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Telling Time in the Geologic Record and Tracing Crustal Process: An Introdcution to
Radiogenic Isotopes
Jeremy Hourigan
EART205
10/27/2010
North America Stratigraphic
Code
Stratigraphic Correlation
• Lithostratigraphic
• Biostratigraphic
• Chronostratigraphic
• Magnetostratigraphic
• Chemostratigraphic (e.g. iridium anomaly at K-T boundary; stable isotope excursion at PETM)
Decay and Production • Decay Modes
– Beta (Negatron) (Rb-Sr, Lu-Hf, Re-Os) – Beta (Positron) – Alpha (Sm-Nd, U-Pb, (U-Th)/He) – Electron Capture (K-Ar) – Fission (Fission Track)
• Production
– COSMOGENIC
• (N,P) reaction (14C dating) • Spallation reaction (10Be,26Al)
– REACTOR-INDUCED
• Important for a variety geoanalytical techniques • Production of non-naturally occurring isotopes for “spikes” • Induced fission for Fission Track dating • Production of 39Ar from 39K for 40Ar/39Ar dating
Beta Decay
• Negatron (N P + e-)
– Neutron becomes a proton; b- particle (electron) expelled from nucleus
– Nucleus of daughter remains in excited state
– De-excites by emitting two gamma rays
EMgRb - b 224
12
24
11
Beta Decay
• Positron (P N + e+)
– Proton becomes a neutron; b particle expelled from nucleus + neutrino
– Nucleus of daughter remains in excited state
– De-excites by emitting gamma rays
EvOF b18
8
18
9
Electron Capture
• Electron from an extranuclear electron shell (usually from K shell) captured by nucleus
– e-+P N
EArKe
-
40
18
40
19
Frequency Reaction
89.52%
10.32%
0.16%
0.001%
Branched Decay
• 40K actually has 4 decay modes
EArK 40
18
40
19
EArK 40
18
40
19
EArK b40
18
40
19
ECaK - b40
20
40
19
Alpha Decay
• Alpha Particle
EHeThU 4
2
234
90
238
92
238U Decay Chain
EXHePbU - b6)(8 4
2
206
82
238
92
Nuclear Fission 252Cf Fission
nCdSnCf 1
0
117
48
132
50
252
98 3
•Daughter Products of fission decay are variable
•Crystal lattice damage caused by flight of massive fission
fragments through the crystal is what is measured in fission
track analysis, not a specific daughter isotope
Cosmogenic Production
• Foundation: “irradiation” of materials at or near the earths surface produces a suite of unstable radioisotopes with short half-lives. Exploited for chronometric purposed for near-surface processes
• Cosmic Rays consist of energetic H and He nuclei (protons and a-particles)
• Interaction with N2 and 02 in the outer atmosphere
neutrons, protons and muons
Radiocarbon
pCnN 1
1
14
6
1
0
14
7
• Assumption is that 14C achieves a steady-state equilibrium value
• Organisms equilibrate with the atmosphere and achieve steady-steady state
values; at death exchange ceases and 14C begins to decay
QNC - b14
7
14
6
Derivation Decay Equations
Ndt
dN-
Ndt
dN-
- dtN
dN
CtN - ln
0ln NC -
0lnln NtN --
tNN -- 0lnln
tN
N-
0
ln
teN
N -0
teNN - 0
Half-Life Equations
te -21
t-2
1ln
t2ln
2ln21 t
teNN - 0
Homework Question 1
• Solve the equation below for age in terms of parent / daughter ratio. Assume no initial daughter atoms.
