Tefl Fundamentals Terminology-1. Useful for English teachers

Oxbridge English Teaching System 902 500 100 www.oxbridge.es [email protected]

The following list includes carefully selected terminology related to TEFL methodologies. The full list is available at: http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowledge-database/teaching-knowledge-database

Teaching knowledge database

ARC

ARC is one way to describe three possible stages of a class. It stands for Authentic Use, Restricted Use and Clarification and Focus.

Example ARC could be used to describe the staging of a grammar presentation lesson which starts with an explanation of rules. Here it would have a different order: CRA.

In the classroom Authentic use might be a conversation stage that is designed to include the language that learners should practise; restricted use could be a gap-fill exercise on the language, and clarification and focus an explanation of rules on the board.

Accuracy Accuracy refers to how correct learners' use of the language system is, including their use of grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. Accuracy is often compared to fluency when we talk about a learner's level of speaking or writing.

Example A learner might be fluent (make their meaning clear) but not accurate (make a lot of mistakes). In the classroom Language manipulation activities can help develop accuracy. These include controlled practice, drills, the study and application of grammar rules, and activities that help students to 'notice' their own mistakes.

Achievement test An achievement test evaluates a learner's understanding of a specific course or study programme. It can be compared with proficiency tests, which measure a learner's level of language, diagnostic tests, which identify areas learners need to work on, and a prognostic test, which tries to predict a learner's ability to complete a course or take an exam.


Example The learners have finished units 1 - 4 of a coursebook and the teacher now gives them an achievement test based on what they have seen in these units. The test is taken from the teacher's book.

In the classroom Achievement tests can have many additional functions aside from evaluation. Learners can for example develop an action plan for further study based on the results of an achievement test.

Acquisition Acquisition is the way we learn our first language, i.e. through being involved in real communication, and without formal teaching. As we learn, we hypothesise rules, and use these to communicate until we notice that the rule is different, or has exceptions. This leads to classic early mistakes such as 'I seed' and 'I buyed'. Language learning programmes that immerse learners in the target language aim to create the conditions for acquisition to happen in second language learning. In a communicative classroom, opportunities for natural acquisition are often provided alongside opportunities for formal learning, to make the most of both ways of learning.

Example A learner can acquire language by living in a country where the language they want to speak is used. They do this without formal training and by being in contact with it and needing to use it.

In the classroom Learners can be encouraged to acquire language by exposure to authentic spoken or written language and authentic communicative tasks, such as watching TV in order to summarise what they understand, rather than to analyse the language they hear in depth.

Affective factors Affective factors are emotional factors which influence learning. They can have a negative or positive effect. Negative affective factors are called affective filters and are an important idea in theories about second language acquisition.

Example A learner's attitude to English, to the teacher, to other learners in the group and to herself are all affective factors and have impact on how well she learns.

In the classroom Affective factors may be as important for successful language learning, if not more so, than ability to learn. Teachers can reduce negative factors and develop positive ones by doing activities to build a positive group dynamic, by including students in deciding


aspects of the course and choosing activities that are motivating for the age and interests of the learners.

Aims Aims are what teachers (and learners) want to achieve in a lesson or a course. Activity in a class is planned in order to achieve these aims.

Example A lesson aim could be for the learners to demonstrate that they understand the form or use of the passive better, or to have practised intensive reading. A course aim could be to improve the report writing skills of a group of business students.

In the classroom Aims on lesson plans often describe what the teacher wants learners to be able to do by the end of a lesson, or what they will have done during it. Teachers can tell learners their lesson aims, or involve learners in setting them. This can help create a sense of purpose and progress.

Applied linguistics Applied linguistics is a field of study that looks at how linguistics can help understand real-life problems in areas such as psychology, sociology and education. It can be compared with theoretical linguistics, which looks at areas such as morphology, phonology and lexis. Areas of applied linguistics of interest to teachers of languages include language acquisition, corpus studies and sociolinguistics.

For example Linguistic anthropology is a field of applied linguistics that links analysis of linguistics and socio-cultural issues.

In the classroom Studies in applied linguistics which inform the ELT classroom include bilingualism, conversation and discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, language assessment and language teaching itself.

Approach An approach is a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be learnt. An approach gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom activities or techniques to help learners learn.

Example The communicative approach is the best-known current approach to language teaching.


Task-based teaching is a methodology associated with it. Other approaches include the cognitive-code approach, and the aural-oral approach (audiolingual method).

In the classroom Learners in the modern language classroom often learn through techniques drawn from a variety of methods/approaches in what has been labelled an ‘eclectic approach'. Teachers select techniques from various approaches according to the different needs of their learners. Most coursebooks mix methods and techniques in this way.

Appropriacy Appropriacy refers to whether a word is suitable for the context it is being used in. It is an important aspect of language but an extremely complex one, as decisions about how to say things depend on understanding exactly what is right for the context and the culture.

Example It may be appropriate to say ‘hold on a minute, will you?' in one context and ‘Could you wait a moment, please?' in another.

In the classroom Focusing on inappropriate forms of language and delivery first is a good way to raise awareness of this area. For example, learners can identify inappropriate in language in video material such as comedy programmes, match language to contexts where it can be used, and discuss what is appropriate in their own cultures. In general, it is exposure to a range of authentic material that will help students develop their understanding of appropriacy.

Asynchronous learning Asynchronous learning occurs when learner and teacher are not in the same place at the same time. It can be compared with synchronous learning, where the learner and the teacher are in the same place at the same time. Both terms are used to define types of online learning.

Example In online learning, e-mail and discussion threads on forums are asynchronous learning tools.

In the classroom Asynchronous learning tools are potentially less powerful than synchronous tools such as videoconferencing and live chat, but they are often used by teachers to support classroom learning rather than as a substitute for it. For example, learners can send written homework to their teacher for correction, then revise and re-write it.


Audio-lingualism Audio-lingualism is a method of foreign language teaching where the emphasis is on learning grammatical and phonological structure, especially for speaking and listening. It is based on behaviourism and so relies on formation as a basis for learning, through a great deal of mechanical repetition.

Example The teacher spends most of the time in the class drilling the learners on grammatical and phonological structures. Error correction is also important.

In the classroom Audio-lingualism evolved in the context of large-scale language teaching programmes in the 1950s and 60s. It is unusual in modern language learning and has largely fallen out of use as a methodology, as cognitive views of language learning and communicative accounts of language have led to other methodologies.

Authentic Authentic materials are written or spoken texts used with learners without changing the level of language. Example A story from a news webpage, streamed radio, a story from a CDROM, a podcast, or a live native speaker talking to learners without adjusting the level of their language.

In the classroom Authentic materials can be exploited at different levels by changing the level of the task to suit learner levels. Thus, the same piece of authentic material can be used with an elementary level class or an advanced one.

Authentic task An authentic task is a task that native speakers of a language would do in everyday life. When learners do an authentic task they are doing something that puts real communicative demands on them.

Example The learners need to plan a trip around their country for a group of students on an exchange trip.

In the classroom Authentic tasks are easy to identify as they are what we do with our own language all the time. Examples include phoning for information, preparing a party, planning a holiday, answering e-mail, preparing reports, holding a meeting and filling in application forms.


Awareness-raising Awareness-raising activities aim to make learners more aware of language and so improve their understanding, but do not involve learners in using the language themselves. As such, awareness-raising activities are often the first stage of learning new language.

Example A pre-intermediate level group have just finished a reading comprehension using an authentic text and the teacher goes back and highlights the phrasal verbs in the text, explaining what they are and their meaning, but not asking the learners to use them in any way.

In the classroom Awareness-raising is a useful technique in mixed-ability classes, as learners will be able to respond to the new information in different ways and process it according to their level of competence.

Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple intelligence theory. People with significant bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence may enjoy doing things rather than reading or hearing about them, and are good at making things and at physical activities in general.

Example Total Physical Response is an example of an approach that seeks to develop and support this kind of intelligence.

In the classroom A learner with bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence may enjoy drama and physical games such as running dictations and mime rather than more static activities. In general they may welcome opportunities to get up and move around the class.

CLIL Content and Language Integrated Learning, or CLIL, is where a subject is taught in the target language rather than the first language of the learners. In CLIL classes, tasks are designed to allow students to focus on and learn to use the new language as they learn the new subject content.

Example In a bilingual English/Spanish school, after a certain age half of the subjects, including maths and sciences, are taught in English.


