Technologies to Support Climate Change Adaptation ......A SUMMARY OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT AND TECHNOLOGY ADAPTATION NEEDS continued Table S.2 Coastal resources COASTAL RESOURCES TECHNOLOGY

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK

TECHNOLOGIES TO SUPPORT CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN DEVELOPING ASIAEXECUTIVE SUMMARY

CONTENTS

Foreword iii

Acknowledgements iv

Abbreviations v

Executive Summary 1

Structure 2

Agriculture 3

Coastal Resources 6

Human Health 9

Transportation 13

Water Resources 15

Disaster Risk Management (DRM) 20

Crosscutting Technologies 23

Conclusions 25

References 26

A SUMMARY OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT AND TECHNOLOGY ADAPTATION NEEDS

Table S.1 AgricultureAGRICULTURE

TECHNOLOGIES ASSESSEDTECHNOLOGY NEEDS

New crop varieties

Improved water collection, storage, and distribution

Improved irrigation efficiency

Improved drainage

Improved pest and disease management

Structural barriers

Improved extreme weather event warning systems

Improved techniques to protect crops and livestock from extreme weather

See Water Resources

See Human Health

See Coastal Resources

See Disaster Risk Management

Increased temperatures

Loss of crops due to extreme weather

Decreased precipitation

Decreased water availability for irrigation

Increased crop pest and disease

Coastal flooding

Inland flooding

SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGIES

TECHNOLOGY 2.2.1 Increase crop resiliency

Crop breeding Farm level

Fungal symbionts Still in laboratory testing stage

2.2.2 Reduce crop water demand and agricultural water waste

Laser land leveling Farm level

Farm level

2.2.3 Improve adaptation to flooding

Floating agriculture Local

2.2.4 Protect livestock from climate impacts

Improved livestock feed Farm level

Temperature regulation for livestock Farm level

More desirable Intermediate Less desirable

EFFECTIVENESS CO-BENEFITS CO-COSTS BARRIERSFEASIBILITY OF

IMPLEMENTATIONRELATIVE

COSTa

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT

a For agriculture, the cost scoring for laser land leveling, pressurized irrigation technologies, and floating agriculture aligns with the following scale:More desirable = less than $100 per hectare, Intermediate = $100–$500 per hectare, Less desirable = more than $500 per hectare. For the other technology categories, estimates are more subjective and are based on prices quoted in the “Relative costs” subsections in the text.

b An “uncertain” indicator in the “Financing” column is intended only to convey that no information on this topic was identified in the literature review. (See the “Agriculture Sector Synthesis” section of this chapter for details.)

unknown

unknown

See Water Resources

SCALE OF IMPLEMENTATION FINANCINGb

Public, private, and PPP

Established

PrivateEmerging

Public and private

EstablishedPublic and

privateEstablished

Public and private

Emerging

UncertainUncertain

UncertainUncertain

Pressurized irrigation technologies

A SUMMARY OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT AND TECHNOLOGY ADAPTATION NEEDS continued

Table S.2 Coastal resources

COASTAL RESOURCES

TECHNOLOGIES ASSESSEDTECHNOLOGY NEEDS

Hard protection

Accommodation of coastal flooding

Drainage and stormwater management

Monitoring and early warning systems

Improved evacuation techniques

Increased diversification of fresh water sources

Desalination

Beach nourishment

See Water Resources

Inundation from sea level rise Damage from extreme events and storm surge Saltwater intrusion

SUMMARY OF COASTAL TECHNOLOGIES

3.2.1 Protection

Structural barriers

Geosynthetics

Constructed wetlands and artificial reefs

Beach nourishment and dune construction

3.2.2 Accommodation


unknown

Elevation, reclaimed land, flood-resiliency, and flood-proofing

Local to regional

Site-specific

Local to regional

Local

Household or local



See Water Resources

See Water Resources

a For coastal resources, the cost scorings of constructed wetlands and artificial reefs, beach nourishment and dune construction, and accommodation are compared by standardizing estimated prices to a square-foot scale according to the following scale: More desirable = less than US$10 per square foot, Intermediate = US$10–100 per square foot, Less desirable = more than US$100 per square foot. For structural barriers, estimates are subjective based on prices quoted in the respective “Relative cost” section in the text.

b See Section 3.3 for further details.

Coastal flooding

Public and private

Established

PrivateEmerging

Mostly public, some private

EmergingMostly public, some privateEstablished

Public and private

Emerging

TECHNOLOGY EFFECTIVENESS CO-BENEFITS CO-COSTS BARRIERSFEASIBILITY OF


COSTaSCALE OF

IMPLEMENTATION FINANCINGb



Table S.3 Human healthHUMAN HEALTH

TECHNOLOGIES ASSESSED


Soft (management) options available

Increased diseases (water- and vector-borne)

Increased Increased heat stress

Increased injuries from extreme weather

Increased respiratory illness

TECHNOLOGY NEEDS

Integrated pest management

Improved health-care access, diagnosis, treatment

Improved disaster management

Improved heat management techniques

monitoring and early-warning systems

SUMMARY OF HUMAN HEALTH TECHNOLOGIES

4.2.1 Lessen the impact of changes in vector-borne diseases

4.2.2 Incorporate advanced information technology into the health sector


eHealth unknown

Local to national

Community or regional

Local to international


Household or community


Flood-proof sanitary latrines

See Water Resources


See TransportationUnassessed technologies availableSoft (management) options available

Public and private

EstablishedPublic

Emerging

Public and private

EstablishedPublic and

privateEmerging

Public and private

Uncertain

PublicUncertain

Unassessed technologies available (e.g. cooling centers, building cooling, green or white roofs)

More desirable Intermediate Less desirablea For human health, the cost scoring for all technologies is done per unit, according to the following scale: More desirable = less than $10 per unit, Intermediate = $10–$500 per unit, Less

desirable = more than $500 per unit.b An “uncertain” indicator in the “Financing” column is intended only to convey that no information on this topic was identified in the literature review. (See the “Human Health Sector

Synthesis” section of this chapter for details.)

Disease surveillance systems

Rapid diagnostic tests

Long-lasting insecticidal bed nets

Flood-proof drinking water wells


TRANSPORTATION


See Water Resources


Road damage

Damage to and interruption of transportation systems from extreme events and storm surge

Railway damage

Bridge damage

Inundation from sea level rise

Airport damage

Damage to seaports and maritime transportation

TECHNOLOGY NEEDS

Extreme event weather prediction and early warning systems

Improved construction materials


Stormwater management

Hard protection against flooding

Accommodation of flooding

SUMMARY OF TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGIES

5.2.1 Improve durability of road surface material

CLIMATE IMPACTS

a The scoring of technologies for relative cost is based on research, but also reflects subjective judgment. The scoring does not capture the entire complexity of the cost estimates and should be considered alongside the full description in the text.

b An “uncertain” indicator in the “Financing” column is intended only to convey that no information on this topic was identified in the literature review. (See the “Transportation Sector Synthesis” section of this chapter for details.)

Warm-mix asphalt

Engineered cementitious composite

Intelligent transportation systems

unknown

unknown

5.2.3 Manage transportation with technology

5.2.2 Improve resiliency of ports

Active-motion dampening systems

Site-specific

Site-specific

Site-specific

Local to regional



Coastal flooding

Inland flooding


Public and private

UncertainPublic and

privateUncertain

PrivateEmerging

Mostly public, some PPPEmerging




COSTaSCALE OF


Table S.4 Transportation


WATER RESOURCES



See Human Health

Less water available Reduced water qualitySaltwater intrusion

TECHNOLOGY NEEDS

Improved water collection, storage and distribution techniques

Improved water-use efficiency

Water recycling and reuse


Protection against flooding

Barriers to saltwater intrusion

Extreme event monitoring and early warning systems

Increased sustainable aquifer recharge

Increased water treatment

Desalination

CLIMATE IMPACTS

Rainwater harvesting

Surface water storage

Inter-basin water transfer

Aquifer recharge

Water loss reduction technologies

Water demand reduction technologies

Desalination

Point-of-use water treatments

Wastewater treatment

Stormwater management and bioswales

Structural barriers to flooding

Non-structural barriers to flooding

Accommodation of flooding


Household to regional

Community to regional

Community



Regional to country

Household to community


Community




SUMMARY OF WATER RESOURCES TECHNOLOGIES

a For water resources, the cost rankings are compared with the following ranking scale: More desirable = $ < 10 per unit, Intermediate = $10–10,000 per unit, and Less desirable = $ >10,000 per unit. For all categories, but especially rainwater harvesting, reservoirs, aquifer recharge, water loss reduction, and water demand reduction estimates are subjective based on the information discussed in the respective “relative cost” sections in the text.

b An “uncertain” indicator in the Financing column is intended only to convey that we did not identify information on this topic in our literature review. See Section 6.3 for further details.

6.2.1. Water quantity

6.2.2 Water quality

6.2.3 Inland flooding


See Agriculture

See Agriculture

See Human Health, Coastal ResourcesSee Disaster Risk Management, Coastal Resources

Coastal flooding

Inland flooding

Damage from extreme events and storm surge

Public and private

EmergingMostly public, some privateEstablished

PublicEstablished

Public Uncertain

Public and private

EmergingPublic and

privateEmerging

Public and private

Established

PrivateEmerging

Public and private

Uncertain

Public Emerging

Public and private

EstablishedMostly public, some private

EmergingPublic and

privateEmerging




COSTaSCALE OF


Table S.5 Water resources


DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT


See Coastal Resources, Water Resources

Damage to infrastructure from extreme events Human injuries and deaths

TECHNOLOGY NEEDS

Improved extreme event monitoring and early warning systems


Barriers

Accommodation

Improved construction techniques andmaterials


CLIMATE IMPACTS

Local to regional

Site-specific

Local

Local to regional



SUMMARY OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES

unknown

7.2.3 Improve disaster response

7.2.2 Reduce disaster-related risk and manage residual risk

7.2.1 Identify disaster risks and vulnerabilities

LIDAR

Artificial lowering ofglacial lakes

Monitoring systems

Emergency shelters

Early warning systems

Social media in disaster response

Coastal flooding Inland flooding



See Transportation

Mostly publicEmerging

Public and private

Established

PublicEstablished

PublicEstablished

Mostly public, some privateEstablished

Mostly private, some public

Emerging



COSTaSCALE OF


a For disaster risk management, the cost scoring for all technologies is done per unit (although in some cases that means a regionwide warning system), according to the following scale: More desirable = less than $1 million per unit, Intermediate = $1–$10 million per unit, Less desirable = less than $10 million per unit.

b See the “Disaster Risk Management Sector Synthesis” section of this chapter for details.


Table S.6 Disaster Risk Management

iASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK

TECHNOLOGIES TO SUPPORT CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN DEVELOPING ASIAEXECUTIVE SUMMARY

© 2014 Asian Development Bank

All rights reserved. Published in 2014. Printed in the Philippines.

ISBN 978-92-9254-801-8 (Print), 978-92-9254-802-5 (e-ISBN) Publication Stock No. RPT146719-3

Cataloging-In-Publication Data

Asian Development Bank. Technologies to support climate change adaptation.Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2014.

1. Climate Change Adaptation�2. Climate Change Technology in Asia and the Pacific�3. Climate Change Impacts�I. Asian Development Bank.

The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) or its Board of Governors or the governments they represent.

ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use.

By making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area, or by using the term “country” in this document, ADB does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area.

The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the Asian Development Bank in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

ADB encourages printing or copying information exclusively for personal and noncommercial use with proper acknowledgment of ADB. Users are restricted from reselling, redistributing, or creating derivative works for commercial purposes without the express, written consent of ADB.

Note:In this publication, “$” refers to US dollars.

6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, PhilippinesTel +63 2 632 4444Fax +63 2 636 2444www.adb.org

For orders, please contact:Public Information CenterFax +63 2 636 [email protected]

iii

ForewordClimate change is the preeminent challenge of the 21st century and threatens to erode the many development gains made in Asia and the Pacific region. It is likely to exacerbate the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. The region contains seven out of the world’s ten most vulnerable countries and the economic impacts could be huge. Asian Development Bank (ADB) studies forecast that under a business-as-usual scenario, annual economic losses could be as high as 5.3% in East Asia or as much as 12.7% in the Pacific by 2100. On the average, economic costs of disasters in Asia and the Pacific region could reach $53.8 billion annually. In 2013, developing Asia accounted for 35% of energy-related global carbon dioxide emissions and continues to rise, further aggravating the region’s vulnerability. Against this background, ADB is strengthening its commitment to assisting its developing member countries (DMCs) in meeting the climate change challenge.

In its recent Midterm Review of Strategy 2020, which guides all of ADB’s work, climate change was identified as one of ten strategic priorities. As such, ADB is, inter alia, enhancing its focus on climate change adaptation, mainstreaming resilience and integrating adaptation and disaster risk reduction measures into all its activities, including operations and country policies. ADB has already mandated climate risk management in all its projects. Last year, ADB provided $3.27 billion for climate finance, $988 million of which was for adaptation initiatives.

Although finance is imperative in addressing climate change effectively, technological solutions will also play a key role. Acknowledging the importance of technology, ADB’s Regional and Sustainable Development Department, under the technical assistance on Enhancing Knowledge on Climate Technology and Financing Mechanism funded by the Government of Japan, has compiled this compendium to help DMCs identify technologies that would help them address the impacts of climate change.

The available and innovative technologies that are detailed here address the climate change impacts in six sectors: agriculture, coastal resources, human health, transportation, water resources, and disaster risk management. The document includes information on the effectiveness, cost, benefits, and barriers about each technology. Disseminating this very timely information is the first step in recognizing that technologies are already available today to promote green growth and, more importantly, to enable adaptation to a changing climate. Sound and sustainable technological choices enhance resilience and facilitate adaptive behavior and development. I hope this document will provide a useful reference for ADB’s DMCs.

Ma. Carmela D. Locsin Director GeneralRegional and Sustainable Development Department

iv

Acknowledgements

This report was prepared by Joel B. Smith of Stratus Consulting Inc., with support from Megan O’Grady, Holly Surbaugh, Aaron Ray, Michael Duckworth and Timothy Meernik. Guidance and support was provided by the Climate Change Coordination and Disaster Risk Management Unit of the Regional and Sustainable Development Department of the Asian Development Bank (ADB). Members of ADB’s Pilot Asia-Pacific Climate Technology Finance Center and Communities of Practice in agriculture, environment, health, transport, and water provided substantial inputs to the report. Thank you all for your time.

The author also wants to thank Diane Callow, Erin Miles, Stephanie Renfrow, and Kathy Maloney for their editorial support and Sue Visser for her research support.

v

Abbreviations

ADB – Asian Development BankCO2 – carbon dioxideDRM – disaster risk managementECC – engineered cementitious compositeGDP – gross domestic productGIS – geographic information systemGLOF – glacial lake outburst floodIPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeITS – intelligent transportation systemsLIDAR – Light Detection and RangingLLIN – long-lasting insecticidal bed netNGO – nongovernment organizationPRC – People’s Republic of ChinaRDT – rapid diagnostic test WMA – warm-mix asphalt

1

Executive Summary

The latest (2013) Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) restates the inevitability of significant and continuing climate change impact in Asia. Rising temperatures, with both seasonal and regional variations, will be felt on the continent well into the 21st century, according to the AR5. Since 1900, observed annual mean temperatures have increased by up to 3°C in Asia, particularly in North Asia. Warming is projected to happen fastest in Central, West, and North Asia, and least rapidly in Southeast Asia.

