)perbeatina6/8timesignature),soadottedformofthenextnotedurationupisused.Themostcommoncompoundsignatures:6/8,9/8,and12/8,thereforeuseadottedcrotchet(dottedquarternote)toindicatetheirBPM.

ExotictimeandparticularlyslowtimesignaturesmayindicatetheirBPMtempousingothernotedurations.BPMbecamecommonterminologyindiscobecauseofitsusefulnesstoDJs,andremainimportantinthesamegenreandotherdancemusic.

Inthiscontextthebeatsmeasuredareeithercrotchets(quarternotes)inthetimesignature(sometimesambiguouslycalleddownbeats),ordrumbeats(typicallybassdrumoranotherfunctionallysimilarsynthesizedsound),whicheverismorefrequent.HigherBPMvaluesarethereforeachievablebyincreasingthenumberofdrumbeats,without

increasingthetempoofthemusic.Housemusicisfasteraround120128BPM(fromregularhouse

0:00 MENU



musictoUKgarage),trancemusicrangesfrom125to150BPM,[3]anddrumandbassgenerallyrangesbetween150180BPM.Psytranceisalmostexclusivelyproducedat145BPM,whereasspeedcoreandgabbermusiccanexceed180184BPM.

Extremetempos

Moreextremetemposareachievableatthesameunderlyingtempowithveryfastdrumpatterns,oftenexpressedasdrumrolls.Suchcompositionsoftenexhibitamuchslowerunderlyingtempo,butmayincreasethetempobyaddingadditionalpercussivebeats.Extrememusicsubgenressuchasspeedcoreandgrindcoreoftenstrivetoreachunusuallyfasttempos.Theuseofextremetempowasverycommoninthefastbebopjazzfromthe1940sand1950s.Acommonjazztunesuchas"Cherokee"wasoftenperformedatquarternoteequaltoorsometimesexceeding368BPM.SomeofCharlieParker'sfamoustunes("Bebop","ShawNuff")havebeenperformedat380BPMplus.JohnColtrane's"GiantSteps"wasperformedat374BPM.

Beatmatching

BeatmatchingisatechniqueDJsusethatinvolvesspeedinguporslowingdownarecordtomatchthetempoofaprevioustracksobothcanbeseamlesslymixed.

DJsoftenbeatmatchtheunderlyingtemposofrecordings,ratherthantheirstrictBPMvaluesuggestedbythekickdrum,particularlywhendealingwithhightempotracks.A240BPMtrack,forexample,matchesthebeatofa120BPMtrackwithoutslowingdownorspeedingup,becausebothhaveanunderlyingtempoof120quarternotesperminute.Thus,somesoulmusic(around7590BPM)mixeswellwithadrumandbassbeat(from150185BPM).

Whenspeedinguporslowingdownarecordonaturntable,thepitchandtempoofatrackarelinked:spinningadisc10%fastermakesbothpitchandtempo10%higher.Softwareprocessingtochangethepitchwithoutchangingthetempo,orviceversa,iscalledtimestretchingorpitchshifting.Whileitworksfairlywellforsmalladjustments(20%),theresultcanbenoisyandunmusicalforlargerchanges.

Measuresperminute

Thespeedofapieceofmusiccanalsobegaugedaccordingtomeasuresperminute(MPM)orbarsperminute,thenumberofmeasuresofthepieceperformedinoneminute.Thismeasureiscommonlyusedinballroomdancemusic.

Italiantempomarkings

ThedefinitionsoftheItaliantempomarkingsmentionedinthissectioncanbefoundintheHarvardDictionaryofMusicand/ortheonlineItalianEnglishdictionary,bothofwhicharelistedinSources.

Basictempomarkings

Byaddinganissimoending,thewordisamplified/madelouder.Byaddinganinoorettoending,thewordisdiminished/madesofter.TheBeatsPerMinutevaluesareroughapproximations.