In the classroom CLIL materials are often characterised by lots of visual support for meaning, to allow low language level students to access high level content. The materials allow the students to focus on the language they need to learn about that particular subject in English. The choice of language focussed on is determined by the demands of the subject.

Chunks Chunks are groups of words that can be found together in language. They can be words that always go together, such as fixed collocations, or that commonly do, such as certain grammatical structures that follow rules. A listener or reader uses their knowledge of chunks to help them predict meaning and therefore be able to process language in real time. Chunks include lexical phrases, set phrases, and fixed phrases. Example 'Utter disaster', 'by the way', 'at the end of the day', 'encourage + someone + infinitive', 'dependent + on' are all examples of chunks.

In the classroom Areas of work such as idioms, collocations and verb patterns all focus on types of chunks. Learners can be encouraged to identify and record lexical and grammatical chunks as they find them.

Classroom management Classroom management refers to the decisions a teacher makes regarding the physical environment and resources available to them, including furniture, resources, learners and themselves. These decisions are made to support the aims of the class.

Example The decision to put individual tables together into one big circle for an open class discussion supports the aim of involving all learners in the activity.

In the classroom: Different classroom activities require very different management and an essential part of planning is to make decisions about areas such as learner groupings, teacher involvement, positioning of furniture where possible, instruction giving and timing.

Cognate Cognates are words in English and the learner's language that are similar and have similar meaning. They can be compared to false cognates, which look similar but have different meanings.


Example The Spanish word pausa has a similar meaning to the English word pause.

In the classroom In a mono-lingual class translation is one way to raise awareness of real and false cognates. Learners can translate a text from their L1 into English in groups or individually, then compare their versions and identify possible cognates.

Cognitive theory A cognitive theory of learning sees second language acquisition as a conscious and reasoned thinking process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies. Learning strategies are special ways of processing information that enhance comprehension, learning or retention of information. This explanation of language learning contrasts strongly with the behaviourist account of language learning, which sees language learning as an unconscious, automatic process.

Example This view leads to a classroom focus on using learning strategies that have been observed in successful language learners and to a view of the learner as an 'information-processor', with limitations as to how much new information can be retained, and who needs strategies to be able to transfer information into memory.

In the classroom Relevant activities include review and revision, class vocabulary bags, using a scaffolding approach with young learners, analysis and discussion of language and topics, inductive approaches and learner training.

Cognitive-code approach The cognitive-code approach of the 1970s emphasised that language learning involved active mental processes, that it was not just a process of habit formation (the assumption underlying the audiolingual method that came before it). Lessons focussed on learning grammatical structures but the cognitive code approach emphasised the importance of meaningful practice, and the structures were presented inductively, i.e. the rules came after exposure to examples. There was, however, little use of examples from authentic material.

Example The aim of the class is for learners to understand the ‘rule of the day', which is that the past form of regular verbs is made using -ed. The teacher elicits a dialogue that includes clear examples of the structure. The learners practise it, and the teacher uses it to elicit the rules.

In the classroom The approach included the clear and structured use of concept questions to help learners identify the limits of use of structure and lexis, and teachers still find this useful. The PPP methodology, (Presentation, Practice and Production), through which learners


gain a clear understanding of a grammatical rule before they practise it in meaningful contexts, may still suit some learning contexts and teachers.

Collaborative activity Collaborative activity involves learners working together in order to complete a task. Collaboration increases the opportunities a student has to use the target language, and thereby develop their skills in it.

Example The task-based learning approach requires learners to work on collaborative activities.

In the classroom Learners can benefit from collaboration in a variety of activities, including writing tasks, projects and inductive approaches.

Communicative approach The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.

Example Practising question forms by asking learners to find out personal information about their colleagues is an example of the communicative approach, as it involves meaningful communication.

In the classroom Classroom activities guided by the communicative approach are characterised by trying to produce meaningful and real communication, at all levels. As a result there may be more emphasis on skills than systems, lessons are more learner-centred, and there may be use of authentic materials.

Communicative competence Communicative competence refers to a learner's ability to use language to communicate successfully. Canale and Swain (1980) defined it as composing competence in four areas:

• Words and rules • Appropriacy • Cohesion and coherence • Use of communication strategies


Example The aim of communicative language teaching and the communicative approach is communicative competence.

In the classroom Testing communicative competence is challenging. Formats teachers can use to evaluate their learners' competence include information gap and role-play activities for speaking, letters for writing, and note-taking and summarising, which combines listening and writing competencies.

Compensation strategies Compensation strategies are communication strategies used by learners to compensate for limitations in their language. Different kinds of learners have preferences for different kinds of learning strategies, for example female learners tend to prefer social and affective strategies and monolingual learners may favour compensation strategies.

Example Guessing the meaning when you don't understand and using gestures are examples of compensation strategies.

In the classroom Miming games and definition activities such as crosswords are two ways to help learners practise compensation strategies.

Comprehensible input Comprehensible input is language input that can be understood by listeners despite them not understanding all the words and structures in it. It is described as one level above that of the learners if it can only just be understood. According to Krashen's theory of language acquisition, giving learners this kind of input helps them acquire language naturally, rather than learn it consciously.

Example The teacher selects a reading text for upper-intermediate level learners that is from a lower advanced level course book. Based on what the teacher knows about the learners, the teacher believes that this will give them 'comprehensible input' to help them acquire more language.

In the classroom Trying to understand language slightly above their level encourages learners to use natural learning strategies such as guessing words from context and inferring meaning. As the example suggests, a teacher needs to know the level of the learners very well in order to select comprehensible input, and in a large class of mixed ability, different learners will need different texts.


Concept checking Concept checking is finding out if a learner has understood a new item. There are a variety of ways to do this, including asking concept questions. It is especially important in inductive language teaching, where learners arrive at an understanding of rules through looking at examples of use, and the teachers may need to check that the learners have a clear understanding of the concepts presented.

Example Asking learners to point to someone wearing glasses to check whether they understand the item 'glasses' checks their understanding of the concept.

In the classroom Concept checking is an important tool as it avoids asking the question, 'Do you understand?', which can be answered 'yes' without indicating true understanding. Concept questions, using realia, asking learners to repeat instructions, learners explaining meaning, and open-class questions are all ways of concept checking.

Concept qs Concept questions are used to find out if a learner has understood a new item. The question is designed to test the key concepts of the item and normally requires a yes/no or short answer.

Example To test understanding of the use of 'used to' in the example 'I used to swim in the summer', a teacher might ask 'Do I still swim now?' and 'Did I only swim once?' to test understanding of 'used to' as a finished and repeated action in the past.

In the classroom When planning a presentation lesson on a new language point, many teachers prepare a series of concept questions that will fully test understanding of the new language.

Contextualisation Contextualisation is putting language items into a meaningful and real context rather than being treated as isolated items of language for language manipulation practice only. Contextualising language tries to give real communicative value to the language that learners meet. The context can help learners remember the language and recall it at a later date. Learners can use natural learning strategies to help them understand contextualised language, such as guessing meaning from context.

Example Teaching the language used to give advice by looking at problem pages from teenage magazines gives the target language context.


In the classroom Contextualisation can be as simple as providing an example sentence that uses a new word, or as complex as preparing a telephone role-play to practise functional language.

Controlled language Controlled language is language that the teacher gives the class that is in some way changed to suit the level or the aims of the lesson. This contrasts with authentic language, which is not adjusted in any way.

Example A teacher may prepare a written biography of a famous person that only uses present simple tense, for an elementary class.

In the classroom There is debate over the use of controlled and authentic language. Many teachers favour an 'in at the deep end' approach, where the target language is within a text that is not changed.

Controlled practice Controlled practice is a stage in a lesson where learners practise new language in a limited form. It can be compared to free practice, which involves learners producing language using the target content freely.

Example The teacher has shown the learners the form and use of the past passive form. They now practise using the structure by completing sentences using cues, e.g. My car (stolen) _________ last week.

In the classroom Controlled practice can still be meaningful despite its limitations. For example, we could ask the learners to complete the following based on their experiences: (What?) was stolen (when?). This is even more controlled in terms of the target language but allows the learners to personalise the activity.

Deductive approach A deductive approach to teaching language starts by giving learners rules, then examples, then practice. It is a teacher-centred approach to presenting new content. This is compared with an inductive approach, which starts with examples and asks learners to find rules, and hence is more learner-centred.

Example The form and use of the third conditional is explained to learners, then they have a gap-fill exercise to complete, then prepare their own examples.


In the classroom The deductive approach may be suitable with lower level learners who need a clear base from which to begin with a new language item, or with learners who are accustomed to a more traditional approach and so who lack the training to find rules themselves.