More changes in precipitation patterns, including extremes, are expected all over the continent, although the changes may vary in frequency and intensity. The largest increases in precipitation are projected for North and East Asia. On the other hand, a drier Central Asia is foreseen. Annual mean rainfall has decreased in the northeastern and northern regions of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), northeastern India, Indonesia, coastal Pakistan, and the Philippines. But it has increased in Bangladesh, western and southeastern PRC, and western Philippines. In Asia and the rest of the world, extreme weather events have become more frequent and intense. Extreme weather events, including heat waves and intense precipitation, could become more commonplace in South, East, and Southeast Asia. Intense precipitation would raise sea level, putting most Pacific islands at risk.

Water scarcity, declining food production, drastic changes in terrestrial and marine ecosystems, and direct threats to human populations and welfare due to extreme climate events, coupled with socioeconomic drivers, will affect human and economic development across Asia. The impact on food production and food security in many regions will be severe. Wheat-growing areas in South Asia could shrink by half as higher concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) cause heat stress. Rising sea levels will pose an increasing threat to rice production in low-lying areas, including the Lower Mekong Basin. Uneven growth in vegetation due to erratic seed dispersal and higher sea surface temperatures will seriously affect terrestrial and marine ecosystems, making it harder for animals to find suitable feeding and breeding habitats. Stress will be placed as a result on the economic, food, and livelihood security of the millions of people living in the coastal regions of Asia. Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam—coastal developing member countries of the Asian Development Bank (ADB)—stand to lose as much as 6.7% of their combined gross domestic product (GDP) yearly by 2100.

Planned adaptation in response to or in anticipation of this impact can mitigate or prevent some harmful effects of climate change, and draw benefits from the more positive consequences. But there is a dearth of consistent, comprehensive information about the most recent developments in adaptation technologies and a lack of access to institutions and agencies that can facilitate technical and knowledge transfer. Adaptation practitioners are thus held back from developing a robust portfolio of hard and soft1 adaptation technologies.

Knowledge support is an integral part of ADB’s response to climate change in Asia. Through technical assistance programs, ADB has been developing and disseminating knowledge and building capacity to respond effectively to the challenge. ADB undertook a desk study and assessment of available technologies that decision makers can use in adaptation planning, to promote the spread of knowledge. Forty-one technologies that could help reduce climate change risks in agriculture, coastal resources, human health, transportation, water

1 The report excludes soft technologies—managerial, policy, or operational changes that will help reduce vulnerabilities to climate change.

Technologies to Support Climate Change Adaptation - Executive Summary

2

resources, and disaster risk management in developing countries in Asia were compiled and evaluated during the study.

The report on that study centers on hard technologies that can be used to lessen the impact of climate change. It assesses physical infrastructure, the use of information technology, and other physical changes that can help make countries less vulnerable to climate change.

The report should serve only as a starting point or reference for decision makers as they put together their adaptation portfolios. It is not meant to be prescriptive or to provide an exhaustive review of adaptation technologies. And despite the far-reaching assessment of each technology reviewed here, adaptation options should always be evaluated for each individual case, taking the local context into account. How technologies will perform in practice will depend greatly on local circumstances.

Moreover, while developing Asia is the focus of the report, developed countries and countries outside Asia can also use most of these technologies. Some of the technologies are already mature and ready for application, but are not yet widely used in Asia. Others, including several still in the experimental phase, are new or emerging technologies; developing countries could be among the first to test their efficacy. Because of their varying stages of development, however, the technologies reviewed in the report vary in the quantity and quality of available information. For newer technologies, decision makers should explore new research released since the publication of the report.

Structure The discussion in this summary (and the full report) is organized by sector and deals separately with climate change impact, vulnerabilities, and technology needs in the following six sectors:

agriculture,

coastal resources,

human health,

transportation,

water resources, and

disaster risk management (DRM).

Each sector discussion begins with an overview of climate change impact on the sector, in the various Asian regions, then gives examples of hard adaptation technologies that could reduce the vulnerabilities identified. Each technology is evaluated on the basis of the following criteria:

effectiveness, or how well the technology reduces vulnerability or increases resilience;

relative costs, based on cost figures obtained in the research, with “more desirable,” “intermediate,” and “less desirable” scores assigned according to a numerical scale

This executive summary is a synopsis of the information contained in the full report. Each chapter is summarized separately. Readers are encouraged to read the full report—or specific sector chapters—for a full discussion and citations.

Executive Summary

3

explained in the footnotes to the summary table;

co-benefits, or other benefits the technology may provide besides reducing vulnerability or increasing resilience, such as increasing ecosystem services or creating jobs;

co-costs, or the number and magnitude of the negative consequences of using the technology, such as ecosystem destruction or job loss;

barriers to implementation, or the difficulties standing in the way of technology implementation, such as the need for infrastructure investment or a specialized skill set;

feasibility of implementation, based on contextual factors such as internet availability, as well as the successful adoption of the technology elsewhere and its appropriateness for different conditions, among other considerations;

scale of implementation at which the technology is best applied;

applicable locations and conditions, or the geophysical factors surrounding the use of the technology; and

potential financing and markets, or factors such as funding channels and the availability of the technology through private markets or an academic institution, or its use by other international organizations.

The authors have given each technology a score of “more desirable,” “intermediate,” or “less desirable” against each of these criteria (in lieu of “high,” “medium,” and “low” scores because high costs and co-costs are not desirable). The scores should be considered along with the attributes of each technology as described in the text, and each technology should be evaluated individually in relation to contextual factors, such as local geography, politics, local knowledge, or access to supplies, which might affect the scores in a given situation.

Each sector section concludes with a table summarizing the climate change impact, technology needs, and appropriate technologies assessed for that sector. The final section identifies technologies that serve various needs across different sectors.

Agriculture

Impact of climate change Since Asia extends over a large area with a wide range of climates—boreal, temperate, tropical, humid, and arid—the impact of climate change, on agriculture across the continent is likely to be varied yet significant.

Higher temperatures will affect many crops: while crop yield could increase in cool areas, it could decline in many warm areas. Rice production in regions like East Asia is already at thermal tolerance limits, and wheat yield in South Asia could be cut in half. Many cool regions, such as Central Asia, on the other hand, could see a longer growing season. Even within countries like


4

Pakistan, yield could improve in high-altitude areas, but fall off in low altitudes.

Changes in precipitation and the availability of water would threaten agriculture. Less rainfall, and the resulting drier soils and reduced irrigation, would mean lower crop yield, as is projected for Central and West Asia. Changes in the distribution of pests and diseases raise concern, but there is scant literature on this topic. The degree of climate change impact is also likely to vary with agricultural practice (e.g., crop variety, farming method, food production system).

Glacier shrinkage, particularly in the Himalayas, can reduce the supply of water for irrigation across Central, Southeast, and South Asia and the PRC. Also, in northern countries like Mongolia, there could be less snowmelt and worse drought.

Agriculture in low-lying coastal areas, particularly in Indonesia, the Philippines, and small island states in East, Southeast, and South Asia, would be vulnerable to stronger coastal storms and to inundation, saline intrusion, and depletion of freshwater aquifers due to rising sea levels.

Climate change would have an impact on livestock as well, although literature on the subject is limited. Heat stress could reduce weight gain, and changes in locations of pests and disease could affect milk production and livestock productivity.

Regional variations in climate change impact on agriculture in Asia could be manifested in a 3% decline in South Asia’s GDP by 2050 due to a 2°C increase in temperature and a consequent reduction in crop productivity and, at the same time, a 0.5% higher GDP in the PRC because of improved crop production. In Bangladesh, wheat production is projected to drop by 61%, and rice production by 17%.

Adaptation technologiesThe technologies assessed help minimize these climate change impacts by

increasing crop resilience (through crop breeding and fungal symbionts);

reducing crop water demand and agricultural water waste (through laser land leveling and pressurized irrigation technologies);

strengthening adaptation to flooding (through floating agriculture); and

protecting livestock from the impact of climate change (through improvements in livestock feed and temperature regulation for livestock).

Increasing crop resilience

Crop resilience can be increased through the introduction of new, resilient varieties that can tolerate greater thresholds for climate-related stressors, both abiotic and biotic.

Crop breeding is one family of technologies useful for agricultural adaptation. It amplifies the potential of existing traits or transfers traits to other plants to raise thresholds of tolerance to an increase in average minimum and maximum temperatures, extreme heat events, droughts, flooding, salinity, and other factors. Molecular markers may ultimately prove a more effective tool for determining genotypic characteristics than more traditional phenotypic screening methods. Crop breeding has been shown to be effective and to increase yield by 60–100 kilograms per hectare. More expensive crop breeding methods

Executive Summary

5

can develop varieties suitable for use more quickly than less expensive methods. But crop breeding requires training, tools, and infrastructure to implement, and in some places the ability to counter resistance to biotechnology. Genetic modification technologies are already being used in countries like the PRC, India, and Thailand, and have room to grow in more developed countries. Financing for crop breeding has been provided by public institutions and foundations, and could be provided by the private sector, possibly in partnership with government.

The use of fungal symbionts is still very much in its infancy, but has the potential to improve crop resilience. The host crops could have much greater tolerance to higher temperatures and droughts, and could be better able to take advantage of higher concentrations of CO2 than conventional crops. While this technology may have significant benefits, however, its costs and feasibility are unknown because it has not yet advanced beyond the research stage in laboratories.

Reducing crop water demand and agricultural water waste

Laser land leveling employs laser technology to bring agricultural fields to near flatness, thus reducing runoff. Research has found improvements in water efficiency and crop yield in laser-leveled fields (e.g., 20% increase in wheat yield, with 25% water savings). Laser-leveling typically has to be done only once every several years and requires only a few hours of labor. In India, where the technology has been applied, generally by independent contractors, the cost per application has been estimated at $25–$50 per hectare.

Pressurized irrigation, using sprinkler, drip, mini-sprinkler, or high-efficiency drip systems, delivers water directly to the plants’ roots and can aid in providing an ideal moisture level for plants. These systems can reduce agricultural water demand by up to 50%. Installation costs, however, are not low: about $1,000–$3,000 per hectare.

Strengthening adaptation to flooding

Floating agriculture, which involves planting crops on soilless floating rafts, has a long history of application in flood-prone countries like Bangladesh and Myanmar. Recent design improvements include beds built out of materials that are not necessarily organic, unlike traditional beds. Costs can be about $150 per hectare, but the profits can be up to five times higher than that amount. Floating agriculture can be done with existing materials and does not require the use of chemicals. This type of agricultural technology has been used to grow leafy vegetables (e.g., lettuce), tomatoes, turmeric, okra, cucumbers, chilies, melons, flowers, pumpkins, and several types of gourd, beetroot, papaya, and cauliflower, among other crops. In appropriate settings, the technology can expand rapidly as it does not require a substantial investment. Some nongovernment organizations (NGOs) have provided financial support.

Protecting livestock from the impact of climate change

Improved livestock feed can be easier to digest and can provide more needed nutrients. Examples of feed supplements are multinutrient or urea–molasses blocks, low bypass protein, lipids, and calcium hydroxide. Also, because less feed may be required, vulnerability to droughts and other risks to animal feed decreases. The nutrients likewise help livestock cope with extreme conditions and have been shown to increase their productivity, resulting in higher output from fewer animals. Costs per kilogram range from $0.03 to $0.20, and benefit–cost ratios from 1.2 to 9.3, with a reported average of 3.3. Increasing efficiency has the important benefit of reducing methane emissions. One key barrier is the importance attached in pastoralist societies to the number of livestock owned as a sign of wealth and


6

prestige, making it undesirable to reduce herd size.

Temperature regulation for livestock focuses on breeding heat-tolerant animals, reducing heat transfer between an animal and the air, and decreasing the temperature of the environments to which livestock are exposed. Breeding more heat-tolerant livestock or cooling livestock (e.g., by providing shade) has been shown to increase productivity. The costs, however, are still unknown. In some cases, there could be resistance to using different breeds. Among the co-benefits is lower water consumption.

Summary of needs and technologies in the agriculture sector The agriculture summary table (Table S.1) presents the relationships among the seven projected types of climate change impact, eight related technology needs, and seven adaptation technologies for the agriculture sector. This table shows that four of the technology needs identified can address several types of impact. Seven of the technology needs identified can be met by more than one technology. All but two of the assessed technologies will address more than one need. There are several crossovers with the water resources, human health, coastal resources and disaster risk management sectors. All of the agricultural technology needs are addressed through one or more of the technologies evaluated, either in this sector or in others.

Coastal Resources

Impact of climate changeCoastal resources in developing Asia are at risk of flooding and inundation from rising sea

levels and storm surges, damage from more intense extreme events, saltwater intrusion, harm to coastal ecosystems including mangroves and coral reefs, and beach erosion.

Asia, the most populous continent, with about 60% of the world’s population, is also the most populated continent in the coastal zone. Two of the five most densely populated cities in the world (Shanghai and Delhi; Tokyo is also among the five) are in developing-country coastal zones in Asia, and Bangladesh, the PRC, and India have a heavy concentration of settlements at risk of coastal flooding. Seventeen million people in East Asia and 8 million in Southeast Asia live within 1 meter of the sea.

Beyond rising sea levels, there are other important risks to coastal regions in developing Asia. More intense cyclones

Executive Summary

7

can increase wind damage to structures and produce higher storm surges (in addition to higher sea levels). Higher sea levels will result in more saline estuaries and coastal aquifers. Already, 30% of the Indian state of Gujarat’s coastline is affected by saline intrusion. Warmer and more acidic ocean waters will harm coral reefs and fisheries. Beach-based tourism, an important component of the economy of many Asian countries, will be threatened by beach erosion as well as harm to coastal and marine ecosystems and risks from more intense extreme events.

Adaptation technologiesThe technologies assessed help minimize this impact by

protecting coastal resources (through structural barriers, geosynthetics, constructed wetlands and artificial reefs, and beach nourishment and dune construction); and

accommodating flooding (through elevation, land reclamation, flood resilience, and flood proofing).

Protecting coastal resources

Structural and nonstructural adaptation approaches can help protect vulnerable lands, people, infrastructure, and resources from destructive flooding or wave action caused by rising sea levels or coastal storms. Structural approaches involve constructing physical barriers along the coast to minimize damage, and improving the design of storm water management systems to reduce risks of flooding from inland precipitation and high-runoff events. In some cases, structural protection measures may be the only practical way of avoiding damage from inundation.

Structural barriers are levees, dikes, sea walls, and other artificial barriers built along the coast to hold the shoreline in place or to shape the interaction between the sea and the land. They are designed to hold back seawaters, manage freshwater flows, or protect areas at risk of damage from inundation or strong waves. Although such barriers have been used for centuries, newer, more flexible designs allow adjustment as sea level and other risks change. Tide gates or storm surge barriers can now be closed during storms or high flows and then reopened at low tide and during normal flows.

Structural barriers can be very effective in protecting settlements and infrastructure from rising waters. In the Maldives, many credited a 3.5-meter sea wall with saving the capital city from even worse destruction from the tsunami that struck the country in 2005. Coastal barriers can be expensive, but they can also induce more development in protected low-lying coastal areas. On the other hand, fixed barriers can interfere with the movement of sand along coastlines, resulting in loss of beaches, and can block the inland migration of wetlands.