Fromslowesttofastest:



Larghissimovery,veryslow(24BPMandunder)Graveveryslow(2545BPM)Largobroadly(4060BPM)Lentoslowly(4560BPM)Larghettoratherbroadly(6066BPM)Adagioslowandstately(literally,"atease")(6676BPM)Adagiettoslowerthanandante(7276BPM)Andanteatawalkingpace(76108BPM)AndantinoslightlyfasterthanAndante(althoughinsomecasesitcanbetakentomeanslightlyslowerthanandante)(80108BPM)

Marciamoderatomoderately,inthemannerofamarch[4][5](8385BPM)Andantemoderatobetweenandanteandmoderato(thusthenameandantemoderato)(92112BPM)Moderatomoderately(108120BPM)Allegrettomoderatelyfast(112120BPM)Allegromoderatoclosetobutnotquiteallegro(116120BPM)Allegrofast,quickly,andbright(120168BPM)(moltoallegroisslightlyfasterthanallegro,butalwaysinitsrange)Vivacelivelyandfast(168176BPM)Vivacissimoveryfastandlively(172176BPM)AllegrissimoorAllegrovivaceveryfast(172176BPM)Prestoextremelyfast(168200BPM)PrestissimoevenfasterthanPresto(200BPMandover)

Termsfortempochange:

RitardandoorrallentandograduallyslowingdownAccelerandoorstringendograduallyaccelerating

Additionalterms

Apiaceretheperformermayusehisorherowndiscretionwithregardtotempoandrhythm

literally"atpleasure"[6]

AtemporesumeprevioustempoL'istessotempoorLostessotempoatthesamespeedTempocomodoatacomfortable(normal)speedTempodi...thespeedofa...(suchasTempodivalse(speedofawaltz,60bpm),Tempodimarcia(speedofamarch,120bpm))Tempogiustoataconsistentspeed,atthe'right'speed,instricttempoTemposemplicesimple,regularspeed,plainly



Tempoprimoresumetheoriginal(first)tempo

Commonqualifiers

allainthemannerorstyleof,asin:allabreveinshortstyle,i.e.,dupletime,withthehalfnote(minim)ratherthanthequarternote(crotchet)asthebeatcuttime2/2insteadof4/4oftenmarkedasaCwithaverticallinethroughit(seeTimesignature)

allamarciainthemannerofamarch[7](e.g.,Beethoven,op.101)all'ongareseinHungarianstylealla(danza)tedescainthestyleoftheLndler(c.1800),andsimilardancesinrather

quicktriplemeter(seeBeethoven,op.79,op.130)[8]

allaturcaintheTurkishstyle,thatis,inimitationofTurkishmilitarymusic(JanissaryMusic),whichbecamepopularinEuropeinthelate18thcentury(e.g.,Mozart,K.331,K.384)allazingareseinthestyleofGypsymusic

assaiverymuch,asinallegroassai,quitefast[9]

benwell,asinbenmarcato(wellmarkedoraccented)conwith,asin

conbravurawithskill[10]

conbriowithvigorandspirit[11]

condolcezzawithsoftnessdelicately[12]

confuocowithfireconmotowithmotion

decisodecidedly,decisivelyfugatoinfugalstyle,usuallypartofanonfugalcompositionsuchpassagesoftenoccurinthe

developmentsectionsofsymphonies,sonatas,andquartets[13]

inmodointhemannerof,inthestyleof:inmodonapolitano(inNeapolitanstyle),inmododimarciafunebre(inthemannerofafuneralmarch)

menoless,asinmenomosso(lessquickly)[14]

appenaalmostnone,asinappenaforte(almostnotatallloud)misteriosomysterious

moltomuch,very,asinmoltoallegro(veryquick)ormoltoadagio(veryslow)[15]

nontropponottoomuch,e.g.allegronontroppo(orallegromanontroppo)means"fast,butnottoomuch"nontantonotsomuchpimore,asinpiallegro(morequickly)usedasarelativeindicationwhenthetempochanges

piuttostorather,asinpiuttostoallegro(ratherquick)[16]

pocoslightly,little,asinPocoadagio



pocoapocolittlebylittlepolaccagenericnameforPolishdances,usuallythepolonaise,asintempodipolaccanote,however,thatthe"Polacca"inBach'sBrandenburgConcertoNo.1showslittleresemblancetothe

polonaise[17]

primoprincipalorearly,asintempoprimo,thesametempoasatthebeginningquasialmost,nearly,asif(suchasPiallegroquasipresto,"faster,asifpresto")senzawithout,asinsenzainterruzione(withoutinterruptionorpause),senzatempoorsenza

misura(withoutstrictmeasure)[18]

sostenutosustained,prolongedsubitosuddenly

Note:Inadditiontothecommonallegretto,composersfreelyapplyItaliandiminutiveandsuperlativesuffixestovarioustempoindications:andantino,larghetto,adagietto,andlarghissimo.