Delayed correction Delayed correction techniques are corrections a teacher uses some time after a learner has made an error. This is usually done to avoid interrupting fluency practice, although there are other reasons also. Delayed correction contrasts with correction techniques such as reformulation and echoing, which occur immediately, 'on the spot'.

Example The teacher monitors closely as learners discuss a topic in groups, making a note of the most interesting/important errors. When the discussion finishes, these are discussed open class.

In the classroom The decision whether to correct immediately or not depends on various factors. These include aims, class dynamics, learner attitude and expectations, motivation, level, and the teacher's evaluation of whether a mistake or an error has been made.

Diagnostic A diagnostic is an activity that a teacher carries out with learners in order to identify problem areas they may have. This data is then used to plan further activities.

Example Before teaching phrasal verbs to a class, the teacher asks the learners to identify all the verbs and their meanings in a prepared text. The teacher observes that most learners know what phrasal verbs look like and how they work, but have difficulty using context to guess meaning. The next class is planned based on this information.

In the class: Test Teach Test (TTT) is a classroom approach that uses a form of diagnosis, in this case tests, in order to get data on learners and then plan accordingly.

Direct method The direct method of teaching was developed as a response to the Grammar-Translation method. It sought to immerse the learner in the same way as when a first language is learnt. All teaching is done in the target language, grammar is taught inductively, there is a focus on speaking and listening, and only useful ‘everyday' language is taught. The weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption that a second language can be learnt in exactly the same way as a first, when in fact the conditions under which a second language is learnt are very different.


Example The teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.

In the classroom Aspects of the Direct Method are still evident in many ELT classrooms, such as the emphasis on listening and speaking, the use of the target language for all class instructions, and the use of visuals and realia to illustrate meaning.

Discourse Discourse is one of the four systems of language, the others being vocabulary, grammar and phonology. Discourse has various definitions but one way of thinking about it is as any piece of extended language, written or spoken, that has unity and meaning and purpose. One possible way of understanding 'extended' is as language that is more than one sentence.

Example Something as short as two phrases in a conversation or as long as an entire extended essay are both examples of discourse and both show various features of discourse.

In the classroom Areas of written and spoken discourse looked at in language classrooms include various features of cohesion and coherence, discourse markers, paralinguistic features (body language), conventions and ways of taking turns.

Drill A drill is a classroom technique used to practise new language. It involves the teacher modelling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating it. There are different kinds of drilling, such as choral drill, which involves the whole class, and substitution drill, where the teacher changes the cue words after each repetition.

Example The following sequence is an example of a substitution drill Teacher: I like cheese Learners: I like it Teacher: I like apples Learners: I like them Teacher: I like Sue etc

In the classroom Drilling is a classroom technique which some teachers reject due to a possible lack of communicative quality and its highly controlled, teacher-centred nature. However, there are advantages to it also, such as offering learners an opportunity to practise pronunciation in a non-threatening dynamic.


E-learning E-learning is the delivery of a learning programme by electronic means; it includes web-based learning, virtual classrooms, digital collaboration and delivery of content through internet. It can be combined with face-to-face learning with a teacher, in blended learning.

Example A learner may choose to sign up for an online language skills programme, which will offer reading, writing, listening and live speaking activities over the web. There may be a tutor who will monitor his progress, organise speaking sessions, and mark written work.

In the classroom The face-to-face class time in a blended learning programme will be used to clear up organisational problems, for an emphasis on speaking skills, and as an opportunity to help build a good class dynamic between group members.

EAP English for Academic Purposes, or EAP, refers to learning English in order to use it to study another subject.

Example Many universities have pre-sessional EAP courses. Courses concentrate on specific skills the learners will need to benefit from their learning in another language.

In the classroom EAP classes can include areas such as academic reading skills, listening and taking notes, writing summaries, justifying opinions, interpreting graphical information and writing essays. Learners may need specific preparation for an external test they will take to prove their ability to study in English, such as IELTS.

EFL English as a Foreign Language, or EFL, refers to learning and using English as an additional language in a non-English speaking country. It can be compared with ESL and ESOL, which refer mainly to learning English as a new resident in an English-speaking country.

Example EFL includes short summer courses in an English-speaking country, such as the UK, Canada or the US.

In the classroom EFL materials tend to be written for learners either studying English in their own country or on a short course in an English-speaking country. ESL materials tend to focus on ‘survival English' for people now living in an English-speaking country.


ELT English Language Teaching, or ELT, refers to the activity and industry of teaching English to non-native speakers.

Example Many large editorial companies have ELT sections which publish books for English teachers and learners to use.

ESOL English for Speakers of Other Languages, or ESOL, refers to learning English as a new resident in a English-speaking country. ESOL is similar to ESL. It can be compared with EFL, which refers to learning and using English as an additional language in a non-English speaking country.

Example There are many ESOL projects in countries such as the UK or US, where there are immigrants from non-English speaking countries.

In the classroom ESOL classes can include areas such as survival English, functional language, specific speaking and listening skills, and sociocultural information. They often have an element of citizenship training also.

ESP English for Specific Purposes, or ESP, refers to learning English because you have a specific need. It can include the area of EPP, English for Professional Purposes.

Example Survival English for immigrants, English for Hotel Management, and English for Air Traffic Controllers are all ESP.

In the classroom Asking learners what they need to learn is an important element of ESP classes, as often their language needs and aims are very specific. This data can then be combined with the teacher's analysis of core language and learning needs in order to prepare a syllabus.

Eclectic approach In the move away from teachers following one specific methodology, the eclectic approach is the label given to a teacher's use of techniques and activities from a range of language teaching approaches and methodologies. The teacher decides what methodology or approach to use depending on the aims of the lesson and the learners


in the group. Almost all modern course books have a mixture of approaches and methodologies.

Example The class starts with an inductive activity with learners identifying the different uses of synonyms of movement using a reading text. They then practise these using TPR. In another class the input is recycled through a task-based lesson, with learners producing the instructions for an exercise manual.

In the classroom A typical lesson might combine elements from various sources such as TPR and TBL (the examples); the communicative approach, e.g. in communication gap activities; the lexical approach, e.g. focusing on lexical chunks in reading; and the structural-situational approach, e.g. establishing a clear context for the presentation of new structures.

Elicitation Elicitation is a technique by which the teacher gets the learners to give information rather than giving it to them.

Example A teacher elicits the rules for the structure of the first conditional by asking learners to look at some examples, then writing 'We make the first conditional in English with…?' on the board.

In the classroom Elicitation is an important technique for various reasons. It helps develop a learner-centred dynamic, it makes learning memorable as learners can link new and old information, and it can help produce a dynamic and stimulating environment..

Errors Errors are mistakes caused by a learner not knowing something. They can be compared with slips, which are caused by a learner being tired, nervous, excited or another temporary factor.

Example The learner says ‘I buyed a new book' because she does not know that buy has an irregular past form.

In the classroom Errors are a key part of the learning process and give teachers essential - and reliable - information about where their learners are, and what needs to be done next. It is important to emphasise the positive role errors have and to involve learners in correction, for example by using correction codes, doing group correction of writing or by dealing with typical spoken errors as a class after a speaking activity.


Extended speaking Extended speaking is a type of speaking activity that involves learners speaking for longer periods of time and in a freer form than controlled speaking practice. Extended speaking is an opportunity to practise all the skills needed for communication.

Example The learners have been reading about xenophobia in different countries and they now share their opinions on causes in an open class discussion.

In the classroom Extended speaking activities can include speaking games such as ‘Just a minute', presentations and discussions led by learners, interviews, and informal conversation. Jigsaw reading or listening tasks may also give an opportunity for extended speaking.

Extensive reading Extensive reading involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general reading skills. It can be compared with intensive reading, which means reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks.

Example A teacher reads a short story with learners, but does not set them any tasks except to read and listen.

In the classroom Extensive reading is often overlooked, especially as a classroom activity. Teachers often feel it is not an effective use of class time or are just uncomfortable with the extended silence. Learners can be encouraged to read extensively by setting up a class library, encouraging review writing, and incorporating reading of books into the syllabus, and dedicating some class time to quiet reading.

Extrinsic Extrinsic motivation is a motivation to learn caused by external pressures such as work, because a parent has sent a learner to class, or the need to gain a qualification in the language. It contrasts with intrinsic motivation, which is an internal force such as interest in learning a language to communicate with other people or for further personal development in general.