Geosynthetics are man-made products used in water separation, diversion, or filtration; land protection; and the reinforcement of existing flood barriers. The geosynthetics used primarily in coastal flooding and erosion control are geotextiles and geomembranes. Geotextiles, porous fabrics made of synthetic materials, are used mainly in flood control, barrier reinforcement, and erosion management through drainage control. Geotextile tubes are also used in several countries in Europe to protect coastal and sandy beaches. Geomembranes are nonporous barriers used primarily for containment. Geotextiles and membranes can be effective in controlling floods and erosion and in providing protection


8

against damage from waves or currents. However, geotextiles are meant to be part of a larger suite of flood and erosion control options, as they are not always the most effective solution. For instance, they are less effective against rising sea levels because of their potential for permanent inundation. Geotextiles alone are also not strong enough to protect critical coastal areas against tsunamis or very strong storm surges. Geotextiles and geomembranes cost much less to build and maintain than hard coastal barriers made of rocks or concrete.

Constructed wetlands and artificial reefs can be a very cost-effective method of flood control. In areas where these wetlands or reefs have been damaged or depleted, restoration can reestablish their ecological value. A constructed wetland is a shallow basin that is often filled with sand or gravel and planted with vegetation. Artificial reefs have been constructed from discarded manmade materials such as tires, concrete blocks, or even old subway cars, in areas of oceans where reefs have been depleted. Reefs and coastal wetlands absorb wave action and thus minimize damage inland. In India’s coastal zone, those living in houses protected from storms by intact mangroves save $120 per household per year in damage avoided. The cost of restoration is estimated at $0.5 million per hectare for coral reefs, and less than $3,000 per hectare for coastal mangroves, with a benefit–cost ratio ranging from 3 to 75. Wetlands and reefs offer inherent benefits aside from storm protection, including new habitats for vegetation, fisheries, and wildlife; fishing; tourism; food security; pharmaceutical research; carbon sequestration sinks; groundwater filtration and recharge; nutrient recycling; and improved sanitation through wastewater treatment. But constructed wetlands can need more valuable coastal land than conventional systems, and this can be a barrier to their adoption.

Beach nourishment and dune construction can protect or restore eroded beaches. Sand can be pumped onto an eroded beach from an offshore source. Dune construction, which involves shaping sediment from dredged sources into dunes, can be carried out at the same time to mitigate beach erosion and flood risks. Beaches provide strong protection against storm surges from typhoons and other coastal storms by absorbing the energy in tidal surges, but they become less effective as sea levels rise. The costs of beach nourishment and dune construction are similar, about $3–$15 per cubic meter, depending on the distance the materials are transported. By restoring or protecting beaches, these technologies preserve the benefits that beaches provide, but the dredging of sediment can increase turbidity and disruption of habitats.

Accommodating flooding

Accommodation to climate change impact involves designing structures to withstand inundation or flooding. There are several types of accommodation: elevating structures above sea or storm surge levels, reclaiming land inundated by rising sea levels or subsidence, increasing flood resilience (designing structures to rise with sea levels), and flood-proofing structures (designing them to withstand flooding). Retention basins can also be used to manage storm water runoff. Large-scale artificial water retention basins called “monkey cheeks” were built in Thailand to accommodate flood water during the monsoon season and provide water supply for irrigation during the dry season. Accommodation is generally more cost effective when done with newer structures rather than with older ones. Accommodation avoids the adverse impact associated with hard structures, such as the loss of beach or the blocking of inland migration of coastal wetlands.

Summary of needs and technologies in the coastal resources sector

The coastal resources summary table (Table S.2) presents the relationships among four categories of projected climate change impact, eight related technology needs, and five adaptation technologies for the coastal resources sector. Many technology needs in this

Executive Summary

9

sector are addressed through technologies evaluated in other sectors, particularly the water resources and DRM sectors. All of the technology needs of the sector are addressed through one or more technologies evaluated in this sector or others.

Human Health

Impact of climate changeThe impact of climate change on human health in developing Asia is projected to include changes in waterborne and vector-borne diseases, reductions in labor productivity, and increases in malnutrition, heat stress, respiratory illnesses, and injuries caused by extreme weather events. This impact is likely to be felt across Asia.

South and Southeast Asia may be particularly vulnerable to a rise in infectious and water borne diseases. In India, vector-borne diseases, including malaria, dengue fever, chikungunya, Japanese encephalitis, kala-azar, and filariasis, could occur with greater frequency. Moreover, low access to safe drinking water among nearly three-fourths of the country’s population heightens the risk of waterborne disease. Increased heat stress could also be a problem in many parts of Asia. Hotter temperatures can worsen cardiopulmonary mortality in cities where air quality is poor because of particulate matter and ozone pollution. The risk of waterborne diseases could also increase as water temperatures climb and runoff is reduced. Even in areas where there may be less precipitation amid rising temperatures, such as Central and West Asia, certain parasitic diseases could become more prevalent. Food security is also at risk in poor Asian countries.

Small island states face many health risks as well. Vanuatu is likely to endure water contamination due to erratic rainfall, as well as food insecurity and increases in waterborne and vector-borne diseases, such as dysentery, diarrhea, skin infections, gastroenteritis, fish poisoning, and ciguatera.

More intense cyclones, floods, heat waves, and drought can add to the direct risks to human health through exposure to extreme events, or increase indirect risks, such as deterioration in water quality and decline in food production due to drought.

Adaptation technologiesThe technologies assessed help minimize this impact by

lessening the impact of changes in vector-borne diseases (through long-lasting insecticidal bed nets [LLINs] and rapid diagnostic tests [RDTs]);

incorporating advanced information technology into the health sector (through disease surveillance systems and eHealth); and

protecting drinking-water supplies from contamination (through flood-proof sanitary latrines and flood-proof drinking-water wells).


10

Lessening the impact of changes in vector-borne diseases

Vector populations can be controlled and human exposure to vectors reduced with existing technologies. Besides the specific technologies discussed below, an integrated vector management approach has shown significant promise in Asia.

Reinforcing and expanding the distribution of long-lasting insecticidal bed nets (LLINs) into new areas and beyond traditionally targeted at-risk groups (e.g., pregnant women, young children) can serve as a health intervention in the light of climate change impact. Polyester, polyethylene, or polypropylene LLINs are treated with pyrethroid insecticides at the time of manufacture. Users are protected not only by the physical barrier, but also by the insecticidal action of the net. Because of the low cost, ease of use, and simplicity of distribution of LLINs, about 250 million of these have been distributed worldwide in recent years. These nets have replaced conventional bed nets as the standard in recent and current prevention campaigns because the insecticide does not rapidly break down, so the treatment of nets can be repeated less often, and it retains its protective effects for the entire 3- to 5-year lifetime of the net. Researchers have demonstrated the effectiveness of insecticide-treated bed nets in reducing episodes of malaria and related deaths in numerous settings.

LLIN costs range from a few US dollars in Thailand to $59 in India. An analysis of the costs of malaria interventions in Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and South America showed the median financial cost of protecting one person for 1 year with treated bed nets to be about $1–$10. Distribution is widely supported by donors and nonprofits. But bed nets provide protection only when people are sleeping and not when they are up and about. Moreover, some people reportedly reject the bed nets outright for reasons of heat and discomfort, or the difficulty their children have in using the nets.

Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) are simple, point-of-care testing kits that use various methods to quickly diagnose illnesses like malaria, tuberculosis, and visceral leishmaniasis. A strip in the kits changes color in the presence of a parasite. While the performance of RDTs is uneven, research indicates that the kits are beneficial in resource-constrained areas with no access to conventional laboratories.

Reported per-unit costs range from less than $1 to as much as $4. RDTs can help avoid expensive medical treatments. Where treatments, such as those for malaria, are inexpensive, the benefits derived from using RDTs may be less. But RDTs could be useful in remote areas that are poorly equipped to provide microscopy services and have limited control of test storage conditions and inadequate user supervision. While there appears to be little incentive for private sector financing for RDT distribution, some public–private partnerships are taking shape.

Incorporating advanced information technology into the health sector

Since climate change may allow some diseases to spread more easily, the technologies used to detect and prevent disease transmission are likely to be even more useful and beneficial.

Disease surveillance systems refer to various types of advanced information and communication devices and applications that can assist health professionals in collecting, processing, interpreting, and disseminating data more efficiently to support infectious disease monitoring and response.

Executive Summary

11

The following specific types of technologies are needed in this regard:

Novel data sources, especially sources mined through the use of new digital or automated collection methods. These include, among others, queries from internet-based search engines and data from social media applications (e.g., Twitter).

Communication tools (e.g., networks, information aggregators, health-specific search engines, centralized data repositories) for use within the health community.

Geographic information systems (GIS) for visualizing spatial relationships and changes over time related to disease distribution and risk factors.

Hardware and software options to support data collection, storage, management, and analysis, including point-of-care handheld communication devices for facility and field reporting, remote-sensing equipment, predictive spatial and space–time models, and simulation software and data packages.

Decision support systems. Tools for storing, managing, and analyzing disease surveillance data must accommodate a wide range of data types, including entomological surveillance data, pathogen data, and data on control activities (e.g., vaccination and education campaigns).

Studies of dengue-related spatial scanning and other advanced information technology applications have shown that these tools can be used to identify critical and low-risk clusters at differing geographic scales (e.g., province, neighborhood, household), allowing authorities to reallocate resources to the most likely outbreak sites.

Like most other information technology–based systems, disease surveillance systems have varying deployment costs depending on the type and level of equipment used, the level of information infrastructure readily available, and other factors. A customized, advanced disease surveillance system in the PRC, the China Information System for Disease Control and Prevention, cost over $100 million to develop and put into operation. Disease surveillance systems and programs are difficult to implement, especially in rural or resource-limited regions. Limited internet access can also be a hindrance. Disease surveillance networks usually function with the help of funding from participating agencies or governments, as well as international donors, philanthropic foundations, the World Health Organization, research institutes, NGOs, and others.

eHealth involves the use of advanced computing by health-care providers, the use of distance-spanning communication technologies, provider support and patient communication using mobile devices, and comprehensive, digitally enabled, and rapidly deployable mobile eHealth centers (e.g., units like those used effectively by global health organizations). eHealth technologies can provide unprecedented access to medical care and health professionals in remote locations and low-resource settings. They also provide an opportunity to treat and minimize the spread of disease and reduce unnecessary medical tests and treatments, including the use of antibiotics and antimalarial agents.

eHealth is generally considered expensive, and countries with poorly developed infrastructure will have to make significant investments in technology. Such factors as the rapid growth in mobile device penetration rates and the adoption of specific standards for eHealth systems can help in the spread of eHealth systems. But limitations in infrastructure, technological capacity, and political will (particularly in less developed, resource-constrained regions) can be a major impediment to the implementation of the systems. Even in high-income countries, the lack of standardization can dilute eHealth’s effectiveness and long-term sustainability.


12

Protecting drinking water supplies from contamination

Waterborne diseases are a serious, continuing health issue in many regions. The only water that is regularly available in many areas is contaminated, and even where clean water is available, contamination can occur in the wake of extreme events, such as floods. This section focuses on technologies for preventing water contamination after extreme events.

Among the types of flood-proof sanitary latrines are urine-diverting dehydration toilets, which store fecal matter in a waterproof chamber and collect urine separately; pit latrines, including pour–flush latrines, simple (or double) pit latrines, ventilated pit latrines, and composting or dry latrines; ecological sanitation (EcoSan) composting latrines, which store urine and compost feces for use as fertilizer; urine diversion latrines, which separate urine from feces, allowing the latter to be used as a plant nutrient; and combined-pit latrines, which are shallow and thus more suitable for areas with a low water table.

Various types of latrine and desludging pump technologies have different advantages and disadvantages, depending on the specific circumstances and environmental factors. In Bangladesh, the combined-pit latrine has demonstrated the greatest flood resistance. These systems tend to be cost effective because they make it unnecessary for the authorities to spend on more elaborate sanitation systems and on the treatment of diseases caused by poor sanitation. Some of these systems yield fertilizer, a co-benefit. But these systems do require proper operation and maintenance, and some need special care. Public health facilities like these also often require public financing.

Flood-proof drinking water wells can help protect water supplies from being contaminated during flooding. Some of the flood-proofing methods discussed in the full report are: altering the height of tube wells with either an elevated base or an additional pipe; cementing a tube well’s base so that polluted floodwater cannot enter; shaping the concrete apron to direct surface water away from the well; using a sanitary seal or grout (a mixture of water and clay, or water and cement, sometimes mixed with additives like sand) that extends at least 1–3 meters belowground to prevent infiltration of contaminants; extending the casings of deep wells below the level of shallow aquifers; improving the well lining and extending it above ground; and converting dug wells into hand-pumped tube wells and ensuring sanitary completion.

Flood-proof drinking wells have, in some cases, been able to withstand flooding. In India and Bangladesh, flood-proof wells reportedly cost from $100 to as much as $1,500. The barriers to the installation of such wells are similar to those for flood-proof latrines, and include the need for maintenance over time and the general lack of appropriate materials, skilled workers, and community acceptance and enthusiasm in remote, flood-prone regions.

Summary of needs and technologies in the health sector

The human health summary table (Table S.3) presents the relationships among the five projected types of climate change impact, eight related technology needs, and six adaptation technologies. The technologies assessed in the human health sector are least applicable to other sectors, but they do meet several needs within the health sector and are all relevant to current development priorities, as well as future changes. On the other hand, cooling technologies for livestock have some applicability to heat management for human health.

For some human health needs, no technologies were assessed despite the availability of technologies that would meet those needs. Technologies for improving emergency food distribution systems are largely soft technologies, as are human health measures requiring management techniques, and are not assessed in this report. Air pollution control technologies are also not included, although some transportation technologies, discussed in the next section, could reduce air pollution by minimizing congestion.

Executive Summary

13

Transportation

Impact of climate changeClimate change impact on regional, national, and local transportation infrastructure can affect the economy and other sectors, including agriculture and public health. Interruptions in the movement of goods, services, and citizens caused by acute damage or gradual deterioration of road, rail, and water networks or by traffic congestion or unreliable transportation services can prevent access to markets, work, health care, and other critical needs.

Changes in precipitation and temperature patterns can stress infrastructure beyond design capacity. Changes in temperature averages and extremes will increase the incidence of road surface, rail track, bridge, and embankment damage and failure while also changing the requirements for maintenance, passenger comfort, and aircraft takeoff. Higher moisture can lead to drainage system overload, migration of liquid asphalt, and impact on tunnel foundations. Extreme events (e.g., fires, floods, landslides, mudflows) and accompanying debris can shut down roads and bridges permanently or temporarily. Region-specific transportation risks include more flooding in East Asia, which can threaten the safety of roads and railways; increased avalanches, landslides, and windstorms in Central and West Asia; and inundation of low-lying transportation infrastructure in coastal regions and particularly in small island states. In the Solomon Islands, many roads, bridges, airports, and wharves are built in or near disaster-prone areas and are not designed to accommodate the anticipated rise in sea level.

Adaptation technologiesThe technologies assessed in this chapter will help minimize this impact by

improving the durability of road-surfacing material (through the use of warm-mix asphalt or engineered cementitious composite);

improving the resilience of ports (through active-motion dampening systems); and

managing transportation with technology (through intelligent transportation systems).

Improving the durability of road-surfacing material

Both hotter average temperatures and the potential for more fluctuations in temperature extremes will have significant effects on road surface material. Paved roads are particularly vulnerable.


14

Combinations of different materials in warm-mix asphalt (WMA) can reduce cracking, rutting, and other damage caused or aggravated by dramatic increases in temperatures extremes and precipitation. WMA is a relatively new technology that requires a mixing temperature much cooler than that of traditional hot-mix asphalt. This technology is ideal for both warmer and colder climates. WMA has proven its durability and its capacity to withstand extreme conditions. It reduces rutting and cracking, and it emits less CO2 than traditional hot-mix asphalt and fewer odors and fumes. But it requires some new equipment.