Moodmarkingswithatempoconnotation

Somemarkingsthatprimarilymarkamood(orcharacter)alsohaveatempoconnotation:

Affettuosowithfeeling/emotionAgitatoagitated,withimpliedquicknessAppassionatotoplaypassionatelyAnimatoanimatedly,livelyBrillantesparkling,glittering,asinAllegrobrillante,Rondobrillante,orVariationsbrillantes

becamefashionableintitlesforvirtuosopieces[19]

BravurabroadlyCantabileinsingingstyle(lyricalandflowing)Calandodyingaway,slowing,diminishingDolcesweetlyDolcissimoverysweetlyanddelicatelyEnergicoenergetic,strong,forcefulEroicoheroicallyEspressivoexpressivelyFuriosotoplayinanangryorfuriousmannerGiocosomerrily,funnyGioiosojoyfullyGrandiosomagnificently,grandlyGraziosogracefullyIncalzandoencouraging,buildingLacrimosotearfully,sadlyLamentosolamenting,mournfullyLeggierotoplaylightly,orwithlighttouch



LeggiadrolightlyandgracefullyMaestosomajesticorstately(whichgenerallyindicatesasolemn,slowmarchlikemovement)MalinconicomelancholicMarcatomarchingtempo,markedwithemphasisMarzialeinamarchstyle,usuallyinsimple,stronglymarkedrhythmandregularphrasesMestosad,mournfulMisteriosomystical,inashadymannerMorendodyingNobilmentenobly(inanobleway)PateticowithgreatemotionPesanteheavilySaltandojumpy,fast,andshortScherzandoplayfullySmorzandodyingaway,decreasingtonothinginbothspeedanddynamicSostenutosustained,withaslowingoftempoSpiccatoslowsautill,withabouncymannerTenerezzatendernessTranquillamenteadverboftranquillo,"calmly"TrionfantetriumphantlyVivacelivelyandfast,over140BPM(whichgenerallyindicatesafastmovement)

Termsforchangeintempo

Composersmayuseexpressivemarkstoadjustthetempo:

Accelerandospeedingup(abbreviation:accel.)Allargandogrowingbroaderdecreasingtempo,usuallyneartheendofapieceCalandogoingslower(andusuallyalsosofter)Doppiomovimento/doppiopimossodoublespeedDoppiopilentohalfspeedLentandogradualslowingandsofterMenomossolessmovementorslowerMossomovement,morelively,orquicker,muchlikepimosso,butnotasextremePimossomoremovementorfasterPrecipitandohurrying,goingfaster/forwardRallentandogradualslowingdown(abbreviation:rall.)Ritardandoslowingdowngraduallyalsoseerallentandoandritenuto(abbreviations:rit.,ritard.)Ritenutoslightlyslowertemporarilyholdingback.(Notethattheabbreviationforritenutocanalsoberit.Thusamorespecificabbreviationisriten.Alsosometimesritenutodoesnotreflecta



tempochangebutacharacterchangeinstead.)Rubatofreeadjustmentoftempoforexpressivepurposes(literally"theft",somorestrictly,taketimefromonebeattoslowanother)Strettoinfastertempo,oftenneartheconclusionofasection.(Notethatinfugalcompositions,thetermstrettoreferstotheimitationofthesubjectinclosesuccession,beforethesubjectis

completed,andassuch,suitableforthecloseofthefugue.[20]Usedinthiscontext,thetermisnotnecessarilyrelatedtotempo.)Stringendopressingonfaster(literally"tightening")

Whilethebasetempoindication(suchasallegro)appearsinlargetypeabovethestaff,theseadjustmentstypicallyappearbelowthestaffor(inthecaseofkeyboardinstruments)inthemiddleofthegrandstaff.

Theygenerallydesignateagradualchangeintempoforimmediatetemposhifts,composersnormallyjustprovidethedesignationforthenewtempo.(Note,however,thatwhenPiMossoorMenoMossoappearsinlargetypeabovethestaff,itfunctionsasanewtempo,andthusimpliesanimmediatechange.)Severalterms,e.g.,assai,molto,poco,subito,controlhowlargeandhowgradualachangeshouldbe(seecommonqualifiers).

Afteratempochange,acomposermayreturntoaprevioustempointwodifferentways:

atemporeturnstothebasetempoafteranadjustment(e.g."ritardando...atempo"undoestheeffectoftheritardando).TempoprimoorTempoIdenotesanimmediatereturntothepiece'soriginalbasetempoafterasectioninadifferenttempo(e.g."Allegro...Lento...Moderato....TempoI"indicatesareturntotheAllegro).Thisindicationoftenfunctionsasastructuralmarkerinpiecesinbinaryform.