Example Exams preparation classes often have a high degree of extrinsic motivation as learners are attending class to pass an exam, often for work purposes.


In the classroom Many teachers believe that intrinsic motivation is rare in learners. Learners often have a mixture of the two types of motivation, or change from one to another.

False friends False friends are words that look or sound the same as words in the learner's first language but in fact are not so, causing the learner to make a mistake. They can be compared with cognates, which are words that are the same in different languages.

Example The Spanish word 'sensible' means sensitive in English and the German word 'gift' means poison.

In the classroom Learners usually enjoy doing simple translations of sentences containing false cognates, and this can result in amusing mis-translations, which help learners focus on the correct version. Dealing with false cognates can help remove a major source of common mistakes for a group of learners. It is useful for a teacher to be aware of the common false cognates of various L1s and to anticipate problems when looking at materials for lessons.

Fluency Fluency refers to how well a learner communicates meaning rather than how many mistakes they make in grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. Fluency is often compared with accuracy, which is concerned with the type, amount and seriousness of mistakes made.

Example: A learner might be fluent (make their meaning clear) but not accurate (make a lot of mistakes).

In the classroom: Activities that help to develop fluency focus on communication, for example discussions, speaking games, presentations, task work such as projects and e-mailing.

Fossilization Fossilization refers to the process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and cannot easily be corrected.

Example Many advanced level learners who have Spanish as an L1 do not distinguish between ‘he' and ‘she'. This could be a fossilized error.


In the classroom Errors in general take time to correct but a fossilized error may never be corrected unless the learner sees a reason to do so, e.g. if it is seriously hindering communication. Teachers can help learners notice their fossilized errors by for example recording them speaking, or by asking them to keep a record of written errors as part of a language portfolio.

Free practice Free practice is a stage in a lesson where learners produce language using the target content freely. It can be compared with controlled practice, which involves learners producing the language previously focussed on in a restricted context.

Example The teacher has shown the learners the form and use of the present passive form. They have practised using the structure by completing sentences using cues, and now they practise the form more freely by describing a process they have chosen.

In the classroom Free practice appears in the production stage of a PPP lesson (Presentation, Practice, Production), and can also be the first stage in models such as TTT (test-teach-test) and ARC (Authentic Use-Restricted Use-Clarification and Focus).

Functions Functions refer to what items of language actually do in a real context, as opposed to what they might mean literally. These include suggesting, criticising, refusing, agreeing and disagreeing, enquiring, talking about the past, and giving advice.

Example The phrase 'What time do you call this?' has a clear literal meaning but its function is to ask 'Why are you late? I'm very angry!'

In the classroom It is important for learners to understand that one form may have many different functions, and to see how functions work in context, as the example above shows. Many forms have sensitive functions and so their appropriacy, formality and degree need to be considered.

Gap-fill A gap-fill is a practice exercise in which learners have to replace words missing from a text. These words are chosen and removed in order to practise a specific language point. Gap-fill exercises contrast with cloze texts, where words are removed at regular intervals, e.g. every five words.


Example The first sentence above prepared to practise article use could read '______ gap-fill is ______ practice exercise where ______learners have to replace ______ words which have been removed from ______ text.'

In the classroom Gap-fills are often used to practise specific language points, for example items of grammar and vocabulary, and features of written texts such as conjunctions. They are common in testing.

Global comprehension Global comprehension means understanding the general meaning of what you are listening to or reading. It can be compared to selective comprehension, which means understanding specific information in the text, and detailed comprehension, which means understanding everything. Global, selective and detailed comprehensions have parallels with the three reading skills of skimming, scanning and intensive reading.

Example The learners have listened to a story and now try to recreate it by putting jumbled sentences into the correct order.

In the classroom Various activity types can test global comprehension. Learners can be asked to sort out jumbled versions of a text, as in the example, produce or complete summaries, answer comprehension questions that test general understanding, such as ‘true or false statements, and suggest titles.

Goal Goals are the targets that learners and teachers have in language learning. These may be short- and long-term. Goals can be compared to aims, which usually refer to the targets of one lesson or unit of work.

Example One learner includes among her goals: to be able to deliver a presentation in English to overseas colleagues, to understand the music of her favourite band, and to be able to use all the English language software on her laptop.

In the classroom Goal-setting is an important activity in the development of a learner's metacognitive skills and awareness. Learners can be encouraged to set goals about how, what and when they are going to learn. Teachers need to find out about learners' goals, since learners may come to the course with goals that are different from those expressed in the course.


Graded language Graded language is classroom language that is adapted to the level of the learners in some way. Many course books use graded language. It can be compared with authentic language, which is not changed in any way.

Example An intermediate level class are using graded readers, reading works of literature but written in simplified English.

In the classroom Most learners using course books are exposed to graded language, so it is useful to try to include authentic language and highlight the differences between them. For example, the teacher can invite a native speaker into the class for a listening exercise which mirrors one the learners have done from a course book

Group dynamics Group dynamics refer to the relationships between learners in a group and the impact that this has on the way they work.

Example The group dynamics of a class can change enormously when a new learner or teacher joins the class.

In the classroom In the language classroom, the teacher needs to recognise which of the factors that contribute to group dynamics are within their control, as not all are. Teachers can contribute to positive group dynamics through choosing relevant aims, topics and appropriate activity types, and establishing a good rapport.

Guided writing Guided writing involves a teacher working with a group of learners on a writing task. The aims of the task are based on what they have previously been learning about the writing process. Guided writing aims to support learners in this psychologically and cognitively difficult activity.

Example The learners have been looking at how conjunctions are used to contrast and compare ideas. They are now writing a short discursive essay on the subject of animal experimentation. The teacher is working with the groups to guide them in the correct use of the target language.

In the classroom Guided writing can be fully exploited by providing learners with the language they need to complete the task together with the teacher. For example, this may include making


suggestions (‘Why don't we start by saying...?'), agreeing and disagreeing (‘That's a good idea - let's put that'), and asking for help (‘Is it right to say...?').

Holistic approach A holistic approach to language sees it as a whole, which is not divisible in a meaningful way for teaching. This contrasts with an atomistic approach to language, which attempts to analyse language into parts, such as grammatical structures or functional exponents, which can later become the content of a syllabus. A holistic approach would focus on everything the learner needs to know to communicate effectively.

Example Young learners have a set of daily tasks in the classroom including cleaning the board and collecting materials. This is all done in the target language.

In the classroom Content-based instruction, language across the curriculum, the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach and topic-based syllabi take a holistic approach by using a framework of meaningful content.

Ice-breakers Ice-breakers are speaking activities used with a new class in order to give the learners an opportunity to meet each other. In order to complete an ice-breaker task learners must talk to each other.

Example The teacher gives each learner a sheet with a series of 'Find someone who…' statements, e.g. 'Find someone who has a cat'. Learners circulate around the class and complete the statements with names.

In the classroom Relationships between learners are fundamental to successful learning in many approaches and methodologies, and ice-breakers are designed to begin the process of building a positive dynamic in the class.

Idioms Idioms are expressions whose meanings are different from the words that make them. Understanding an idiom requires some other knowledge than knowing the words used. Idioms normally cannot be modified or the words within them changed.

Example 'I lost my head completely' as an idiom means 'I got very angry', whilst literally it means something very different.


In the classroom Idioms are an area of language that learners and teachers find very enjoyable. Authentic material offers a good source of contextualised idioms, and teachers can encourage learners to guess the meaning from context. An interesting exercise in a multi-lingual class is to compare idioms from different cultures and languages.

Immersion programme In immersion programmes learners are fully immersed in the target language for a certain period of time, both in and outside the class. It is sometimes compared to submersion, where individual learners are placed in classes where everybody else speaks the same language. There are varying degrees of immersion, including full, partial and bilingual immersion, which involves two groups of students learning each other's languages.

Example Immersion programmes have been a popular way to teach French in Canada for many years.

In the classroom Teachers can simulate an immersion environment by establishing an ‘English-only' area in their institutions and by insisting on all communication with them being in English. This gives learners the opportunity to develop a range of relevant skills in a more spontaneous, authentic - and demanding - context than the class.

Inductive approach An inductive approach to teaching language starts with examples and asks learners to find rules. It can be compared with a deductive approach that starts by giving learners rules, then examples, then practice.

Example Learners listen to a conversation that includes examples of the use of the third conditional. The teacher checks that the students understand the meaning of its use through checking learners' comprehension of the listening text, and only after this focuses on the form, using the examples from the text to elicit rules about the form, its use and its pronunciation.