Engineered cementitious composite (ECC) is reinforced with small, randomly distributed fibers throughout, as opposed to the steel reinforcing bars used to strengthen traditional concrete. The concrete can be made up of industrial wastes, thus providing the co-benefit of using materials that would otherwise go to a landfill. Although long-term tests are still needed to prove its effectiveness, ECC should reduce the cracking that plagues conventional concrete because of its greater ability to sustain heavy loads and because it can regenerate itself: when mixed with water, as in a light rain, it produces materials that fill the cracks. ECC might prove especially effective in a hotter climate because it can expand and contract more readily with temperature fluctuations.

This technology costs about three times as much as regular concrete, but because it significantly increases the life of the concrete, it reduces repair and replacement costs. ECC results in about 40% less energy consumption and 50% less solid waste generation. ECC is a relatively new technology, however, and is likely to require investment in new procedures and training. The fact that several Japanese companies have funded ECC research suggests possible sources of financing.

Improving the resilience of ports

Rising sea levels will increase port flooding, more severe or frequent extreme events will heighten the risk of structural damage to ports and ships, and possible changes in wind speed and patterns will affect container loading and unloading.

Active motion-dampening systems address the need to minimize the movement between ships and quays when ships are moored, and the subsequent tension on mooring lines. Significant movement during large swells can increase ship downtime and create unsafe tension on ship lines. Active motion-dampening systems can reduce the amount of tension on lines or even eliminate the need for conventional mooring lines altogether, thus helping to keep the movement of the ship to a minimum when it is at port. These systems can adjust automatically to tidal changes, swells, or other shifts in the sea level to quay height.

Active motion-dampening systems for ships at port can be very effective in reducing the motion of the ship while docked and, in the case of one manufacturer, in reducing tension on mooring lines, especially in high waves. Per-unit costs are over $200,000, excluding installation and maintenance. Outfitting an entire port could cost millions of dollars. A benefit is the significantly reduced mooring time, allowing ships to shut down their engines more quickly and thus reducing fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions. The technology is already being sold by private companies in some places throughout the world.

Managing transportation with technology

Intelligent transportation systems (ITSs) have the potential to provide adaptation benefits for road condition monitoring and for disaster preparation, management, and recovery. As climate change brings more extreme temperatures, which increase wear and tear on roads,

Executive Summary

15

it will be increasingly important to monitor road conditions, address hazards conditions in real time, and maximize road maintenance resources. During extreme events, ITSs can be used to change routing for evacuations, identify significant delays or crashes, move traffic away from areas experiencing a natural disaster, or help first responders decide where to concentrate their rescue efforts. ITSs can also involve the use of variable speed limit and dynamic message signs based on visibility, pavement, traffic, or vehicle classification data to modify traffic speed and flow, as well as automated ramp gates, lane-use control signs, and flashing beacons.

Since the technology is relatively new, the effectiveness of ITSs is difficult to measure. Some studies of individual ITS components have found improvements in performance (e.g., quicker emergency service response) as a result of their use. ITSs can reduce congestion, shorten travel time, and reduce emissions of conventional air pollutants and greenhouse gases, thus also contributing to the reduction of the urban heat island effect. They work best if integrated into the construction of road infrastructure. Costs can be high: installing ITSs in Hyderabad, India, cost over $200 million. Privacy concerns, arising from the possibility that information may have to be obtained from individual vehicles, presents another potentially important barrier. But the systems have been implemented in several cities around the world. While most funding for ITSs has so far come entirely from public sources or through public–private partnerships, there is potential for private companies to build and run ITSs in partnership with a city in return for generated revenue.

Summary of needs and technologies in the transportation sector

The transportation summary table (Table S.4) presents the relationships among the nine projected categories of climate change impact, six related technology needs, and four adaptation technologies. The technologies assessed here have implications for other sectors, especially coastal resources and DRM. All of the transportation technology needs are addressed through one or more of the evaluated technologies in this sector or other sectors.

Water Resources

Impact of climate changeClimate change impact on water resources can basically be divided into three categories: (i) too much water (increased flooding), (ii) too little water, and (iii) degraded water quality (because of saltwater intrusion). Most regions are projected to experience more extreme dry and wet conditions, forcing countries to cope with floods and droughts. Both extremes can result in water stress. In addition, climate change is happening on top of nonclimate drivers of water scarcity, including population growth, increasing per capita domestic use of water, expansion of irrigated agriculture, industrial growth, and ineffective water resource management.

Seasonal precipitation variance in East Asia is already increasing. Southeast Asia is projected to experience increased temperatures, droughts, and flooding, along with changes in precipitation and runoff patterns and declining flows in the Red and Mekong rivers. South Asia’s altered monsoon precipitation patterns and increased glacial melt could further reduce water supply, and cause damage to inland fish stocks and variations in water levels ranging from severe flooding to severe low flows in the Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Rapti, Tapi, and Saraswati rivers. In West


16

and Central Asia, both droughts and flooding are concerns as total precipitation undergoes a projected decline in many areas, while an increase in low-frequency, high-intensity rains produces damaging floods and landslides. In the Pacific region, more frequent and intense extreme events leading to flooding, drought, increased temperatures, more variable rainfall, and rising sea levels could reduce water availability, damage water storage infrastructure, increase water pollution, raise the operating costs of water systems, and introduce saltwater into local drinking water sources.

Adaptation technologiesThe technologies assessed in this chapter can help minimize this impact by

improving water quantity (through rainwater harvesting, surface water storage, interbasin water transfer, aquifer recharge, water loss reduction technologies, water demand reduction technologies, desalination, and point-of-use water treatment);

improving water quality (through wastewater treatment); and

reducing inland flooding (through storm-water management and bioswales, structural barriers to flooding, nonstructural barriers to flooding, and accommodation to flooding).

Improving water quantity

Climate change impact on water quantity in Asia may consist of increased drought, increased flooding, or a change in the timing and duration of precipitation as well as the melting of snow and ice. Water resources will also be increasingly burdened by competing needs (e.g., population growth, greater urbanization, agriculture). Adaptation technologies that focus on making the most efficient use of existing water resources will become more and more important under these conditions and can include technologies such as rainwater harvesting, surface water storage, interbasin water transfer, aquifer recharge, water loss reduction, and water demand reduction.

Rainwater harvesting is a well-established (already used in many areas in Asia) and relatively simple technology which comprises a variety of techniques for collecting and storing precipitation in wells, cisterns, or reservoirs. Emerging technologies available for treating collected rainwater include nanoalumina and photodisinfection. Water electrolysis also has the potential to be a very promising technology for water disinfection in the future and should be monitored. Rainwater harvesting can be highly effective in supplementing or augmenting household and community water supplies. In rural areas, the effectiveness of rainwater harvesting can be enhanced through a shift away from the use of traditional roofing materials, such as grass thatch and dried mud, and toward more impervious roofing materials, such as metal and ceramic tiles.

Distributed harvesting systems can cost less than centralized systems because infrastructure is not required to distribute water from a centralized facility to the end user. Rainfall is automatically delivered to the tank or the ground. Operation and maintenance costs are also quite low because of the relative simplicity of the system. Rainwater harvesting can have the following co-costs: an increase in disease vectors, reduced or diverted downstream water flows, and increased vulnerability to drought and reduced rainfall.

Surface water storage allows water to be collected when plentiful and then retained for future-use. Surface or aboveground water storage can take the form of reservoirs, cisterns, tanks, or ponds. Water storage systems are widely used around the world.

Executive Summary

17

Cost can vary quite considerably (e.g., large reservoirs can entail significant costs, including construction and associated distribution infrastructure). Water storage has an important cobenefit of reducing the time spent collecting and transporting water. On the other hand, surface water storage can disrupt and reduce natural water flow, harming aquatic ecosystems. Financing for many water storage systems is likely to involve small-scale lending programs to households and communities. Funding for large infrastructure projects like reservoirs is often obtained through national or international development mechanisms.

Interbasin water transfer refers to projects that transport water from one water basin or catchment area to another via canals, tunnels, bridges, or rerouted stream flow. Projects of this type have been used for centuries to help solve problems of scarcity resulting from population growth, economic expansion, or increased use of irrigation water for agriculture. Water transfers can be extremely effective in addressing imbalances in water supply and demand, including those that may arise from climate change.

Interbasin water transfers can also provide the co-benefit of hydropower generation and flood control. But they can be expensive: initial estimates for the PRC’s South–North Water Transfer Project are anywhere from $65 billion to $500 billion. Also, such systems can have significant adverse environmental impact and can reduce water resource benefits to donating regions. The financial and political investment required can be significant, and financing for the projects can be difficult because of their high costs.

Aquifer recharge can be used to store water, prevent saltwater intrusion, and remedy past overextraction. It can be useful in areas with varied seasonal runoff patterns, particularly if the season of high water demand coincides with low runoff. Groundwater storage and recharge can be valuable in maintaining water levels and ensuring the quality and availability of water for current and future uses. Relative to reservoirs, aquifer storage eliminates evaporative loss and reduces (but does not eliminate) the likelihood of contamination.

Infrastructure costs are typically low, but pumping costs can be significant. Aquifer recharge can improve water quality. This widely used technology is feasible. However, limited private incentive exists for investment in aquifer recharge. Public funding or regulatory requirements are likely to be necessary to encourage sustainable recharge programs.

Water loss reduction technologies consist of techniques for reducing losses from reservoirs (e.g., with chemical water evaporation retardants), reducing water losses during distribution (e.g., by installing pressure control equipment to reduce pressure at night, thus reducing losses from leaks), and reducing losses during irrigation (e.g., by addressing leaks and wall breaks). Although the costs of these measures vary considerably, water loss reduction makes more water available for environmental and other uses and reduces energy use and greenhouse gas emissions.

Feasibility varies depending on costs and the technical sophistication of the measure. If the financial benefits of reduced losses can be captured by the owners of water storage and distribution infrastructure, there is significant potential for financing of mitigation measures. An alternative approach would be for a company to finance leak reductions and receive a portion of the savings from the water utility.

There are many water demand reduction technologies. Demand for water can be reduced and the efficiency of water use by households and commercial entities increased with the help of new technologies (e.g., no- or low-flow toilets, low-flow showerheads, reformulated manufacturing techniques). The costs of these technologies vary widely depending on the type of technology. Reducing residential and commercial water use can ease pressure on ecosystems that provide surface water, creating a number of environmental co-benefits.


18

Financing will be most feasible in jurisdictions where water pricing makes the marginal cost of the technologies economically justifiable.

Desalination can make saltwater or brackish water suitable for human consumption, irrigation, and other uses. With recent advances in membrane technology and energy management, desalination is becoming a more economical (yet still very expensive) and widely used alternative. Desalination is a more expensive option than other adaptation options largely because of the high costs of energy needed to run the plants. The sizable amount of energy used can also increase greenhouse gas emissions. Indeed, given its high energy costs, desalination remains a relatively less attractive option for developing countries. Private financing can be used to build and install desalination equipment, and the water can be sold to users.

In many parts of the world that lack access to clean water supplies, especially those that lack effective centralized water systems, point-of-use water treatment may be an effective way of providing clean water. A combined flocculant and disinfectant product can be added to water to purify it. A single packet costs $0.10. With over 2,000 children all over the world dying each day from diseases, many after drinking contaminated water, there is a considerable need to improve drinking water quality. Costs per treatment are low, but these treatments must be regularly applied. Total costs and availability of treatments can be limiting factors. In addition, while the purifier product is relatively easy to use, proper training is required. Treatments have been developed by the private sector but are not profitable; public or philanthropic financing is needed.

Improving water quality

Wastewater treatment and source water protection are among the potential applications of adaptation technology to address deteriorating water quality from climate change. These technologies perform best as part of a suite of adaptation options that also includes management practices, such as the management of environmental river flows.

A wide array of available wastewater treatment technologies can turn previously nonusable water into potable water or water suitable for other targeted uses, including industrial or graywater uses. The scale of application varies from point-of-use to community and municipal levels. Water quality must improve to reduce the burden of disease, raise productivity, and enhance the quality of life in developing countries. The effectiveness of centralized water treatment depends on the existence of a reliable distribution system that avoids the contamination of water between treatment and the end user. In the case of decentralized treatment, effectiveness often depends on regular maintenance.

Although centralized systems can provide low per-unit costs, the capital and operating costs are high. Decentralized water treatment, on the other hand, is likely to involve higher per-unit costs but avoids the costs and delays that accompany the development of distribution infrastructure. Large-scale municipal water treatment generally requires large amounts of capital and specialized skills. Some developing countries may lack access to the financial, human capital, and governance resources needed to sustain large-scale municipal water treatment facilities. The financing of centralized water treatment facilities is likely to require regulatory regimes that enable water providers to recover their costs through water tariffs. Alternatively, public provision may increase access to treated water among vulnerable populations.

Executive Summary

19

Reducing inland flooding

Climate change impact is also likely to include increased riverine and flash flooding and inundation due to extreme weather events. Adaptation technologies aimed at reducing the impact of flooding improve storm water and flood management, and reduce the impact of localized flooding. Coastal flooding technologies were discussed in an earlier section of this executive summary.

Storm water management and bioswales encompass a suite of technologies designed to reduce the runoff and pollutant loads entering the drainage system. “Gray” storm water management options typically involve hard structures such as pipes. “Green” source control options, on the other hand, include reducing the extent of impervious surfaces to allow the capture of more runoff; installing infiltration structures (e.g., rain gardens), and sustaining and restoring wetlands, and other vegetation to absorb runoff; and planting vegetation on the roofs of buildings. Bioswales consist of plants and other landscape elements that process rainwater during storm events.

Gray storm water management can be highly effective but expensive. Compared with gray infrastructure, bioswales are much better able to allow water to infiltrate and be absorbed into the ground. Source control is generally more cost effective than the treatment of storm water after it has entered the drainage system. Green infrastructure such as bioswales also have many co-benefits, including improved local air quality, less water pollution, reduced heat-island effect, and improved aesthetics. But they also require more planning and management, unlike gray infrastructure, which is easier to use and has therefore found wider application. The financing of municipal level storm-water management is likely to rely on public support.

Structural barriers to flooding can help protect vulnerable lands, people, infrastructure, and resources from destruction caused by increased flooding and inundation. Structural approaches to flooding and inundation involve the construction of physical barriers and other structures to prevent damage and harm from destructive inundation. Armoring can be used in combination with other strategies to protect existing settlements and other infrastructure from floods of a certain size. Flexible structures, such as those engineered to accommodate an increase in height at a future time to adapt to climate change, could be more effective in the longer term than static structures built only with current climate conditions in mind. However, no matter how well designed, barriers cannot completely remove the potential for flooding.

Structural approaches are usually very expensive, especially in heavily developed areas. Their cost can be justified if they are protecting dense development. But structural barriers can encourage development in low-lying areas and thus block species movement and migration as well as sediment transport. Barriers also push floodwaters, and flooding risk, downstream. Barriers have long been used and are highly feasible, but because they increase the volume of discharge downstream and can impede access to water bodies and obstruct the view, there can be opposition to their use. The high cost of structural barriers is likely to require significant public support.