Thesetermsalsoindicateanimmediate,notagradual,tempochange.AlthoughtheyareItalian,composerstypicallyusethemeveniftheyhavewrittentheirinitialtempomarkinginsomeotherlanguage.

Tempomarkingsinotherlanguages

AlthoughItalianhasbeentheprevalentlanguagefortempomarkingsthroughoutmostofclassicalmusichistory,manycomposershavewrittentempoindicationsintheirownlanguage.ThissectionliststempomarkingsfromintheHarvardDictionaryofMusicortheonlineforeignlanguagedictionarieslistedinSources.

Frenchtempomarkings

SeveralcomposershavewrittenmarkingsinFrench,amongthembaroquecomposersFranoisCouperinandJeanPhilippeRameauaswellasClaudeDebussy,OlivierMessiaen,MauriceRavelandAlexanderScriabin.CommontempomarkingsinFrenchare:

Aumouvementplaythe(firstormain)tempo.Graveslowlyandsolemnly



LentslowlyModratamoderatetempoMoinsless,asinMoinsvite(lessfast)RapidefastTrsvery,asinTrsvif(verylively)ViflivelyVitefast

ErikSatiewasknowntowriteextensivetempo(andcharacter)markingsbydefiningtheminapoeticalandliteralway,asinhisGnossiennes.[21]

Germantempomarkings

ManycomposershaveusedGermantempomarkings.TypicalGermantempomarkingsare:

LangsamslowlyLebhaftlively(mood)MigmoderatelyRaschquicklySchnellfast

Bewegtanimated,withmotion[22]

OneofthefirstGermancomposerstousetempomarkingsinhisnativelanguagewasLudwigvanBeethoven.TheoneusingthemostelaboratecombinedtempoandmoodmarkingswasprobablyGustavMahler.Forexample,thesecondmovementofhisSymphonyNo.9ismarkedImTempoeinesgemchlichenLndlers,etwastppischundsehrderb,indicatingaslowishfolkdancelikemovement,withsomeawkwardnessandmuchvulgarityintheexecution.MahlerwouldalsosometimescombineGermantempomarkingswithtraditionalItalianmarkings,asinthefirstmovementofhissixthsymphony,markedAllegroenergico,manontroppo.Heftig,abermarkig(Energeticallyquick,butnottoomuch.Violent,butvigorous[23]).

Englishtempomarkings

Englishindications,forexamplequickly,havealsobeenused,byBenjaminBrittenandPercyGrainger,amongmanyothers.Injazzandpopularmusiccharts,termslike"fast","laidback","steadyrock","medium","mediumup","ballad","brisk","up","slowly",andsimilarstyleindicationsmayappear.

TomLehrer'santhologyTooManySongsbyTomLehrer,usesfakeEnglishtempomarkingstohumorouseffect.Forexample,LehrerspecifiesthatthesongNationalBrotherhoodWeekshouldbeplayed"fraternally,"WeWillAllGoTogetherbeplayed"eschatologically,"andMasochismTangobeplayed"painstakingly."

Tempomarkingsasmovementnamesandcompositionswithatempoindicatorname



Often,composers(ormusicpublishers)namemovementsofcompositionsaftertheirtempo(ormood)marking.Forinstance,thesecondmovementofSamuelBarber'sfirstStringQuartetisanAdagio.[24]

Somesuchmovementsmaystarttoleadalifeoftheirown,andbecomeknownwiththetempo/moodmarkername,forinstancethestringorchestraversionofthesecondmovementofBarber'sfirststringquartetbecameknownasAdagioforStrings.AsimilarexampleistheAdagiettofromMahler'sSymphonyNo.5.

Sometimesthelinkbetweenamusicalcompositionwitha"tempo"nameandaseparatemovementofacompositionislessclear.Forinstance,Albinoni'sAdagioisa20thcenturycreative"reconstruction"basedonanincompletemanuscript.

Somecomposerschosetoincludetempoindicatorsinthenameofaseparatecomposition,forinstanceBartkinAllegroBarbaro("barbaricAllegro"),asinglemovementcomposition.