In the classroom Inductive approaches to presenting new language are commonly found in course books, and form part of a general strategy to engage learners in what they learn. Some learners may need introduction to inductive approaches since they may be more familiar, and feel more comfortable, with a deductive approach.


Input Input refers to the exposure learners have to authentic language in use. This can be from various sources, including the teacher, other learners, and the environment around the learners. Input can be compared to intake, which is input then taken in and internalized by the learner so it can be applied.

Example Acquisition theories emphasise the importance of comprehensible input, which is language just beyond the competence of the learner, and provides the ideal conditions for acquisition to happen.

In the classroom The most important and accessible input for learners is that of the teacher. When teachers are talking in classes they are providing opportunities for learners to develop their comprehension. Teachers can optimise this opportunity by choosing the right levels of complexity of vocabulary and structures, speed of delivery, degree of clarity, and range of register and style.

Intensive reading Intensive reading involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks. It can be compared with extensive reading, which involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general reading skills.

Example The learners read a short text and put events from it into chronological order.

In the classroom Intensive reading activities include skimming a text for specific information to answer true or false statements or filling gaps in a summary, scanning a text to match headings to paragraphs, and scanning jumbled paragraphs and then reading them carefully to put them into the correct order.

Interlanguage Interlanguage is the learner's current version of the language they are learning. Interlanguage changes all the time but can become fossilised language when the learners do not have the opportunity to improve.

Example A learner who has lived in an English-speaking environment for many years but not attended classes or studied for some time has problems with reported speech and forming tag questions. His interlanguage has become fossilised.

In the classroom Interlanguage is often heavily influenced by L1 and interference from this may make it


seem perfectly logical to the learner, although it is incorrect. It is important for teachers to understand this and also to see interlanguage as a series of learning steps.

Kinesics Kinesics is the study of non-verbal communication achieved by movement of the body.

Example This includes gestures such as waving or tapping your fingers, eye movements such as winking and rolling, and body movements such as shrugging your shoulders.

In the classroom Learners in a multi-lingual group can be encouraged to think about this by asking them to compare the different meanings of gestures and facial expressions in their cultures. This could also be done in an extended form as a project. Learners in a monolingual group could compare British and American behaviour with their own.

L1 L1 is a speaker's first language. L2 is the second, L3 the third etc.

Example A learner whose L1 is Spanish may find Portuguese and Italian easy languages to learn because of a fairly close connection between the languages.

In the classroom L1 interference - where a speaker uses language forms and structures from their first language in language they are learning - is an area many teachers are concerned with. In a mono-lingual class where the teacher also speaks the L1, it is easier to identify interference and address it, often discussing it explicitly with learners.

Language usage Language usage refers to the rules for making language, i.e. the structures used. It can be compared to use, which considers the communicative meaning of language.

Example The usage of the third conditional is: If + past perfect + would + present perfect

In the classroom Using an inductive approach is an effective way to get learners to explore usage. They


can for example identify the target language in a text and then look at its usage and use.

Language use Language use refers to the communicative meaning of language. It can be compared to usage, which refers to the rules for making language and the structures we use to make it.

Example One use of the third conditional is to express regret, e.g. ‘If I hadn't spent so much time mucking about at school, I would have passed a few more exams'.

In the classroom A key stage in awareness of how English works is when learners understand that usage and use are not necessarily connected. For example, the past form of verbs (usage) can express a wish about the present (use), such as: - I wish I didn't have this boss. He's awful!

Learning strategies Learning strategies are tools and techniques that learners develop as they learn. Learning strategies are an important part of developing autonomy.

Example A learner keeps a small notebook in their pocket and records interesting new language when they hear it, then researches it later using online reference material they have been shown.

In the classroom There are a wide range of strategies available to learners. A teacher's responsibility is to expose learners to as many as possible, give them the opportunity to experiment, and help them identify what works.

Learning styles Learning styles are the different ways people prefer to learn. There are a wide variety of styles and also terminology used to describe them.

Example A learner likes to record new vocabulary in lists and sees this list in their mind when recalling words. This is typical of what some teachers call a visual learner.

In the classroom In a group of learners there will be a variety of learning styles. Addressing their needs means using a range of techniques and resources, including visual realia, colours, movement, music, games and social interaction.


Lexical approach The lexical approach is a way of analysing and teaching language based on the idea that it is made up of lexical units rather than grammatical structures. The units are words, chunks formed by collocations, and fixed phrases.

Example The phrase 'Rescue attempts are being hampered by bad weather' is a chunk of language, and almost a fixed phrase. It is formed by the collocations 'Rescue' + 'attempt', 'rescue attempt' + 'hampered', 'hampered' + 'by', 'hampered by' + 'bad weather'.

In the classroom A simple activity to incorporate the lexical approach is to encourage learners to identify and record lexical chunks and fixed phrases in texts they read.

Lexicon A lexicon is often used to describe the knowledge that a speaker has about the words of a language. This includes meanings, use, form, and relationships with other words. A lexicon can thus be thought of as a mental dictionary.

Example A successful learner develops an L2 lexicon independently of their L1 lexicon, which means there is less confusion, translation and L1 interference.

In the classroom Many teachers and learners regard expanding the target language lexicon - in other words, learning more vocabulary - as a priority. Advanced level learners, for example, will express the need for 'more words' frequently.

Mechanical activities Mechanical activities are activities learners do which are not meaningful but which may be necessary in order to have the tools to use language. The move away from mechanical to communicative activity has been emphasized and prioritized for many years.

Example Learners thinking about the position of the tongue in the pronunciation of certain sounds, or learning how to write in Roman script are doing mechanical but necessary activities.

In the classroom Drills, substitution exercises, and using prompts to produce structures are common mechanical activities.


Methodology Methodology is a system of practices and procedures that a teacher uses to teach. It will be based on beliefs about the nature of language, and how it is learnt (known as 'Approach').

Example Grammar Translation, the Audiolingual Method and the Direct Method are clear methodologies, with associated practices and procedures, and are each based on different interpretations of the nature of language and language learning.

In the classroom Many teachers base their lessons on a mixture of methods and approaches to meet the different needs of learners and the different aims of lessons or courses. Factors in deciding how to teach include the age and experience of learners, lesson and course objectives, expectations and resources.

Mistakes Mistakes are things that are wrong in a learner's English. They can be divided into two types, errors and slips. Slips may not require feedback but errors will, at some point, or at least they tell us important things about the learner's knowledge.

Example A learner saying ‘I look forward seeing you' because they don't know that we use ‘to' in the structure is making an error, but if the learner says this because they are tired and not concentrating it may just be a slip.

In the classroom There are many ways to give feedback on learner mistakes. Techniques for spoken mistakes include recording learners for delayed correction, and using gestures and echoing for immediate correction. Written mistakes can be addressed using correction symbols, group editing and models.

Monitor To monitor is to watch and listen to learners while they are doing an activity but not to lead them in the activity. Teachers monitor to find out what problems the learners are having, and to identify the type of errors learners make as they produce language.

Example The class break into pairs to practise pronunciation of contracted forms in a short dialogue. The teacher walks around the class monitoring for difficulties and corrects where necessary, then talks to the whole class about common mistakes.

In the classroom Monitoring is an important classroom technique and works best when it is directed at


lesson aims. Teachers can take time to explain to learners why they are doing it, and negotiate when they will give feedback on problems.

Multiple choice Multiple choice items are questions that require learners to choose the best response from a group of answers.

Example Complete the sentence with the best answer: My car broke ____ - down - away - off - up

In the classroom One way to make multiple choice items more productive is to prepare the question so that learners have to choose the best answer rather than the only correct one. This is a way to include issues such as collocation, connotation and formality.

Orthography In language learning orthography can have two meanings. One is the way a language is spelt and the other is the way the letters are written. English orthography (spelling) is notoriously difficult for both native speakers and learners and produces corresponding difficulties in pronunciation. Almost every sound in English has more than one correct spelling.

Example a) English has an alphabetic orthography, because words are made using an alphabet; b) The orthography of English handwriting can cause problems for Arabic speakers at beginner levels.

In the classroom One important way to help learners with spelling is to teach them how to use dictionaries and dictionary websites correctly. Low-level learners also need to learn how to ask their teacher for the correct spelling of a word, and understand the letters of the alphabet.

PPP PPP is a paradigm or model used to describe typical stages of a presentation of new language. It means presentation, production and practice. The practice stage aims to provide opportunities for learners to use the target structure. Criticism of this paradigm argues that the freer 'practice' stage may not elicit the target language as it is designed to do, as in this meaning-based stage, students communicate with any language they


can. It is not clear that forcing students to use certain structures to communicate in a practice activity will necessarily mean they will use these structures spontaneously later.