teNN - 0
Mass Spectrometry
• Methods and Instrumentation • Instrumentation
– TIMS – SIMS – ICP-MS
History
• 1899-1911 J.J. Thomson (Cambridge) – Development of 1st Mass spectrometer
• 1918 Dempster Electron Ionization and Magnetic Focusing
• 1919 Aston – Atomic Weights using mass spectrometry
• 1946 Stephens – Time-of-flight Instruments
• 1953 Johnson and Nier – Reverse Geometry Double Focusing Instruments
• 1953 Paul and Steinwedel – Quadrupole Analyzers
• 1980 Houk et al. – ICP-MS matures based on work by Fassel and others (1960s)
Chemical Methods
• Isotope Dilution
• Column Chemistry
– Concentration (U/Pb)
– Mitigate for isobaric interference (Rb/Sr) that are irresolvable
Isotope Dilution
Column Chemistry
Requires Substantial Calibration
Example:
Trace Rb ionizes well before Sr
But, presence of Ca reduces Rb ionization
efficiency
Ca must be removed by column chemistry to
mitigate isobaric interference
Instrumentation
– TIMS
– SIMS
– ICP-MS
Single-Focusing Magnetic Sector Mass Spectrometer
Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry
• Gel of concentrated isotopic material dried onto filament
• Filament is heated strips electrons (i.e. ionization)
• Ions separated based on m/q
• Different Elements Ionize at different temperatures
SIMS • Secondary Ionization Mass Spectrometry
1. Beam of Primary Ions
focused onto a sample
surface
2. Primary beam sputters
material from the sample
surface
3. Positive Ions are
extracted
• High Spatial Resolution
(~30um spots)
• Fewer Ions counted
relative to TIMS so lower
precision
Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
U-Th-Pb Decay Equations
)1(
)1(
)1(
232
235
238
204
232
204
208
204
208
204
235
204
207
204
207
204
238
204
206
204
206
-
-
-
t
i
t
i
t
i
ePb
Th
Pb
Pb
Pb
Pb
ePb
U
Pb
Pb
Pb
Pb
ePb
U
Pb
Pb
Pb
Pb
207Pb/206Pb Age
)1(
)1(
)(
)(238
235
238
235
204206204206
204207204207
-
-
-
-t
t
i
i
eU
eU
PbPbPbPb
PbPbPbPb
• Solve iteratively for t
• Requires correction for “Common Pb”
• Get initial ratios from a comagmatic feldspar
• Use a model common Pb composition (e.g. Stacey-Kramers (1975))
Common Pb Correction:
206/204 207/204 208/204
Present 18.703 15.629 38.623
250 Mybp 17.918 15.584 37.704
Concordia Diagrams Wetherill Tera-Wasserburg
Generally for ages >0.5-1.0 Ga Good for Precambrian to Phanerozoic Discordia
Generally for ages <0.5-1.0 Ga Good for showing trace Pbcommon
Parrish and Noble,2004
Homework Question 2
• Using Excel generate a Tera-Wasserburg concordia diagram.
Concordance
• Data fall on concord within uncertainty
• Decay constant errors
• Note correlated errors (sloping error ellipses)
Schmitz and Bowring (2003)
Discordance
• Data fall off concord along a chord
• If the data define a linear array then it is called a discordia line.