Seealso

AcapriccioAllabreveAsSlowasPossibleBeat(music)Halftime(music)MultitemporalmusicStoptime

References

1. Someofthesemarkingsaretodaycontentious,suchasthoseonhis"Hammerklavier"SonataandNinthSymphony,seemingtomanytobealmostimpossiblyfast,asisalsothecaseformanyoftheworksofSchumann.See"metronome"entryinApel(1969),p.523.

2. musictheoryonline:tempo(http://www.dolmetsch.com/musictheory5.htm),Dolmetsch.com3. Snoman(2009),p.251.4. AmericanSymphonyOrchestraLeague(1998).JournaloftheConductors'Guild,Vols.1819

(http://books.google.cz/books?ei=kFELUKCBN_OW0QWu0_zpCg&hl=cs&id=zGcIAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22marcia+moderato%22+tempo+marking&q=%22marcia%22+).Viena:TheLeague.p.27.ISSN07341032(https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:07341032)

5. WilliamE.Caplin,JamesHepokoski,JamesWebster(2010).MusicalForm,Forms&Formenlehre:ThreeMethodologicalReflections(http://books.google.cz/books?id=YhAgAJDAK9sC&pg=PT80&dq=%22marcia+moderato%22&hl=cs&sa=X&ei=TVULUNLTKISs0QW1MDmCg&sqi=2&ved=0CFUQuwUwBg#v=onepage&q=%22marcia%20moderato%22&f=false).LeuvenUniversityPress.p.80.ISBN9058678229.

6. Apel(1969),p.42fortheliteraltranslationseetheonlineItalianEnglishdictionaryatWordReference.com.7. Apel(1969),p.505.8. Apel(1969),p.834.



9. Apel(1969),p.61.10. OnlineItalianEnglishdictionaryatWordReference.com.11. Apel(1969),p.112.12. TheAmericanHistoryandEncyclopediaofMusic,W.L.Hubbard(ed.)c.190813. Apel(1969),p.334.14. Apel(1969),p.520.15. Apel(1969),p.537.16. Apel(1969),p.680.17. Apel(1969),p.683.18. Apel(1969),p.763.19. "Brillante"entryinSadie(2001).20. Apel(1969),p.809.21. Gnossiennesmusicsheet(http://imslp.org/wiki/Special:ImagefromIndex/03007),IMSLPMusicLibrary22. Apel(1969),p.92.23. Italiantranslation,WordReference.comGerman,Apel(1969).24. Heyman,BarbaraB.(19940512).SamuelBarber:thecomposerandhismusic(http://books.google.com/?

id=u6QGtHHtr6MC&pg=PA158&dq=second+movement+Samuel+Barber%27s+first+String+Quartet+is+an+Adagio.#v=onepage&q=second%20movement%20Samuel%20Barber%27s%20first%20String%20Quartet%20is%20an%20Adagio.&f=false).OxfordUniversityPress.p.158.ISBN0195090586.

Sources

Booksontempoinmusic:

Epstein,David(1995).ShapingTime:Music,theBrain,andPerformance.NewYork:SchirmerBooks.ISBN0028733207.Marty,JeanPierre(1988).ThetempoindicationsofMozart.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress.ISBN0300038526.Sachs,Curt(1953).RhythmandTempo:AStudyinMusicHistory.NewYork:Norton.OCLC391538(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/391538).Snoman,Rick(2009).TheDanceMusicManual:Tools,Toys,andTechniquesSecondEdition.Oxford,UK:ElsevierPress.ISBN0974843849.

Musicdictionaries:

Apel,Willi,ed.,HarvardDictionaryofMusic,SecondEdition,RevisedandEnlarged.TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,Cambridge,Massachusetts,1969.ISBN9780674375017Sadie,StanleyJohnTyrrell,eds.(2001).TheNewGroveDictionaryofMusicandMusicians,2ndedition.NewYork:Grove'sDictionaries.ISBN1561592390.

Externallinks



Researchgroupspecializinginrhythm,timing,andtempo,UniversityofAmsterdam(http://www.hum.uva.nl/mmm/)TempoTerminology,VirginiaTechdepartmentofmusic(http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/appendix/tempo/tempo1.html)Tempoindicationsforsocialdances(http://www.beatsperminuteonline.com/en/home/bpmbeatsperminutereferencefordancegenres)Tempovariationamongandwithin300+recordedperformancesofBeethoven's'Eroica'Symphony(http://www.grunin.com/eroica)Dolmetscharticleontempo(http://www.dolmetsch.com/musictheory5.htm)

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