Nonstructural (soft) barriers to flooding reduce coastal flooding and erosion by restoring the natural protective functions of coastal ecosystems and landforms. Wetland restoration can be combined with hard defenses. Nonstructural defenses can absorb floodwaters instead of sending them downstream. They can also be adjusted over time. Soft measures have many co-benefits, such as protection of wildlife habitat, maintenance of water quality, water storage, groundwater recharge, pollution abatement, nutrient retention and cycling, establishment of highly productive areas for fisheries, and carbon sequestration. Soft


20

measures often require ongoing monitoring and maintenance, but can cost significantly less to construct and maintain than hard measures.

But soft protection measures can require more land than hard measures and in highly urbanized areas where land values are high, this requirement can create political and economic difficulties. In addition, the vegetation must survive where it is planted. As with structural barriers, public support is likely to be required to finance the capital costs and the ongoing maintenance of nonstructural barriers.

Accommodation to flooding involves designing structures to withstand anticipated impact. This can involve elevating buildings and infrastructure above flood levels, designing structures to move with the water level, or slowing the rate of water flow to reduce downstream flooding (e.g., with vegetation or detention areas). These techniques are most cost effective in new construction. Accommodative techniques can create co-benefits by avoiding the negative ecosystems effects of structural barriers, but they could also encourage development in floodprone areas.

Summary of needs and technologies in the water resources sector

The water resources summary table (Table S.5) presents the relationships among the 6 projected categories of climate change impact, 10 related technology needs, and 13 adaptation technologies.

Most of the evaluated technologies (especially in the water loss and demand reduction areas) have different variations that will address several needs in both the water resources and other sectors. In particular, several water resources technologies address various needs in the agriculture and coastal resources sectors. All of the water resources technology needs are addressed through one or more evaluated technologies, either in this sector or others.

Disaster Risk Management (DRM)

Impact of climate changeMore severe and frequent extreme events such as storms, storm surges, heat waves, and drought will affect DRM. Even a single catastrophic weather event can substantially reverse progress achieved by Asian countries toward development and poverty reduction goals. Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan, as well as some states in northern India, have been identified as among the countries and regions most at risk from a nexus of high poverty, high exposure to diverse hazards, and inadequate capacity to minimize impact. Countries in Southeast and East Asia must also deal with significant risks. Large coastal cities in East Asia are particularly vulnerable to this impact, with their significant populations and valuable infrastructure located near coastlines, where they are perennially exposed to storm surges and tropical cyclones. Many countries in Southeast Asia can expect to face increased flooding and droughts. Countries in Central and West Asia are likely to experience precipitation and temperature changes, leading to an increase in droughts, heat waves, and flooding. Low-lying Pacific island states are also highly vulnerable to coastal storms because of their low elevation and lack of evacuation areas.

Executive Summary

21

Adaptation technologiesThe technologies discussed in the report help minimize this impact by

identifying disaster risks and vulnerabilities (through light detection and ranging);

reducing disaster-related risk and managing residual risk (through artificial lowering of glacial lakes, monitoring systems, emergency shelters, and early-warning systems); and

improving disaster response (through the use of social media).

Identifying disaster risks and vulnerabilities

Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) is a type of high-resolution terrain mapping. The most common way of collecting LIDAR data is with lasers mounted on low-flying aircraft, which can provide information at 1-meter resolution. Ground-based LIDAR can yield even higher resolution imagery. Once an inundation layer has been developed, it can be combined with land use, land cover, or other digital layers (e.g., transportation infrastructure) to identify populations and resources at risk, as well as to help plan evacuation routes. However, developing countries may not have access to the most accurate LIDAR information, or even to the LIDAR technology itself. Other digital elevation models may be available.

Unfortunately, the high cost of airborne LIDAR data—it can cost from $500,000 to $1,000,000 to collect LIDAR data for a small community or small island—makes the use of such data prohibitive for many small countries without outside financial assistance. LIDAR applied at a coarser scale is less expensive, but the output will be less useful for adaptation. The recent development and widespread use of commercially available unmanned aerial vehicles or drones promises to reduce the cost of LIDAR technology.

Reducing disaster-related risk and managing residual risk

These technologies help communities prepare for disasters induced by climate change.

Artificial lowering of glacial lakes is a technique for reducing the risks of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). GLOFs occur when naturally formed moraines (ice dams) burst and create swiftly moving floods downstream from glacial lakes. By accelerating the melting of glaciers, climate change is increasing the likelihood of GLOFs. The lowering of lakes has been found to be most effective in reducing the risk of outburst flooding, particularly in combination with other measures, such as early-warning systems and the involvement of communities within the flood path in preparedness education and planning.

Two lakes in the Himalayas were lowered recently at a cost of $1–$3 million each, not including monitoring expenses. Getting personnel and particularly equipment to lake sites presents logistic challenges. In addition, there is a need for long-term monitoring and maintenance. Lake reduction projects have generally been funded by development aid agencies. There does not seem to be much potential for private investment in this technology.

Monitoring systems for climate-related hazards and vulnerabilities are becoming increasingly common tools for climate change adaptation. These technology tools include, among others, remote sensing, LIDAR, numerical modeling, geographic information systems, satellite-based vegetation indices, satellite rainfall estimates, gridded rainfall time series to provide historical context, and flood monitoring. These systems allow timely communication with individuals and communities about potential changes in the climate system, such as drought. When paired with stable communication channels, advances in these technologies increase the effectiveness of vulnerability monitoring, allowing


22

individuals (such as farmers) and community systems (such as water utilities) to prepare for hazards and therefore minimize their potentially devastating effects.

Costs can vary. One study estimated the costs of installing a global agricultural monitoring system to be over $10 million, and the costs of running the system, at about $1 million per year. There are three barriers to the use of monitoring systems by farmers: (i) the financing needed to acquire the tools, (ii) the technological know-how needed to use the tools, and (iii) the data assessment needs, which may exceed the capacity to collect or use the information. In many cases, users need to understand how to use probabilistic information. At the local, regional, or country level, monitoring tools require start-up capital for computer resources, internet access, and knowledge transfer, education, and training needs. Monitoring systems tend to be sponsored by aid organizations.

Emergency shelters provide temporary shelter for people and livestock in times of emergency, such as during cyclones and flooding. Newer shelter designs also consider the use of the building outside emergency times, as long as those uses do not make it less available for emergencies. Such shelters already exist in Asia (e.g., Bangladesh) and various studies have demonstrated their effectiveness in saving lives. To a certain extent, the effectiveness of a shelter depends on its location and the availability of a safe escape route, evacuation procedures, effective warning systems and public awareness, and protective embankments.

One estimate places the cost of constructing a shelter in Bangladesh at $5 million. Cultural practices (e.g., whether men and women need to be in separate locations) must be taken into account in the design. Shelters are more effective in areas where ample warning can be given before the approach of an extreme event and enough time is allowed for evacuation. Founding is most likely to come from public, donor, or philanthropic sources.

Early-warning systems warn of weather-related extreme events such as heat waves, flooding, storm surges, fires, and mudslides that present immediate risk to life and property. Technologies are needed to forecast extreme events, generate warnings, and communicate risks to the public. Various levels of technological input, from phone trees to automatic monitoring stations, can be involved. Early-warning systems systems, when used effectively, can significantly reduce the number of deaths in disasters (e.g., the installation of such a system probably saved thousands of lives in Odisha, India, in 2013, when tropical cyclone Phailin hit the eastern coast of the country). Such systems can also be used for events unrelated to the weather, such as volcano eruptions and epidemics.

Costs vary greatly, from several hundred thousand dollars to tens of millions of dollars (for comprehensive systems). National or regionally integrated systems will be more cost effective than stand-alone local systems. But the threats need to be real, as false alarms can lead to complacency.

Improving disaster response

Improving capacity to respond to disasters will increase the ability of governments to save and sustain human lives, minimize suffering, and expedite recovery efforts in the face of projected climate change impact, such as intense tropical cyclones and other extreme events.

The use of social media in disaster response is relatively new in DRM. Platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and, by extension, Google Maps can help in sending out alerts, tracking the effects of disasters, gathering and distributing aid and relief supplies, coordinating logistics and volunteer efforts, and improving information sharing after disasters. This technology has already been used in disaster response worldwide and can also be applied in Asian economies. During the 1979 Morakot typhoon in Taipei,China, social media helped

Executive Summary

23

community residents, professional emergency rescuers, and government agencies gather and disseminate real-time information regarding volunteer recruitment, relief supplies allocation, and victim locations. Formal databases, tools, and programs for coordinating social media are starting to emerge in this field.

Using existing platforms involves little or no cost, but setting up coordination and tracking mechanisms entails costs. The main barrier to the use of social media in disaster response is the need for appropriate equipment, knowledge, and reliable data or internet service. There are also concerns about the accuracy of information transmitted and loss of privacy. Also, as coverage is not universal, some people may not receive warnings sent via social media.

Summary of needs and technologies in the disaster risk management sector

The DRM summary table (Table S.6) presents the relationships among four projected types of climate change impact, six related technology needs, and six adaptation technologies. Different iterations of monitoring systems and early-warning systems will address distinct technology needs depending on the focus of the tool (e.g., monitoring systems can provide surveillance for disease outbreaks, unfavorable foraging conditions, extreme weather conditions, and other hazards). Of the sectors covered by this report, DRM has been shown to be the most widely crosscutting, with all other sectors referencing its suite of evaluated technologies at least once. This is primarily due to the need in many sectors for various types of effective early-warning systems. All of the DRM technology needs are addressed through one or more evaluated technologies, either in this sector or others.

Crosscutting Technologies Many technologies examined in this report have crosscutting benefits. The term “crosscutting” is defined in two ways. It may refer to cross-sectoral applicability—technologies examined for a specific sector but offering benefits for other sectors. Or it may refer to wider applicability within a sector—technologies meeting several needs or reducing several vulnerabilities in the sector. By pointing out the technologies that have the greatest potential to reduce the most climate change vulnerabilities, this information about crosscutting technologies can be especially helpful to decision makers with limited budgets.

Thirty-four of the 41 technologies examined in this report address needs in more than one sector (see Table S.7). Three technologies—accommodation to coastal flooding, monitoring systems, and early warning systems—would benefit all six sectors. The three most significant crosscutting relationships between the sectors in general occur between transportation and DRM, between human health and DRM, and between agriculture and water resources.

Several technologies address more than one vulnerability or need within a sector (see tables in Appendix B). With this information, sectoral decision makers with limited budgets can make better decisions about technologies with the greatest potential to reduce the most climate change vulnerabilities.

Of the 41 evaluated technologies, 24 technologies each address more than one need in the agriculture sector; 16 in the coastal resources sector; 5 in the human health sector; 13 in transportation; 14 in water resources; and 14 in disaster risk management. In the water resources sector, over half of the technologies are deemed applicable to more than one technology need while at least four different adaptation needs , but no technology is


24

significantly more widely applicable than the others. In the case of the transportation and disaster risk management sectors, none of the multifaceted approaches meet more than three needs each.

Four technologies have the widest applicability in agriculture (they each meet at least four needs). Seven technologies each meet three needs; 13 meet only two. The most widely applicable technologies in agriculture are:

crop breeding (meets seven needs),

fungal symbionts (meets seven needs),

rainwater harvesting, and

technologies for water demand reduction.

In the coastal resources sector, four technologies, each meeting four needs, have the widest applicability. Each of six technologies meets three needs, and each of five meets two needs. The technologies with the widest applicability in the sector are the following:

water loss reduction,

structural barriers to coastal flooding,

nonstructural barriers to coastal flooding, and

storm water management and bioswales.

Table S.7 Adaptation technologies with applicability to more than one sector

Technologies addressing needs in two sectorsTechnologies addressing needs

in three or more sectors�� Crop breeding�� Fungal symbionts�� Laser land leveling�� Pressurized irrigation �� Flood-proof sanitary latrines�� Active motion-dampening systems�� Rainwater harvesting�� Aquifer recharge�� Water loss reduction �� Water demand reduction �� Point-of-use water treatment�� Emergency shelters �� Light detection and ranging (LIDAR)

�� Floating agriculture�� Structural barriers to coastal flooding�� Geosynthetics�� Constructed wetlands and artificial reefs�� Beach nourishment and dune construction�� Accommodation to coastal flooding�� Disease surveillance systems�� Flood-proof drinking water wells�� Intelligent transportation systems�� Surface water storage�� Interbasin water transfer�� Desalination�� Wastewater treatment�� Storm water management and bioswales�� Structural barriers to inland flooding�� Nonstructural barriers to inland flooding�� Accommodation to inland flooding�� Artificial lowering of lakes�� Monitoring systems�� Early-warning systems�� Social media in disaster response

Executive Summary

25

In the human health sector, two technologies have the widest applicability (they meet four needs each). Two others meet three needs each, and a fifth technology meets two needs. The most widely applicable technologies in the human health sector are:

eHealth, and

early-warning systems.

Several technologies evaluated in this report are broad-focus technologies under which separate but highly interrelated technologies can be categorized. For example, some types of monitoring systems track catastrophic storms while others provide disease surveillance. Where possible, various aspects of the monitoring infrastructure can be used for more than one system, but some aspects of the system will have to be sector specific. Some technologies addressing only one adaptation need may still be the best available solution for a particular area, given its specific adaptation challenges. Therefore, all of these technologies must be evaluated for applicability to each case.

ConclusionsForty-one adaptation technologies in six sectors were evaluated in this report. These technologies are representative of the kinds of technological approaches that countries throughout Asia should consider making part of their adaptation portfolios. This evaluation revealed four important findings. First, decision makers considering adaptation options should take their local context into account in determining the range of both hard and soft adaptation technologies available to them. Just because a technology addresses a current vulnerability in one area does not necessarily mean it will perform equally well in a different context with different climatic and other conditions.

Second, several technologies meet more than one need or vulnerability. Any consideration of adaptation options must therefore be based on comprehensive planning. Multisector adaptation planning can help to maximize resources and identify approaches that will address various local needs.

Third, “new” technologies developed in direct response to climate change (e.g., artificial lowering of glacial lakes to minimize risks from GLOFs) are a mere handful. Technologies, both soft and hard, already exist worldwide to help minimize much of the impact. Most of the risks brought on by climate change, including extreme heat waves, tropical storms, and droughts, are phenomena that society has long had to confront. In many cases, climate change only heightens impact already being experienced, effectively underlining the urgency of addressing current vulnerabilities while considering future changes in climate, and increasing technology transfer to facilitate adaptation.

Finally, while hard technologies will have a critical role in helping societies reduce the risk from climate change, they are not the only solution. As already noted, soft technologies, such as improved management practices, will also be important in climate change adaptation, and so will other factors like education, capacity building, governance, and cultural practices. A truly comprehensive approach to adaptation will consider all of these factors in developing an integrated and effective way of reducing the risks from climate change.

26

References*

Acar, A. and Y. Muraki. 2011. Twitter for Crisis Communication: Lessons Learned from Japan’s Tsunami Disaster. International Journal of Web Based Communities. 7 (3) pp. 392–402.

Ackermann, R. 2012. New Directions for Water Management in Indian Agriculture. Global Journal of Emerging Market Economies 4: 227. doi: 10.1177/097491011200400205.

Adger, W. N., T. P. Hughes, C. Folke, S. R. Carpenter, and J. Rockström. 2005. SocialEcological Resilience to Coastal Disasters. Science. 309 (5737) pp. 1036–1039.

Agrawal, A., J. Bhattacharya, N. Baranwal, S. Bhatla, S. Dube, V. Sardana, D. R. Gaur, D. Balazova, and S. K. Brahmachari. 2013. Integrating Health Care Delivery and Data Collection in Rural India Using a Rapidly Deployable e-Health Center. PLoS Medicine 10 (6): e1001468.