Example The teacher presents and illustrates the communicative purpose of a new structure 'If I was you…' for advice. Then learners use prompts to complete sentences with the correct forms of the verbs. They practise by giving each other advice.

In the classroom Despite current doubts about the usefulness of the practice stage in the PPP model, it is still a common framework to find in classes and in materials.

Pace Pace refers to the speed of the class. It is a subjective judgement, connected with how it feels for the learner to go through the sequence of activities in a class.

Example Some activities inevitably affect the pace of a class, for example, a whole group brainstorming activity will work best at a fast pace and an intensive reading at a slow one.

In the classroom A pace that is either too slow or too fast can have negative impact on the learner. Simply asking learners if they feel activities went on for the right amount of time, and if they were too fast or slow will give a teacher good information about the pace of a class. Alternatively, another way to assess this is to ask another teacher to watch the class and give feedback.

Passive vocabulary A learner's passive vocabulary is the words that they understand but don't use yet. This can be compared with active vocabulary, which are words that learners understand and use in speaking or writing. The active and passive vocabulary of a learner changes constantly. They start using words, try new meanings, forget words, abandon words that have no use, revise words, etc.

Example Advanced learners often have an extremely large passive vocabulary but a considerably smaller active one.

In the classroom A simple way to help learners keep building their active vocabulary is by constant revision activity, such as asking learners to use words left on the board from a previous class in a sentence. Learners can all contribute to a vocabulary bag with words and definitions or example sentences on cards; these can be used to play vocabulary revision games.


Pre-listening Pre-listening activities are things learners do before a listening activity in order to prepare for listening. These activities have various purposes, including pre-teaching or activating vocabulary, predicting content, generating interest and checking understanding of task.

Example The learners are going to listen to a radio programme about sharks. First, they work in groups to pool their knowledge of sharks and then tell the rest of the class.

In the classroom Pre-listening tasks include discussion questions, true or false statements, vocabulary work, prediction tasks and brainstorming the topic.

Pre-teaching Pre-teaching is the teaching of the language learners need before an activity.

Example The learners are going to hear a short discussion on environmental issues. Before listening, they match key environment words to definitions.

In the classroom In order to pre-teach vocabulary effectively, the teacher needs to identify what the learners already know and what might cause problems. Although course books often provide this information in pre-teaching stages, many teachers take time when planning to identify problem areas.

Prediction Prediction is an activity learners carry out before reading or listening to a text, where they predict what they are going to hear or read. This gives them a reason to listen or read, as they confirm or reject their predictions.

Example Learners are going to listen to a presentation about a journey through Africa. They predict what vocabulary they might hear, and also what kind of emotions the speaker might have felt. They listen to confirm their ideas.

In the classroom Prediction is a valuable stage in listening and reading activities. It mirrors L1 skills use, where predictions form an important base for being able to process language in real time. Both content and language can be predicted.


Prescriptive grammar A prescriptive grammar is a set of rules about language based on how people think language should be used. In a prescriptive grammar there is right and wrong language. It can be compared with a descriptive grammar, which is a set of rules based on how language is actually used.

Example A prescriptive grammar would reject ‘He goes...', meaning ‘He said', as incorrect language.

In the classroom At higher levels it is useful to raise learner awareness of differences between prescriptive grammars and use of language. This can be done in an inductive approach, with learners identifying examples of language that doesn't follow rules from authentic listening or written texts. They can then produce their own ‘mini' descriptive grammars.

Prior knowledge Prior knowledge is the knowledge the learner already has before they meet new information. A learner's understanding of a text can be improved by activating their prior knowledge before dealing with the text, and developing this habit is good learner training for them.

Example A group of young learners are going to read about dolphins. First they talk about what they already know in a brainstorm activity.

In the classroom Pre-task activities are a good way to explore and share prior knowledge. Making predictions about content, answering true or false questions, agree on ‘5 things you know about...' and class or group brainstorming are all effective tools.

Productive skills The productive skills are speaking and writing, because learners doing these need to produce language. They are also known as active skills. They can be compared with the receptive skills of listening and reading.

Example Learners have already spent time practising receptive skills with a shape poem, by listening to it and reading it. They now move on to productive skills by group writing their own, based on the example.

In the classroom Certain activities, such as working with literature and project work, seek to integrate work on both receptive and productive skills.


Proficiency Proficiency is how good a learner is at the language they are learning.

Example Proficiency tests such as IELTS and Cambridge Main Suite examinations test how good a candidate's overall ability in English is.

In the classroom The level of proficiency in English that learners want to reach varies considerably and depends on the reasons and motivations for study. Many learners say they want a very high level of proficiency but need to be guided by teachers to identify the level they really need, and also the areas they need to be proficient in.

Proficiency test A proficiency test measures a learner's level of language. It can be compared with an achievement test, which evaluates a learner's understanding of specific material, a diagnostic test, which identify areas to work on, and a prognostic test, which tries to predict a learner's ability to complete a course or take an exam. Proficiency tests are uncommon within the classroom but very frequent as the end aim (and motivation) of language learning.

Example IELTS and TOEFL are examples of proficiency tests.

In the classroom Proficiency tests often have a significant backwash effect on the classroom, as learners' focus narrows to preparing the test items. One way to make practice for exams more meaningful is by asking learners to prepare their own practice questions for the group.

Prompts Prompts are stimuli a teacher uses to get learners to give a response using target language. Prompts can be visual, spoken or written.

Example The learners are asking each other about their food likes and dislikes. The teacher puts photos of various foods up on the board as prompts for their questions.

In the classroom Resources that can be used as prompts include flashcards, realia, body language, facial expression (for correction), key words, questions, repeating errors, and other learners.


Rapport Rapport in language learning refers to the relationship between the teacher and the learners. Teachers try to build good rapport with the learners in order to produce an environment that will help learning.

Example Classroom management tools such as eye contact, body language and learning and using names can help to build rapport.

In the classroom Building good rapport is often a matter of personalities, and many teachers will have excellent rapport with one class and bad rapport with another, for no clear reason. Personalisation can help build rapport, as learners and teachers find out more about each other.

Realia Realia are real things that are brought to the class and used as a resource.

Example The learners are learning to describe clothes. In turn, they describe someone in the class for others to identify.

In the classroom Realia can include the learners themselves, the classroom, furniture, the school, published material such as advertisements and menus, the contents of learners' pockets and bags, and the view outside the window.

Received pronunciation - RP Received pronunciation, or RP, refers to an accent in English regarded by many people as a ‘standard' accent. It has also been called ‘the Queen's English' or ‘BBC English'. In the past, RP had high status in the UK, indicating an educated speaker, and this transferred into EFL where it has been used as a model for pronunciation. With the emergence of international English, the recognition of the equality of a variety of accents, and the emphasis on authentic communication, learners now become aware of a wider range of accents.

Example In RP bath is pronounced with an /a:/ sound. In other UK accents it can be pronounced with an /æ/.

In the classroom Using authentic listening texts is one way to expose learners to a variety of accents. Sources for this include films, online radio broadcasts and podcasts, and guest speakers.


Receptive skills The receptive skills are listening and reading, because learners do not need to produce language to do these, they receive and understand it. These skills are sometimes known as passive skills. They can be contrasted with the productive or active skills of speaking and writing.

Example Often in the process of learning new language, learners begin with receptive understanding of the new items, then later move on to productive use.

In the classroom The relationship between receptive and productive skills is a complex one, with one set of skills naturally supporting another. For example, building reading skills can contribute to the development of writing.

Recycling Recycling is practising language that learners have seen previously. The recycled language will be re-introduced in a different context, or through a different skill. This helps the student extend their range of use of the new item.

Example On the last course, the learners were introduced to functional language of greetings and introductions. Now they do a quick mingle activity where they recycle this language.

In the classroom Recycling is an important part of the consolidation of learning. It is often included in course and course book structures. Teachers can look for opportunities to recycle new language through varying the skills work a class meets.

Register Register often refers to the degree of formality of language, but in a more general sense it means the language used by a group of people who share similar work or interests, such as doctors or lawyers.

Example For formal and informal register; 'Would you mind passing the salt?' is appropriate for a formal situation with strangers, whereas 'Pass me the salt' would be used for a situation where friends are talking, or possibly when being rude.