Sources of Discordance
• Pb loss – Diffusive or Chemical exchange within “metamict” (glassy, radiation damaged) regions of a crystal
• Multi-component mixture – e.g. Igneous core + metamorphic rim
Mitigating Discordance
• Magnetic Separation (Krogh, 1970s)
• Mechanical Abrasion (Krogh and others, 1980s)
Mitigating Discordance –Chemical Abrasion CA-TIMS
• 48 hour, ~1200 C annealing • Stepwise dissolution in a series of increasingly
aggressive leach steps
CA-TIMS & Microbeam Analytical Techniques (SIMS, LA-ICP-MS)
The isochron
Y =mx +b
Isochron Ages of Granites
Rb-Sr and Meteroites
“Seeing Through” Metamorphic Events
“Seeing Through” Metamorphic Events
Radiogenic Isotope Systems as Tracers
Sm-Nd Geochronometry: Model Ages
TDM Model age indicating timing of separation of rock from a depleted mantle reservoir
TCHUR Model age indicating timing of separation of rock from a Primitive mantle reservoir
Differentiation enriches the crust in radioactive elements
The Earth’s Reservoirs
Isotopes provide a tool to trace processes occurring both within and between these reservoirs
Sm-Nd Geochronometry: Model Ages
Radiogenic Isotope Systems as Tracers
Igneous Petrogenesis
The Continental Crust
Plenary Lecture
EART 205
Bimodal distribution of crust distinguishes Earth from other planets
in our solar system
Composition of the Crust
• Continental
– Lower Density (~2.65 g/cm3)
– “Andesitic”
– Becomes weak at lower temperature
– Complex, Old
• Oceanic
– Higher Density (~2.85 g/cm3)
– “Basaltic”
– Rigid, Strong
– Young, Simple
Age and Nature of the Oceanic Crust
Young (<180 Ma) and “Simple”
Age and Nature of the Continental Crust
Old and Complex
Crustal Thicknesses
Continental Crust Facts
• 41% of the Earth’s Surface (~25% lies below sea level)
• 200 m isobath is the continent-oceanic crust dividing line
• Thickness – Average 36 km (range 10 - 80 km)
• Volume 7.35 E+9 km^3
• Mass 2.06 E+25g (+/-7%)
– That’s 0.54% of the silicate earth
– And 0.33% of the whole Earth
– But 40% of the K (radiogenic)
The Andesite Paradox (Rudnick, 1995)
• The bulk composition of the average continental crust is that of Andesite.
• However, melting of mantle peridotite produces basalt
Hypotheses for Dealing with the Crustal Composition Paradox
• Intermediate composition melts produced early in the Earth’s history (Archean TTGs) due to slab melting
• Intracrustal differentiation followed by Delamination
• Sedimentary reprocessing
• Complemetary cumulates exist in the mantle
Differing Magma Generation Regimes in the geologic past
Taylor and Mclennan, 1985
How has the crust grown
• dMcc/dt = 0
1.Constant Volume since ~3.6 Ga (e.g. Armstrong et al., 1981)
• dMcc/dt > 0
1.Gradual Growth by Lateral Accretion of Island Arcs (geologically motivated)
2.Episodic Growth (e.g. Condie, 1998)
CRUSTAL GROWTH CURVES
Bowring and Housh, 1995
Is preservation equal to
growth?
Resolution relies on isotopic
tracers of magmatic
processes
And studies on the present
day mass balance
EPISODICITY VS. GRADUAL ACCUMULATION
Hawkesworth
and Kemp,
2007 (Nature)
EPISODICITY VS. GRADUAL
ACCUMULATION
Hawkesworth
and Kemp,
2007 (Nature)
Crustal Mass Balance
Gains
• Magmatic Addition – Mantle-derived melts in
continental arc settings
– Mantle-derived magmatism in island arcs and oceanic plateau (requires preservation at the convergent margin
– Intracontinental underplating
• Sediment Accretion
Losses
• Subduction Erosion
• Sediment Subduction
• Delamination
Accretionary vs. Erosive Margins
Subduction Tectonics
• Er
Clift and Vannucchi
Accretionary Margin
Erosive Margin
“Subduction Erosion”
Accretionary Margin - The Largest – Makran Pakistan
Makran accretionary complex is huge
Cascadia
From Chapter 22, Van der Puijm and
Marshak, 2005d
Cascadia
Nankai Trough – Seismic insight into accretion
Moore et al., 2007, Science
Erosive Margins
Subduction Erosion
Ranero and von Huene 2000
Erosive Margins
• Magmatic Productivity dominates the inputs in the crustal mass balance
• Sediment accretion is minimal
• Subduction Erosion and Sediment Subduction are roughly balanced
Clift and Vannucchi, 2004 Reviews of Geophysics
Delamination - Sierras
Delamination
Zandt et al, 2005 (Science)
Delamination
Zandt et al, 2005 (Science)
Delamination expressed in the Geomorphology