Ahmad, B., S. B. Khokhar, and H. Badar. 2001. Economics of Laser Land Leveling in District Faisalabad. Pakistan Journal of Applied Sciences. 1 (3) pp. 409–412.

Ahmed, F., M. Y. Rafii, M. R. Ismail, A. S. Juraimi, H. A. Rahim, R. Asfaliza, and M. A. Latif. 2013. Waterlogging Tolerance of Crops: Breeding, Mechanism of Tolerance, Molecular Approaches, and Future Prospects. BioMed Research International. Article ID 963525.

Ahmed, R. 2010. Sanitation Market Development: A Head Start for Healthier Living. IFC Smart Lessons Brief. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Ahmed, S., and E. Fajber. 2009. Engendering Adaptation to Climate Variability in Gujarat, India. Gender and Development. 17 (1) pp. 33–50.

Akhtar, M. R. 2006. Impact of Resource Conservation Technologies for Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture in Punjab-Pakistan. Journal of Agricultural Research. 44 (3) pp. 239–254.

Al-Bakri, J., A. Suleiman, F. Abdulla, and J. Ayad. 2010. Potential Impact of Climate Change on Rainfed Agriculture of a Semi-arid Vasin in Jordan. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C. 36 (5–6) pp. 125–134.

Al-Beiruti, S. N. 2004. Decentralized Wastewater Use for Urban Agriculture in Peri-urban Areas: An Imminent Option for OIC Countries. International Seminar on Experience and Practices of Water and Wastewater Technology. Sultanate of Oman. 5–7 October. http://www.rcuwm.org.ir/En/Events/Documents/Seminars/Articles/9.PDF

Albert, J., J. Luoto, and D. Levine. 2010. End-User Preferences for and Performance of Competing POU Water Treatment Technologies among the Rural Poor of Kenya. Environmental Science and Technology. 44 (12) pp. 4426-4432.

Albert, S., K. Abernethy, B. Gibbes, A. Grinham, N. Tooler, and S. Aswani. 2013. Cost-Effective Methods for Accurate Determination of Sea Level Rise Vulnerability: A Solomon Islands Example. Weather, Climate, and Society. 5 (4) pp. 285–292.

Alpuerto, V-L. E. B., G. Norton, J. Alwang, and A. Ismail. 2009. Economic Impact Analysis of Marker-Assisted Breeding for Tolerance to Salinity and Phosphorus Deficiency in Rice. Review of Agricultural Economics. 31 (4) pp. 779–792.

* ADB recognizes “China” as the People’s Republic of China.

Executive Summary

27

Anderson, K., L. A. Jackson, and C. P. Nielson. 2005. Genetically Modified Rice Adoption: Implications for Welfare and Poverty Alleviation. Journal of Economic Integration. 20 (4) pp. 771–788.

Andrus, J. K., C. C. Solorzano, L. de Oliveira, M. C. Danovaro-Holliday, and C. A. de Quadros. 2011. Strengthening Surveillance: Confronting Infectious Diseases in Developing Countries. Vaccine. 29 (S4) pp. D126–D130.

Antoniou, P. F., H. Kyriakidou, and C. Anagnostou. 2009. Cement Filled Geo-textile Groynes as a Means of Beach Protection against Erosion: A Critique of Applications in Greece. Journal of Coastal Research. 56: 463–466.

Armstrong, A., J. Bartram, J. Lobuglio, and M. Elliott. n. d. Flood Resilience for Protected Wells. Climate Tech Wiki: A Clean Technology Platform. http://climatetechwiki.org/content/flood-resilience-protected-wells

Arunachalam, N., S. Tana, F. Espino, P. Kittayapong, W. Abeyewickreme, K. T. Wai, B. K. Tyagi, A. Kroeger, J. Sommerfeld, and M. Petzold. 2010. Eco-bio-social Determinants of Dengue Vector Breeding: A Multicountry Study in Urban and Periurban Asia. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 88 (3) pp. 173-184.

Ashar, R., S. Lewis, D. L. Blazes, and J. P. Chretien. 2010. Applying Information and Communications Technologies to Collect Health Data from Remote Settings: A Systematic Assessment of Current Technologies. Journal of Biomedical Informatics. 43 (2) pp. 332–341.

Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network (ACCCRN). 2009. Responding to the Urban Climate Challenge. November. http://www.i-s-e-t.org/images/pdfs/acccrn%20cop15%20nov09.pdf

Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2010a. Ho Chi Minh City: Adaptation to Climate Change. Summary Report. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/pub/2010/hcmc-climate -change-summary.pdf

———. 2010b. Sustainable Transport Initiative Operation Plan. Manila. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/31315/sustainable-transport-initiative.pdf

———. 2011a. Guidelines for Climate Proofing Investment in the Transport Sector: Road Infrastructure Projects. Manila. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/guidelines -climate-proofing-roads.pdf

———. 2011b. Mongolia: Road Sector Development to 2016. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/mon-road-sector-development-2016.pdf

———. 2012a. South Asia Project Brief: India: Madhya Pradesh State Roads Sector Development Program. Manila. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/pub/2012/india-madhya-pradesh-roads-sector-project-brief.pdf

———. 2012b. Sector Briefing on Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: Transport (Roads). Manila. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/29554/cc-sector-brief -transport.pdf

———. 2014. Countries and Regions: Countries with Operations. http://www.adb.org/countries/main.

Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC). 2007. Report on the Workshop on Climate Forecast Applications for Managing Climate Risks in Agriculture. Bangkok. ADPC. http://www.adpc.net/v2007/NEWs/2007/February/Report%20on%20the%20 Workshop%20on%20Climate%20Forecast%20Applications%20for%20Managing%20Climate%20Risks%20in%20Agriculture.pdf


28

Au-yong, R., and L. Yi Han. 2013. PUB to Build Tidal Gate as Interim Solution for AYE Flood Problem. The Straits Times. 7 September. http://www.straitstimes.com/breaking-news/singapore/story/pub-build-tidal-gate-interim-solution-aye-flood -problem-20130907.

Azhar, F. M., Z. Ali, M. M. Akhtar, A. A. Khan, and R. Trethowan. 2009. Genetic Variability of Heat Tolerance, and Its Effect on Yield and Fibre Quality Traits in Upland Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). Plant Breeding. 128 (4) pp. 356–362.

Bajracharya, S. R. 2009. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods Risk Reduction Activities in Nepal. Presented at the Asia-Pacific Symposium on New Technologies for Prediction and Mitigation of Sediment Disasters. Japan Society of Erosion Control Engineering (JSECE). Tokyo. 18–19 November.

Balaghi, R., M.-C. Badjeck, D. Bakari, E. De Pauw, A. De Wit, P. Defourny, S. Donato, R. Gommes, M. Jlibene, A. C. Ravelo, M. V. K. Sivakumar, N. Telahigue, and B. Tychon. 2010. Managing Climatic Risks for Enhanced Food Security: Key Information Capabilities. Procedia Environmental Sciences. 1 pp. 313–323.

Bandyopadhyay, J. 2007. Water Systems Management in South Asia: Need for a Research Framework. Economic and Political Weekly. 42 (10) pp. 863, 865–873.

Barbosa, A., J. Fernandes, and L. David. 2012. Key Issues for Sustainable Urban Stormwater Management. Water Research. 46 (20) pp. 6787-6798.

Bari, N., and B. G. Saha. 2012. Disability Inclusive Flood Action Plan and WASH in a Bangladeshi Community. Case Study 10. Centre for Disability in Development. http://www.inclusivewash.org.au/Literature/Case%20Study%2010_Disability%20inclusive%20flood%20action%20plan.pdf

Barron, J. 2009. Rainwater Harvesting: A Lifeline for Human Well-Being. Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme and Stockholm Environment Institute. Kenya.http://www.unwater.org/downloads/Rainwater_Harvesting_090310b.pdf

Barrow, J. R., M. E. Lucero, and I. Reyes-Vera. 2008. Symbiotic Fungi that Influence Vigor, Biomass and Reproductive Potential of Native Bunch Grasses for Remediation of Degraded Semiarid Rangelands. USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-52.

Barry, J. 2007. Watergy: Energy and Water Efficiency in Municipal Water Supply and Wastewater Treatment. Washington, DC. Alliance to Save Energy. http://www.gwp.org/Global/ToolBox/References/WATERGY.%20Water%20Efficiency%20in%20Municipal%20Water%20Supply%20and%20Wastewater%20Treatment%20(The%20Alliance%20to%20Save%20Energy,%202007).pdf

Basher, R. 2006. Global Early-warning systems for Natural Hazards: Systematic and People-Centered. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. A 364 pp. 2167–2182.

Bates, P. D., J. C. Neal, G. A. de Almeida, M. Horritt, and T. Fewtrell. 2011. Development of Computationally Efficient Flood Inundation Models for Use with New High Resolution Terrain Data. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2011, Abstract #H54E-04.

Batimaa, P., B. Myagmarjav, N. Batnasan, N. Jadambaa, and P. Khishigsuren. 2011. Urban Water Vulnerability to Climate Change in Mongolia. Ministry of Nature, Environment and Tourism Water Authority. United Nations Environment Programme. http://www.unep.org/pdf/MongoliaReport-FullReport%5B1%5D.pdf

Battisti, D. S., and R. L. Naylor. 2009. Historical Warnings of Future Food Insecurity with Unprecedented Seasonal Heat. Science. 323 (5911) pp. 240–244.

Executive Summary

29

BBC News. 2005. Sea Wall ‘Saves Maldives Capital.’ 10 January. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/south_asia/4161491.stm

Becker, A., M. Acciaro, R. Asariotis, E. Cabrera, L. Cretegny, P. Crist, M. Esteban, A. Mather, S. Messner, S. Naruse, A. Ng, S. Rahmstorf, M. Savonis, D-W. Song, V. Stenek, and A. Velegrakis. 2013. A Note on Climate Change Adaptation for Seaports: A Challenge for Global Ports, a Challenge for Global Society. Climatic Change. 120 (4) pp. 683–695.

Bell, D., and R. W. Peeling. 2006. Evaluation of Rapid Diagnostic Tests: Malaria. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 4 pp. S34–S38.

Bhaktikul, K. 2012. State of Knowledge on Climate Change and Adaptation Activities in Thailand. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. 40 pp. 701–708.

Bigano, A., F. Bosello, R. Roson, and R. S. J. Tol. 2008. Economy-wide Impacts of Climate Change: A Joint Analysis for Sea Level Rise and Tourism. SSRN Working Paper Series. http://www.unive.it/media/allegato/DIP/Economia/Working_papers/Working _papers_2008/WP_DSE_AAVV_06_08.pdf

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. 2011. Nutritious Rice and Cassava Aim to Help Millions Fight Malnutrition. 13 April. http://www.gatesfoundation.org/Media-Center/Press -Releases/2011/04/Nutritious-Rice-and-Cassava-Aim-to-Help-Millions-Fight -Malnutrition.

Birkmann, J., M. Garschagen, F. Kraas, and N. Quang. 2010. Adaptive Urban Governance: New Challenges for the Second Generation of Urban Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change. Sustainability Science. 5 pp. 185–206.

Blaya, J. A., H. S. F. Fraser, and B. Holt. 2010. E-health Technologies Show Promise in Developing Countries. Health Affairs. 29 (2) pp. 244–251.

Blummel, M., I. A. Wright, and N. G. Hegde. 2010. Climate Change Impacts on Livestock Production and Adaptation Strategies: A Global Scenario. Presented at the National Symposium on Climate Change and Rainfed Agriculture. Hyderabad, India. 18-20 February.

Bond, K. C., S. B. Macfarlane, C. Burke, K. Ungchusak, and S. Wibulpolprasert. 2013. The Evolution and Expansion of Regional Disease Surveillance Networks and Their Role in Mitigating the Threat of Infectious Disease Outbreaks. Emerging Health Threats Journal. 6 pp. 19913.

Bont, J. D. 2010. Calculations of the Motions of a Ship Moored with MoorMaster Units. On Course (International Navigation Association). 141 pp. 27–40.

Bosello, F., F. Eboli, and R. Pierfederici. 2012. Assessing the Economic Impacts of Climate Change: An Updated CGE Point of View. SSRN Working Paper Series. http://edocs.fu-berlin.de/docs/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/FUDOCS_derivate _000000001904/LIAISE_WP1.2012.pdf?hosts.

Bourzac, K. 2013. Water: The Flow of Technology. Nature. 501 pp. S4–S6. doi:10.1038/501S4a.

Brooke, J., M. Rossouw, J. Schweighofer, and K. White. 2014. Maritime Adaptation Response Table. World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure (PIANC). http://www.pianc.org/ptgccmaradaptationresponse.php

Brown, D. 2011. Making the Linkages between Climate Change Adaptation and Spatial Planning in Malawi. Environmental Science & Policy. 14 (8) pp. 940–949.

Burby, R. 2006. Hurricane Katrina and the Paradoxes of Government Disaster Policy: Bringing about Wise Governmental Decisions for Hazardous Areas. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 604 (1) pp. 171–191.


30

Burke, L., E. Selig, and M. Spalding. 2002. Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia. Washington, DC. World Resources Institute.

Burns, R. 1993. Irrigated Rice Culture in Monsoon Asia: The Search for an Effective Water Control Technology. World Development. 21 (5) pp. 771–789.

Burrel, B. C., K. Davar, and R. Hughes. 2007. A Review of Flood Management Considering the Impacts of Climate Change. Water International. 32 (3) pp. 342–359.

Bush, K. F., G. Luber, S. R. Kotha, R. S. Dhaliwal, V. Kapil, M. Pascual, D. G. Brown, H. Frumkin, R. C. Dhiman, J. Hess, M. L. Wilson, K. Balakrishnan, J. Eisenberg, T. Kaur, R. Rood, S. Batterman, A. Joseph, C. J. Gronlund, A. Agrawal, and H. Hu. 2011. Impacts of Climate Change on Public Health in India: Future Research Directions. Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (6) pp. 765–770.

Buyukcangaz, H., C. Demirtas, S. Yazgan, and A. Korukcu. 2007. Efficient Water Use in Agriculture in Turkey: The Need for Pressurized Irrigation Systems. Water. 32 (S1) pp. 776–785.

Byravan, S., and S. Rajan. 2008. The Social Impacts of Climate Change in South Asia. SSRN Working Paper Series. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id = 1129346

Cambodia Ministry of Environment (MOE). 2006. National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/khm01.pdf

Carey, M., C. Huggel, J. Bury, C. Portocarrero, and W. Haeberli. 2012. An Integrated Socio-environmental Framework for Glacier Hazard Management and Climate Change Adaptation: Lessons from Lake 513, Cordillera Blanca, Peru. Climatic Change. 112 (3–4) pp. 733–767.

Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility (CCRIF). 2010. Enhancing the Climate Risk and Adaptation Fact Base for the Caribbean: Preliminary Results of the ECA Study. Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands.

Cavotec. 2011. Cutting Ties with Conventional Thinking. Port Technology International. http://www.porttechnology.org/images/uploads/technical_papers/052-0541.pdf

———. 2014. Mooring Systems. 1 May. http://www.cavotec.com/en/ports-maritime/automated-mooring-systems_36/

Chan, E. H., V. Sahai, C. Conrad, and J. S. Brownstein. 2011. Using Web Search Query Data to Monitor Dengue Epidemics: A New Model for Neglected Tropical Disease Surveillance. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 5 (5): e1206.