In the classroom Although register is a complex area, the most common aspect looked at in language learning is the degree of formality. Teachers often divide functional language into three working categories, formal, neutral and informal.


Restricted use Restricted use is a stage where learners do controlled practice of the target language. Restricted use is part of the model Authentic Use, Restricted Use and Clarification and Focus (ARC).

Example Learners have seen examples of the structure 'If I were you…' in a text from a teenage magazine. They then look at the form and practise making it using prompts.

In the classroom : The ARC model is useful to label the different stages of a lesson. For example, a lesson following a model CRCAC would have a presentation stage, practice, clarification, free practice and further clarification based on problems that arise in the free practice.

Retention Retention is remembering new language rather than forgetting it. Once a word is retained, it can be retrieved and used later.

Example If learners have to work to guess or infer the meaning of a new word, and do so themselves, then retention of that word is more likely.

In the classroom Activities which can help retention of new language include learners deducing meaning from context, recording tools such as mind maps and visualisation, using material relevant to the learners, and a range of approaches to suit learner styles.

STT STT means Student Talking Time. It is the time learners spend talking rather than the teacher. It can be compared with Teacher Talking Time (TTT). It can be a useful category for observation of teaching, or for self-reflection about teaching.

Example Group work with the teacher monitoring, rather than an open class, is a way to increase the STT in an activity.

In the classroom Many teachers (and approaches) seek to maximise the amount of time learners spend using the target language. One way to do this is to ensure that learners know the necessary classroom language, e.g. to ask for clarification and express doubts.


Scanning Scanning is reading a text quickly in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or names. It can be contrasted with skimming, which is reading quickly to get a general idea of meaning.

Example A learner taking a reading test needs to scan a text on population rates quickly to find out if a series of statements about the population figures are true or false.

In the classroom As the above example shows, scanning is a specific reading skill which is often used in combination with others such as skimming and intensive reading. Learners need to learn different ways and understand that choosing how to read is an important step in building reading skills.

Scheme of work (lesson plan) A scheme of work is a plan that defines work to be done in the classroom. Involving learners in defining a scheme of work, whether for a short project or a long course, is an important step towards motivation and involvement.

Example Before starting a project, a group works on defining a scheme of work for it.

In the classroom Questions to ask learners for a scheme of work include: What are your aims? What do you want to produce? Who is going to do what? What resources do you need? How long is it going to take?

Script A term from cognitive psychology; a script is a sequence of events and actions that are related to specific situations. Our understanding of a script in a situation allows us to predict what happens and therefore can help a learner interpret language.

Example Learners are going to watch a comedy sketch about restaurants, they explore the typical sequence of what happens in a restaurant before they watch, which prepares them for what happens in the comedy sketch, which may or may not follow this typical routine.


In the classroom Teachers can encourage learners to suggest the typical sequence of events in different situations when the class is focusing on the functional language associated with situations.

Second language acquisition (SLA) Second language acquisition, or SLA, has two meanings. In a general sense it is a term to describe learning a second language. More specifically, it is the name of the theory of the process by which we acquire - or pick up - a second language. This is mainly a subconscious process which happens while we focus on communication. It can be compared with second language learning, which describes how formal language education helps us learn language through more conscious processes.

Example A learner studying in an English-speaking country may have more success due to the language they acquire in their part-time job than with the language they learn in their class.

In the classroom Implications for the language classroom include the ideas that the teacher can create contexts for communication which facilitate acquisition, that there is a natural order of acquisition of language, that there are affective filters which inhibit acquisition, especially for adults, and that comprehensible input is very important.

Self-correction Self-correction is when learners correct themselves instead of a teacher doing it. Teachers can involve learners in self-correction to different degrees, by giving learners more or less guidance as to the location and nature of their errors, and examples of good use of language to compare their own to.

Example The learner says ‘I feel relax' and then immediately changes this to ‘I feel relaxed'.

In the classroom Learners can be helped to self-correct with various degrees of help. Using a correction rubric for written homework involves a lot of guidance, but using a facial expression to indicate there is a problem when a learner says something involves less. Giving learners enough time to self-correct in conversation is an effective technique in itself. .

Silent period The silent period hypothesis is the idea that when a language is learned, there should be a period in which the learner is not expected to actively produce any language. This is based on observations of a listening period in infants when they learn a first language.


Example When learners begin to study a new language, they can go through a silent period where they are exposed to sufficient comprehensible input to allow them to begin to acquire language.

In the classroom

Common classroom techniques can address the needs of learners in a silent period, e.g. listening comprehension and vocabulary input. There are also methodologies which explicitly incorporate a silent period, such as Total Physical Response and the Natural Approach.

Silent way The silent way is a methodology of teaching language based on the idea that teachers should be as silent as possible during a class but learners should be encouraged to speak as much as possible. There are three basic principals:

- The learner needs to discover or create - Learning is made easier by the use of physical objects such as Cuisenaire rods - Learning is made easier by problem-solving using the target language

Example The teacher shows the learners a small red Cuisenaire rod and a bigger blue one and says ‘The blue one is bigger than the red one'. The learners repeat this. The teacher then substitutes the rods to produce other models, and finally encourages the learners to produce their own comparisons.

In the classroom Areas of target language where Cuisenaire rods can be useful include word boundaries, contracted forms, prepositions, word order and word stress. Learners can use the rods to first represent and then to manipulate language.

Skimming Skimming is reading a text quickly to get a general idea of meaning. It can be contrasted with scanning, which is reading in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or names.

Example A learner taking a reading exam decides to approach text by looking at the title, introductions, and any diagrams and sub-headings, then skim reading to get a clear general idea of what the text is about.

In the classroom Skimming is a specific reading skill which is common in reading newspapers, messages and e-mails. It is important that learners understand that there is no need to read every word when skimming, so often teachers set this as a timed task to encourage speed.


Slips Slips are mistakes caused by temporary factors such as a learner being tired, nervous, excited or distracted. They can be compared with errors, which are caused by a learner not knowing something. Some people use the term mistake to describe slips.

Example A learner asked to speak in front of the group may make slips because she is nervous.

In the classroom Creating a positive learning environment in the classroom can be done in many ways, including establishing a good rapport with and between learners, developing a real sense of autonomy and group decision-making, giving feedback on mistakes sensitively.

Socio-cultural context Socio-cultural context refers to the idea that language, rather than existing in isolation, is closely linked to the culture and society in which it is used. This means when language is learnt, the socio-cultural context in which it is used needs to be taken into consideration as well.

Example Learners are looking at the language of advertisements. In order to do this effectively, they need to understand the culture in which the adverts function.

In the classroom Activities that can raise awareness of socio-cultural context include using stories, analysing newspaper headlines, and looking at slang and idiomatic language.

Sociocultural awareness Sociocultural awareness means awareness of the societies and cultures of the target language, and therefore of the contexts the language is used in. Teachers themselves transmit information subconsciously about culture and society through their behaviour and interaction with learners.

Example Learners read about taboo subjects in British society.

In the classroom Consideration of sociocultural aspects of language is increasingly important in the context of ELT, which in the past has tended to be UK, or US centred. Project work, tasks outside the class in the target society, webquests and inviting outside speakers into the class allow learners to explore the contexts the target language functions in, and how these contexts affect linguistic choices.


Summative assessment Summative assessment evaluates a learner's progress up to that point and provides a summary of where they are. It can be compared to formative assessment, which gives the teacher and learner helpful information for future work.

Example At the end of the course, the teacher gives a test to see if the learners know and can use what they have learnt.

In the classroom One way to make summative assessment more meaningful and helpful to the learner is to think about how work done previously contributed to the results. Teachers can ask learners questions such as ‘What did we do in class that helped/didn't help you in this test?' and ‘How did your own way of working help/not help?'

Syllabus A syllabus is a document that describes what the contents of a language course will be and the order in which they will be taught. The content of a syllabus normally reflects certain beliefs about language and language learning.

Example A syllabus might be designed around the order in which grammatical items are introduced. Starting with 'present simple' then 'past simple', then 'present perfect' etc.

In the classroom There are many different types of syllabus (although often in language classrooms the syllabus from the course book is the only document). Syllabus types include grammatical, lexical and functional, which focus on the building blocks of language, and task-based and learner-centred, which focus on processes of communication and learning.

Synchronous learning Synchronous learning occurs when the learner and the teacher are in the same place at the same time. It can be compared with asynchronous learning, where learner and teacher may not be in the same place at the same time. Both terms are often used when talking about online learning.

Example In online learning, videoconferencing, chat and VOIP are synchronous learning tools because the learner and teacher interact in real time.