Chars Livelihoods Programme (CLP). 2012. The Chars Livelihoods Programme: Delivering WASH in Extreme Poor Communities. http://www.clp-bangladesh.org/pdf/the%20chars%20livelihoods%20programme%20delivering%20wash%20in%20extreme%20poor%20communities%20%28brief%20only%29.pdf

Cheng, H., and Y. Hu. 2012. Improving China’s Water Resources Management for Better Adaptation to Climate Change. Climatic Change. 112 pp. 253–282.

Chettri, G. B. 2003. Climate Change Adaptation Technology Needs Assessment: Agriculture Sector. Background paper for technology needs assessment for Bhutan prepared for the National Environment Commission: National Green House Gas Project Phase II. Thimphu: Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture.

Chib, A. 2010. The Aceh Besar Midwives with Mobile Phones Project: Design and Evaluation Perspectives Using the Information and Communication Technologies for Healthcare Development Model. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 15 (3) pp. 500–525.

Executive Summary

31

Chopra, A. 2009a. How Global Warming Threatens Millions in Bangladesh. U.S. News & World Report. 26 March. http://www.usnews.com/news/energy/articles/2009/03/ 26/how-global-warming-threatens-millions-in-bangladesh

———, 2009b. Where Climate Change Hurts Most. U.S. News & World Report. April.

Choudhury, D. R., S. Tarafdar, M. Das, and S. Kundagrami. 2012. Screening Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) Germplasms for Heat Tolerance. Trends in Bioscience. 5 (2) pp. 143–146.

Chowdhury, A., and J. Button. 2008. A Review of Warm Asphalt Mix. Texas: Transportation Institute, College Station. http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/31000/31200/31288/473700-00080-1.pdf

Christensen, J. H., B. Hewitson, A. Busuioc, A. Chen, X. Gao, I. Held, R. Jones, R.K. Kolli, W.T. Kwon, R. Laprise, V. Magaña Rueda, L. Mearns, C.G. Menéndez, J. Räisänen, A. Rinke, A. Sarr, and P. Whetton. 2007. Regional Climate Projections. In S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, K. Averyt, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H. L. Miller, eds. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press.

Christiansen, L., A. Olhoff, and S. Traerup, eds. 2011. Technologies for Adaptation: Perspectives and Practical Experiences. Roskilde, Denmark. United Nations Environment Programme Risø Centre on Energy, Climate and Sustainable Development http://www.unep.org/pdf/TechnologiesAdaptation_PerspectivesExperiences.pdf

Chu, J., H. Wang, and C. Wan. 2013. Exploring Price Effects on the Residential Water Conservation Technology Diffusion Process: A Case Study of Tianjian City. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering. doi: 10.1007/s11783-013-0559-3.

Chu, J., S. W. Yan, and W. Li. 2012. Innovative Methods for Dike Construction: An Overview. Geotextiles and Geomembranes. 30 pp. 35–42.

City Climate Leadership Awards. 2013. Singapore: Intelligent Transport System. http://cityclimateleadershipawards.com/singapore-intelligent-transport-system/

Clabby, C. 2009. Building a Better Salt Trap. American Scientist. 97 (5) pp. 381. doi: 10.1511/2009.80.381.

Cochard, R., S. L. Ranamukhaarachchi, G. P. Shivakoti, O. V. Shipin, P. J. Edwards, and K. T. Seeland. 2008. The 2004 Tsunami in Aceh and Southern Thailand: A Review on Coastal Ecosystems, Wave Hazards and Vulnerability. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 10 (1) pp. 3–40.

Confalonieri, U., B. Menne, R. Akhtar, K. L. Ebi, M. Hauengue, R. S. Kovats, B. Revich, and A. Woodward. 2007. Human Health. In M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, eds. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Cooper, P. J. M., J. Dimes, K. P. C. Rao, B. Shapiro, B. Shiferawa, and S. Twomlow. 2008. Coping Better with Current Climatic Variability in the Rain-Fed Farming Systems of SubSaharan Africa: An Essential First Step in Adapting to Future Climate Change? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 126 (1–2) pp. 24–35.

Corn Marketing Program of Michigan (CMPM). 2010. Corn Marketing Program of Michigan 2010 Research Report: Fungal Endophytes May Reduce Irrigation Costs for Michigan Corn Growers. http://www.micorn.org/Media/MICorn/Downloadable%20Content/ResearchReport2010.pdf


32

Costanza, R., O. Pérez-Maqueo, M. L. Martinez, P. Sutton, S. J. Anderson, and K. Mulder. 2008. The Value of Coastal Wetlands for Hurricane Protection. Advanced Nanostructured Surfaces for the Control of Biofouling. 37 (4) pp. 241–248.

Crainic, T. G., M. Gendreau, and J-Y. Potvin. 2008. Intelligent Freight Transportation Systems: Assessment and the Contribution of Operations Research. Interuniversity Research Centre on Enterprise Networks, Logistics and Transportation (CIRRELT). https://www.cirrelt.ca/DocumentsTravail/CIRRELT-2008-40.pdf

Cruz, R. V., H. Harasawa, M. Lal, S. Wu, Y. Anokhin, B. Punsalmaa, Y. Honda, M. Jafari, C. Li, and N. Huu Ninh. 2007. Asia. In M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, and C. E. Hanson, eds. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

CSR Asia. 2011. Climate Change Adaptation: Engaging Business in Asia. http://www.csr -asia.com/report/report_2011_sida.pdf

Dahdouh-Guebas, F., L. P. Jayatissa, D. Di Nitto, J. O. Bosire, D. Lo Seen, and N. Koedam. 2005. How Effective Were Mangroves as a Defence against the Recent Tsunami? Current Biology. 15 (12) pp. R443−R447.

Dasgupta, S., M. Huq, Z. H. Khan, M. M. Z. Ahmed, N. Mukherjee, M. F. Khan, and K. Pandey. 2011. Cyclones in a Changing Climate: The Case of Bangladesh. London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. London, UK.

de Bruin, K., R. B. Dellink, A. Ruijs, L. Bolwidt, A. van Buuren, J. Graveland, R. S. de Groot, P. J. Kuikman, S. Reinhard, R. P. Roetter, V. C. Tassone, A. Verhagen, and E. C. van Ierland. 2009. Adapting to Climate Change in The Netherlands: An Inventory of Climate Adaptation Options and Ranking of Alternatives. Climatic Change. 95 (1-2) pp. 23–45.

de Jong, M. P. C., O. M. Weiler, and J. Schouten. 2012. Open Water Ports: A Sustainable Design Approach. Third International Engineering Systems Symposium, CESUN 2012. Special Session on Sustainable Ports and Waterways.

Delannay, X., G. McLaren, and J-M. Ribaut. 2012. Fostering Molecular Breeding in Developing Countries. Molecular Breeding. 29 (4) pp. 857–873.

Delta Works Online Foundation. 2004. Welcome to Delta Works Online. http://www.deltawerken.com/English/10.html?setlanguage = en

Dewey, G. 2011. Warming Up to WMA: Applications by Northern States. Webinar. Informational Webinar. http://www.dot.state.mn.us/mnroad/WMA/PDF’s/Warming%20up%20to%20WMA%20webinar%2001jun11.pdf

District Administration of Bahraich, Uttar Pradesh, India. 2010. WAT-SAN Baraich Model. http://www.recoveryplatform.org/assets/document/Bahraich%20WASH%20case%20study.pdf

Dobes, L. 2010. Notes on Applying ‘Real Options’ to Climate Change Adaptation Measures, with Examples from Viet Nam. Centre for Climate Economics and Policy Working Paper.

Dreher, K., M. Khairallah, J. Ribaut, and M. Morris. 2003. Money Matters (I): Costs of Field and Laboratory Procedures Associated with Conventional and Marker-Assisted Maize Breeding at [the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)]. Molecular Breeding. 11 (3) pp. 221–234.

Duncombe, J., A. Clements, W. Hu, P. Weinstein, S. Ritchie, and F. E. Espino. 2012. Review: Geographical Information Systems for Dengue Surveillance. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 86 (5) pp. 753–755.

Executive Summary

33

Dutta, A. 2004. Projects: Disaster Management. 31 August. http://www.spadeindia.org/disaster.html.

East, R. 2013. Microbiome: Soil Science Comes to Life. Nature. 501 (7468) pp. S18–S19. doi:10.1038/501S18a.

Eisen, L., and R. J. Eisen. 2011. Using Geographic Information Systems and Decision Support Systems for the Prediction, Prevention, and Control of Vector-Borne Diseases. Annual Review of Entomology. 56 pp. 41–61.

Eisenstein, M. 2013. Plant Breeding: Discovery in a Dry Spell. Nature. 501 (7468) pp. S7–S9.

Elliott, M., A. Armstrong, J. Lobuglio, and J. Bartram. 2010. Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: The Water Sector. Roskilde, Denmark: United Nations Environment Programme Risø Centre on Energy, Climate and Sustainable Development. http://tech-action.org/Guidebooks/TNA_Guidebook_AdaptationWater.pdf

Erwin, K. 2009. Wetlands and Global Climate Change: The Role of Wetlands Restoration in a Changing World. Wetlands Ecology Management. 17 pp. 71–84.

Europe Container Terminals (ECT). 2013. Worldwide Mooring Solution! Fast Forward. Summer-Autumn. Issue 57. http://www.ect.nl/sites/www.ect.nl/files/gebruikersmap40/0457_1096_fast_forward_57_summer_2013_8.pdf

European Union. n. d. Drought-Tolerant Yielding Plants (DROPS). 7th Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development. http://www.dropsproject.eu/

Fang, W., P. Azimzadeh, and R. J. St. Leger. 2012. Strain Improvement of Fungal Insecticides for Controlling Insect Pests and Vector-borne Diseases. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 15 pp. 232–238.

Fazaeli, H., H. Behbahani, A. A. Amini, J. Rahmani, and G. Yadollahi. 2012. High and Low Temperature Properties of FT-Paraffin-Modified Bitumen. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering Article. ID 406791. doi:10.1155/2012/406791.

Felkner, J., K. Tazhibayeva, and R. Townsend. 2009. Impact of Climate Change on Rice Production in Thailand. The American Economic Review. 99 (2) pp. 205–210.

Ferguson, K. 2009. The Art of Marketing a Water Purifier. New York Times: Green. 8 May. http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/05/08/the-art-of-marketing-a-water -purifier/?pagewanted = print

Field, C. B., V. Barros, T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, D. J. Dokken, K. L. Ebi, M. D. Mastrandrea, K. J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S. K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P. M. Midgley, eds. 2012. Summary for Policymakers. In Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2010. Manual on Small Earth Dams: A Guide to Siting, Design and Construction. http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1531e/i1531e.pdf

———. 2011. Annex I: Irrigation Efficiencies. Training Manual No. 4. Water Management: Irrigation Scheduling. http://www.fao.org/docrep/T7202E/t7202e08.htm

Francisco, H. 2008. Adaptation to Climate Change: Needs and Opportunities in Southeast Asia. ASEAN Economic Bulletin. 25 (1) pp. 7–19. http://web.idrc.ca/uploads/user -S/12187839501ISEAS(HF).pdf

Fujima, K., Y. Shigihara, T. Tomita, K. Honda, H. Nobuoka, M. Hanzawa, and S. I. Koshimura. 2006. Survey Results of the Indian Ocean Tsunami in the Maldives. Coastal Engineering Journal. 48 pp. 81–97.


34

Gale, I., I. Neumann, R. Calow, and M. Moench. 2002. The Effectiveness of Artificial Recharge of Groundwater: A Review. Groundwater Systems and Water Quality Programme. British Geological Survey. Phase 1 Final Report CR/02/108N. http://www-esd.worldbank.org/esd/ard/groundwater/pdfreports/Effectiveness_of%20Artificial_Recharge_of_Gdwtr.pdf

Gaughan, J. B., S. Bonner, I. Loxton, T. L. Mader, A. Lisle, and R. Lawrence. 2010. Effect of Shade on Body Temperature and Performance of Feedlot Steers. Journal of Animal Science. 88 pp. 4056–4067.

Gibson, T., ed. 2011. Victor Li: His Flexible Concrete Bends but Doesn’t Break. Progressive Engineer. http://www.progressiveengineer.com/profiles/victorLi.htm

Gilman, E. L., J. Ellison, N. C. Duke, and C. Field. 2008. Threats to Mangroves from Climate Change and Adaptation Options: A Review. Aquatic Botany. 89 pp. 237–250.

Glantz, M. H., ed. 2009. Heads Up! Early-Warning Systems for Climate-, Water-, and Weather-Related Hazards. Japan: United Nations University Press.

Gökbulak, F., and S. Özhan. 2006. Water Loss through Evaporation from Water Surfaces of Lakes and Reservoirs in Turkey. E-Water. http://www.ewaonline.de/journal/2006_07.pdf

Goolsby, R. 2010. Social Media as Crisis Platform: The Future of Community Maps/Crisis Maps. ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology. doi: 10.1145/1858948.1858955.

Govella, N. J., F. O. Okumu, and G. F. Killeen. 2010. Short Report: Insecticide-Treated Nets Can Reduce Malaria Transmission by Mosquitoes which Feed Outdoors. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 82 (3) pp. 415–419.

Government of Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan State Hydrometeorological Committee 2001. Capacity Improvement Activities on Climate Change in the Priority Sectors of Economy of Azerbaijan: Initial National Communication of the Azerbaijan Republic on Climate Change, Phase 2. Baku. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/ azenc1add1.pdf

Government of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF). 2005. National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). Final report. Dhaka. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/ban01.pdf

Government of Bhutan, Bhutan Department of Disaster Management (DDM). n. d. Glacial Lake Outburst Flood. Background. Bhutan: Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs. http://www.ddm.gov.bt/glof.php

Government of Bhutan, Bhutan National Environment Commission (NEC). 2006. Bhutan.Bhutan National Adaptation Programme of Action. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/btn01.pdf

Government of Kiribati, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development (MELAD). 2007. National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). http://unfccc .int/resource/docs/napa/kir01.pdf

Government of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF). 2009. National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/laos01.pdf

Government of the Netherlands, Port of Rotterdam Authority. 2013. ShoreTension. http://www.portofrotterdam.com/nl/Scheepvaart/Documents/FS_ShoreTension_EN _lowres%20%282%29.pdf

Executive Summary

35

Government of Samoa, Ministry of Natural Resources, Environment and Meteorology (MNREM). 2005. National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). United Nations Development Programme and Global Environment Facility. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/sam01.pdf

Government of Singapore, Public Utilities Board (PUB). 2012. NEWater. http://www.pub.gov.sg/water/newater/Pages/default.aspx

Government of Solomon Islands, Ministry of Environment, Conservation and Meteorology (MECM). 2008. National Adaptation Program for Action (NAPA). Honiara. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/slb01.pdf

Government of Tajikistan, Ministry of Nature Conservation (MONC). 2003. The First National Communication of the Republic of Tajikistan under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Phase 2. The Main Administration on Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring. http://unfccc.int/ttclear/sunsetcms/storage/contents/stored-file-20130313150201263/tajnc1add.pdf

Government of Timor-Leste, Ministry of Economy and Development (MED). 2010. National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). Secretary of State for Environment. December. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/tls01.pdf

Government of Tuvalu, Ministry of Natural Resources, Environment, Agriculture and Lands (MNREAL). 2007. Tuvalu’s National Adaptation Programme of Action. Department of Environment. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/tuv01.pdf

Government of the United Kingdom, Environment Agency. 2012. Thames Barrier Project Pack. http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/static/documents/Leisure/Thames _Barrier_Project_pack_2012.pdf

Government of the United States, Department of Agriculture (USDA). 2007. Bioswales . . . Absorb and Transport Large Runoff Events. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Government of the United States, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2007. Reducing Stormwater Costs through Low Impact Development (LID) Strategies and Practices. Publication number 841-F-07-006.