In the classroom Synchronous learning tools are often expensive, difficult to set up and limited by technological constraints. It is a good idea to have an alternative lesson planned or to incorporate synchronous learning as a stage rather than as an entire lesson, for example using chat as a pre-lesson activity or videoconferencing as the final event in a project.

TPR TPR means Total Physical Response. It is an approach to teaching language based on the idea that if you have to do something physical in response to language, then learning is more meaningful, and you learn faster.

Example The learners are looking at action verbs. The teacher says 'Jump!' and they jump; the teacher says 'March!' and they march, etc.

In the classroom Many teachers integrate TPR with other approaches and techniques rather than using it alone. It is useful, for example, for teaching body vocabulary, prepositions, and language for directions, and may be particularly suitable for low level learners, learning more concrete language.

Taboo language In language learning, taboo language or subjects are areas that are regarded as prohibited by the culture of the learners or the teacher, therefore inappropriate for the classroom.

Example Some learners in the Middle East regard the subject of same sex relationships as a taboo subject.

In the classroom Taboo subjects, if carefully handled, can be a useful way to stimulate a response from learners, e.g. in a discussion lesson. It may be important to discuss taboos if learners are studying in a country where they need to understand the target culture.

Target language The target language is the language learners are studying, and also the individual items of language that they want to learn, or the teacher wants them to learn.

Example In a PPP lesson, the teacher first presents the target language, learners practise it, and then there is a production stage where the target language is used in a freer activity.


In the classroom Lesson aims may be based around target language, e.g. 'Learners will be able to understand the difference between 'I didn't need to..' and 'I needn't have..'.

Task-based syllabus A task-based syllabus is based on task-based learning, an approach where learners carry out tasks such as solving a problem or planning an activity. The language learnt comes out of the linguistic demands of the activity. A task-based syllabus is structured around a series of these tasks.

Example A teacher uses a series of projects on British culture as a syllabus for teenage learners on a summer course in the UK, and applies the task-based approach to the work the learners do.

In the classroom Various elements of the task-based approach are applicable to activities in other methodologies. For example, learners can see a model of the activity they are to do first, prepare a report of how they completed a task, or a project, and the teacher can record this report and analyse it for further work.

Teacher centred A teacher-centred approach is one where activity in the class is centred on the teacher. It can be compared to a learner-centred approach.

Example A typical Presentation - Practice - Production (PPP) lesson tends to be teacher-centred, as the teacher leads the activity and provides necessary information, usually in an open-class arrangement.

In the classroom Teacher-centred lessons are generally associated with traditional approaches to language learning, but teacher-centred activity can be useful in a variety of ways in teaching. The teacher is an effective model of the target language and an important source of information on how the learners are doing.

Teacher role Teacher role refers to the different functions a teacher can have in a class. The role usually implies the relationship between the teacher and learner, particularly in terms of the autonomy the learner has over their learning.

Example Facilitator, assessor, manager and evaluator are all teacher roles.


In the classroom Teacher roles can be discussed with learners as part of learner training, along with other aspects of classes. Learners can think about what roles they prefer for their teacher, how this preference fits in with other aspects of their learning style, and why the teacher chooses each role.

Teacher talking time Teacher talking time (TTT) is the time that teachers spend talking in class, rather than learners. It can be compared with, student-talking time. One key element of many modern approaches is to reduce the amount of TTT as much as possible, to allow learners opportunities to speak, and learn from speaking.

Example A teacher monitoring students working in groups completing a discussion will probably do fairly little talking, limiting themselves to clarification of the task and offering language when requested. The same teacher leading an inductive grammar presentation will probably talk more, as they explain, illustrate and check understanding.

In the classroom The relative value of TTT and STT is a complex area. Learners need to produce language in real time conversation; to give them a chance to notice their own mistakes, and for the class to be student-centred. They also need input from an effective language user in order to form hypotheses about language rules, and the teacher may be one of the main sources of this input. A teacher can start exploring this area by taping themselves and finding out when, why and how much they and their students talk.

Team teaching Team teaching is when two or more teachers plan to teach a class together for some reason, for a lesson, or more than a lesson.

Example A new teacher is having difficulty with a group, and a more experienced teacher works together on a plan for a class, and teach the class together, allowing the new teacher to gain confidence planning for the group, and to see the group with another teacher.

In the classroom As well as the benefits for the teachers, team teaching gives learners an opportunity to be exposed to different types of language, this including accents, registers and idiomatic language. It is also an opportunity for them to try various ways of learning, as all teachers use different tools in the classroom.


Topic sentence The topic sentence is a sentence in a paragraph which shows what the paragraph is about and works as a summary of it. It is often the first sentence of the paragraph.

Example In this paragraph the topic sentence is the first: Motivation is one of the key factors that determine the rate and success of L2 attainment. It provides the main incentive to initiate learning a foreign language and later the determination to persevere and sustain the long and often difficult learning process. Without sufficient motivation, even individuals with the best of abilities cannot accomplish long-term goals. Teachers working in state schools are first and foremost supposed to teach the curriculum, but we cannot ignore the fact that this cannot happen without motivating our learners. In addition, adolescent learners come with their own emotional and psychological baggage and interests making the task of motivating them one of the greatest challenges for teachers.

In the classroom Teaching learners how to identify topic sentences is a good idea, especially for exams. Learners can be encouraged to highlight the topic sentence in each paragraph as they read. An effective extension activity is to then use these as the basis for summary writing.

Transformation exercise A transformation exercise is an exercise where learners are given one sentence and need to complete a second sentence so that it means the same. The second sentence usually has a prompt.

Example The following is an example of a transformation question:

Call me immediately he arrives Call me __________ he arrives (soon)

Answer: Call me as soon as he arrives

In the classroom Transformation exercises involve learners in consciously manipulating language patterns, and can raise their awareness of structure. They are a common test item, where they are used to test discrete items of language, usually structural.

Visual aid Visual aids can be defined in two ways: as a picture or a diagram you show learners to help their understanding, or in a broader sense as anything you show learners in a classroom to do this.


Example The class is learning vocabulary to name parts of the face and the teacher uses photographs of people as a visual aid.

In the classroom Teachers can use pictures, video, symbols, gestures and facial expressions as visual aids.

Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic - VAK VAK, or Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic, refers to one model of learning styles. The VAK model is comprised of three different learning styles, or preferred ways of learning. In some accounts, another style, tactile, is included.

Example Dunn and Dunn's model of learning styles, which is frequently used in the American school system, is a VAK model.

In the classroom Learners can be encouraged to think about their learning style and how it affects their work by trying a quiz to identify their preferences. If they understand how they prefer to think then they can learn how to optimise their work in the classroom, and also try alternative ways.

Visual/spatial intelligence Visual/spatial intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple intelligence theory. People with strong visual/spatial intelligence often have a strong visual memory and are artistic.

Example A student with strong visual/spatial intelligence may respond well to organizing vocabulary using a mind-map or spidergram.

In the classroom Teachers interested in developing visual/spatial intelligence try to use colours, pictures, diagrams and realia in their classes.

Vocabulary bank A vocabulary bank is a collection of new words and phrases that the learner or class builds up as they learn.

Example Some learners carry a collection of small cards with them. Each card has a word on it, with a definition or translation, and an example.


In the classroom Vocabulary banks can be kept by individual learners, incorporated into language portfolios, kept as a class resource in the form of wall charts, recorded in a permanent area on the whiteboard during a series of classes, or stored on a class blog.

Warmer A warmer is an activity at the start of the class to warm up the learners. They tend to be short, dynamic activities. Warmers can be compared to coolers, which are short activities to finish the class.

Example The learners are going to read a text about computers in the lesson. The teacher asks them to change their seating and sit down in an order based on how much they use a computer. This requires them to move around and talk to each other.

In the classroom Warmers and coolers are not isolated activities but can serve to introduce a topic or to recycle some previously learnt language in an enjoyable way.

Word class Word classes are categories of word. The categories are defined by what the word does. Some word classes are open, which means that new words can be added to them, and others are closed, which means no new words can be added. Nouns and verbs are open word classes and prepositions and determiners are closed.

Example Nouns, verbs and prepositions are word classes.

In the classroom Adding new words to open word classes is enjoyable and motivating for learners. This can be done as mini-presentations, with learners taking turns to present a word they have found, or as a class project, or in the form of regular quizzes.

Source URL: http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowledge-database/teaching-knowledge-database

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Tefl Fundamentals Terminology-1. Useful for English teachers