Government of the United States, New York City Department of Transportation (NYC DOT). 2013. Sustainable Street Resurfacing. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/motorist/sustainablepaving.shtml

Government of the United States, New York City Mayor’s Office of Long-Term Planning & Sustainability. 2008. Sustainable Stormwater Management Plan 2008.

Government of the United States, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2009. Homeowner’s Guide to Retrofitting: Six Ways to Protect Your Home from Flooding. FEMA P-312, Second Edition. http://www.fema.gov/media-library -data/20130726-1441-20490-4268/fema_p312_a.pdf

Government of the United States, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). 2007. Warm Mix Asphalt Scan Summary Report: Performance of WMA. Office of International Programs. http://international.fhwa.dot.gov/pubs/wma/summary.cfm

Government of Uzbekistan, Main Administration of Hydrometeorology (MAH). 2001. Initial National Communication of the Republic of Uzbekistan under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Phase 2: Capacity Building to Address Climate Change Related Problems. Main Administration of Hydrometeorology. http://unfccc.int/ttclear/sunsetcms/storage/contents/stored-file-20130313150803002/PhaseII-full.pdf


36

Government of Vanuatu, National Advisory Committee on Climate Change (NACCC). 2007. National Adaptation Programme for Action (NAPA). http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/vut01.pdf

global Transport Knowledge Practice (gTKP). 2013. Climate Change and Adaptation. http://www.gtkp.com/themepage.php&themepgid = 132.

Grossman, G. M., and A. B. Krueger. 1994. Economic Growth and the Environment. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Gunawansa, A., and S. Hoque. 2012. Urban Water Supply Challenges in Dhaka: Potential for Residential Water Conservation Using Water Efficient Fixtures. Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy Working Paper Series. http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/Urban%20Water%20Supply%20Challenges%20in%20Dhaka.pdf

Gundecha, P. and H. Liu. 2012. Mining Social Media: A Brief Introduction. Tutorials in Operations Research. The Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS).

Haines, A., R. S. Kovats, D. Campbell-Lendrum, and C. Corvalan. 2006. Climate Change and Human Health: Impacts, Vulnerability and Public Health. Public Health. 120 pp. 585–596.

Hamilton, J. 2008. Maldives Builds Barriers to Global Warming. National Public Radio. 28 January. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId = 18425626.

Haque, U., M. Hashizume, K. N. Kolivras, H. J. Overgaard, B. Das, and T. Yamamoto. 2012. Reduced Death Rates from Cyclones in Bangladesh: What More Needs to Be Done? Bull World Health Organ. 90 pp. 150–156.

Harhay, M. O. 2011. Water Stress and Water Scarcity: A Global Problem. American Journal of Public Health. 101 (8) pp. 1348–1349.

Healy, H. 2012. Ready or Not: Can Bangladesh Cope with Climate Change? New Internationalist. 451 pp. 14–22.

Hegde, A. V. 2010. Coastal Erosion and Mitigation Methods: Global State of Art. Indian Journal of Geo-Marine Sciences. 39 (4) pp. 521–530.

Henry, B., E. Charmley, R. Eckard, J. B. Gaughan, and R. Hegarty. 2012. Livestock Production in a Changing Climate: Adaptation and Mitigation Research in Australia. Crop & Pasture Science. 63 pp. 191–202.

Herndon, A. 2013. Energy Makes Up Half of Desalination Plant Cost: Study. Bloomberg News. 13 April.

Heymann, D. L., and L. Brilliant. 2011. Surveillance in Eradication and Elimination of Infectious Diseases: A Progression through the Years. Vaccine. 29 (S4) pp. D141–D144.

Hillocks, R., and M. Maruthi. 2012. Grass Pea (Lathyrus sativus): Is There a Case for Further Crop Improvement? Euphytica. 186 (3) pp. 647–654.

Hokanson, D. R., Q. Zhang, J. R. Cowden, A. M. Troschinetz, J. R. Mihelcic, and D. M. Johnson. 2007. Challenges to Implementing Drinking Water Technologies in Developing World Countries. Environmental Engineer: Applied Research and Practice. 1 pp. 1–9.

Holmner, A., J. Rocklov, N. Ng, and M. Nilsson. 2012. Climate Change and e-Health: A Promising Strategy for Health Sector Mitigation and Adaptation. Global Health Action. 5: 18428.

Huang, C-M., E. Chan, and A. A. Hyder. 2010. Web 2.0 and Internet Social Networking: A New Tool for Disaster Management? BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making. 10: 57. doi:10.1186/1472-6947-10-57.

Executive Summary

37

Hurley, G. C., and B. D. Prowell. 2005. Evaluation of Sasobit® for Use in Warm Mix Asphalt. NCAT Report 05-06. Auburn, AL: National Center for Asphalt Technology. http://www.ncat.us/files/reports/2005/rep05-06.pdf

Hussain, S. S. and M. Mudasser. 2007. Prospects for Wheat Production under Changing Climate in Mountain Areas of Pakistan: An Econometric Analysis. Agricultural Systems. 94 (2) pp. 494–501.

Ibrahim, H. M. 2011. Heat Stress in Food Legumes: Evaluation of Membrane Thermostability Methodology and Use of Infra-red Thermometry. Euphytica. 180 pp. 99–105.

Ichiguchi, T. 2011. Robust and Usable Media for Communication in a Disaster. Science and Technology Trends. 41 pp. 44–55.

India Central Water Commission (CWC) and Basin Planning and Management Organisation (BPMO). 2006. Evaporation Control in Reservoirs. New Delhi. Water Commission Basin Planning and Management Organisation. http://cwc.gov.in/main/downloads/Evaporation%20Control%20in%20reservoirs.pdf

Industrial Fabrics Association International (IFAI). 2011. GRI-24: Optimizing Sustainability Using Geosynthetics. Conference Proceedings. Dallas, Texas. 16 March.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 1990. Climate Change: The IPCC Response Strategies. In F. Bernthal, E. Dowdeswell, J. Luo, D. Attard, P. Vellinga, and R. Karimanzira, eds. First Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. World Meteorological Organization and United Nations Environment Programme.

———. 2007. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. In M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, and C. E. Hanson, eds. Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

———. 2012. Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. In C. B. Field, V. Barros, T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, D. J. Dokken, K. L. Ebi, M. D. Mastrandrea, K. J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S. K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P. M. Midgley, eds. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York: Cambridge University Press.

———. 2014. Asia. In T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex, and P. M. Midgley, eds. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York: Cambridge University Press. http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap24_FGDall.pdf

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 2006. Improving Animal Productivity by Supplementary Feeding of Multinutrient Blocks, Controlling Internal Parasites and Enhancing Utilization of Alternate Feed Resources. Vienna. Austria. International Atomic Energy Agency.

International Energy Agency–Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme (IEA-ETSAP) and International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 2012. Water Desalination Using Renewable Energy. Technology Brief I12. International Energy Agency Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme and International Renewable Energy Agency.

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). n. d. Feed Blocks: A Strategic Alternative Supplement for Small Ruminants Raised within Crop-livestock Systems under Semiarid Conditions. http://www.ifad.org/lrkm/tans/4.htm


38

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and United Nations University (UNU). 2009. Biodiversity Conservation and Response to Climate Variability at Community Level. Bangladesh.

International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 2009. Flexible Water Storage Options and Adaptation to Climate Change. IWMI Water Policy Brief 31. Colombo, Sri Lanka. http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Water_Policy_Briefs/PDF/WPB31.pdf

Irfanullah, H. M. 2013. Floating Gardening: A Local Lad Becoming a Climate Celebrity? Clean Slate. 88 pp. 26–27.

Irrigation Australia. 2007. Guidelines for Ring Tank Storages. 2nd edition. Hornsby, NSW: Irrigation Australia Ltd.

Islam, K. and R. Mechler. 2007. ORCHID: Piloting Climate Risk Screening in DFID Bangladesh: An Economic and Cost Benefit Analysis of Adaptation Options. University of Sussex, UK: Institute of Development Studies.

Islam, T., and P. Atkins. 2007. Indigenous Floating Cultivation: A Sustainable Agricultural Practice in the Wetlands of Bangladesh. Development in Practice. 17 (1) pp. 130–136.

ITS International. 2013. Hyderabad Seeks Comments on ITS Master Plan. 28 November. http://www.itsinternational.com/categories/detection-monitoring-machine-vision/news/hyderabad-seeks-comments-on-its-master-plan/

Jaiswal, P. 2010. Hope Floats in Great Flood. Hindustan Times. 23 September. http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/hope-floats-in-great-flood/article1-603891.aspx

Jat, M. L., P. Chandna, R. Gupta, S. K. Sharma, and M. A. Gill. 2006. Laser Land Leveling: A Precursor Technology for Resource Conservation. Rice-Wheat Consortium Technical Bulletin Series 7. New Delhi, India: Rice-Wheat Consortium for the Indo-Gangetic Plains.

Jose, C. and L. Friedman. 2013. Early Warning, Massive Evacuations Save Eastern India from Large Cyclone Casualties. ClimateWire. 15 October.

Kaaya, G. P., and M. Hedimbi. 2012. The Use of Entomopathogenic Fungi, Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae, as Bio-pesticides for Tick Control. International Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2 (6) pp. 254–250.

Kahlon, M. S., and R. Lal. 2011. Enhancing Green Water in Soils of South Asia. Journal of Crop Improvement. 25 (2) pp. 101–133.

Kan, H. 2011. Climate change and human health in China. Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (2) pp. A60–A61.

Kapur, D., R. Khosla, and P. B. Mehtal. 2009. Climate Change: India’s Options. Economic and Weekly. 44 (31) pp. 34–42.

Karimov, A., V. Smakhtin, A. Mavlonov, V. Borisov, I. Gracheva, F. Miryushupov, J. Djumanov, T. Khamzina, R. Ibragimov, and B. Abdurahmanov. 2013. Managed Aquifer Recharge: The Solution for Water Shortages in the Fergana Valley. Research Report 151 for the International Water Management Institute. http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/PUB151/RR151.pdf

Katukiza, A. Y., M. Ronteltap, C. B. Niwagaba, J. W. A. Foppen, F. Kansiime, and P. N. L. Lens. 2012. Sustainable Sanitation Technology Options for Urban Slums. Biotechnology Advances. 30 pp. 964–978.

Keoleian, G., A. Kendall, J. Dettling, V. Smith, R. Chandler, M. Lepech, and V. Li. 2005. Life Cycle Modeling of Concrete Bridge Design: Comparison of Engineered Cementitious Composite Link Slabs and Conventional Steel Expansion Joints. Journal of Infrastructure Systems. 11 (1).

Executive Summary

39

Khailani, D. K., and R. Perera. 2013. Mainstreaming Disaster Resilience Attributes in Local Development Plans for the Adaptation to Climate Change Induced Flooding: A Study Based on the Local Plan of Shah Alam City, Malaysia. Land Use Policy. 30 (1) pp. 615–627.

Khan, M. A. A., P. Amir, S.A. Ramay, Z. Munawar, and V. Ahmad. 2011. National Economic & Environmental Development Study (NEEDS). Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Environment. http://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/application/pdf/pakistanneeds.pdf

Khan, T., and S. Chandra. 2012. Effect of Warm Mix Additives on Mixing, Layering and Compaction Temperatures of Warm Mix Binders. Elixir Chemical Engineering. 44 pp. 7438–7441.

Kilian, A., N. Wijayanandana, and J. Ssekitoleeko. 2010. Review of Delivery Strategies for Insecticide Treated Mosquito Nets: Are We Ready for the Next Phase of Malaria Control Efforts? TropIKA.net Journal. 1 (1).

Kim, C.-G. 2009. The Impact of Climate Change on the Agricultural Sector: Implications of the Agro-industry for Low Carbon, Green Growth Strategy and Roadmap for the East Asian Region. Background policy paper. Korea Rural Economic Institute. http://www.unescap.org/esd/environment/lcgg/documents/roadmap/Policy-Papers/The -Impact-of-Climate-Change-on-the-Agricultural-Sector.pdf

Kim, Y., J. Lee, D. Cho, S. Yang, K. Jeong, Y. Kim, S. Kwon, and S. Hwang. 2011. Building Sustainable Pavements with Wax-Based Compound Using a Warm-Mix Asphalt Technology in Korea. In Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies (EASTS) Conference. Jeju, Republic of Korea. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/eastpro/2011/0/2011_0_278/_pdf

Kivlin, S. N., S. M. Emery, and J. A. Rudgers. 2013. Fungal Symbionts Alter Plant Responses to Global Change. American Journal of Botany. 100 (7) pp. 1445–1457.

Koerner, R. M. 2012. Designing with Geosynthetics. 6th edition. Indianapolis, IN: Xlibris Publishing Co.

Kornfeld, I. E. 2009. Mesopotamia: A History of Water and Law. The Evolution of the Law and Politics of Water. Netherlands: Springer.

Koshy, K. C., A. Koroi, N. Netaf, and C. Koya-Vaka’uta. 2011. Integrating Sustainability into Teaching and Research at the University of the South Pacific to Enhance Capacity for the Sustainable Development of Pacific Island Countries. Journal of Social Sciences. 7 (1) pp. 6–12.

Krysanova, V., C. Dickens, J. Timmerman, C. Varela-Ortega, M. Schlüter, K. Roest, P. Huntjens, F. Jaspers, H. Buiteveld, E. Moreno, J. de Pedraza Carrera, R. Slámová, M. Martínková, I. Blanco, P. Esteve, K. Pringle, C. Pahl-Wostl, and P. Kabat. 2010. Crosscomparison of Climate Change Adaptation Strategies across Large River Basins in Europe, Africa and Asia. Water Resource Management. 24 pp. 4121–4160.

Kuang, C., Y. Pan, Y. Zhang, S. Liu, Y. Yang, J. Zhang, and P. Dong. 2011. Performance Evaluation of a Beach Nourishment Project at West Beach in Beidaihe, China. Journal of Coastal Research. 27 (4) p. 769.

Lahnsteiner, J., and G. Lemper. 2005. Water Management in Windhoek/Namibia. http://www2.gtz.de/Dokumente/oe44/ecosan/en-water-management-windhoek -namibia-2005.pdf

Lantagne, D., and T. Clasen. 2009. Point of Use Water Treatment in Emergency Response. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.


40

Lantagne, D., R. Quick, and D. Mintz. 2006. Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage Options in Developing Countries: A Review of Current Implementation Practices. The Wilson Center. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/household-water -treatment-and-safe-storage-options-developing-countries-review-current

Laurent, P. 2005. Household Drinking Water Systems and Their Impact on People with Weakened Immunity. Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) Holland. http://www.who.int/household_water/research/HWTS_impacts_on_weakened_immunity.pdf

Law, A. 2012. Evaluating the Cost-Effectiveness of Drought Early Warning-Early Response Systems for Food Security: A Cost-Benefit Analysis of Ethiopia’s Livelihoods, Early Assessment and Protection (LEAP) System. Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford.

Lazo, J. K., D. M. Waldman, B. H. Morow, and J. A. Thacher. 2010. Household Evacuations Decision Making and the Benefits of Improved Hurricane Forecasting: Developing a Framework for Assessment. Weather and Forecasting. 25 pp. 207–219.

Lebel, L., and B. Sinh. 2009. Risk Reduction or Redistribution? Flood Management in the Mekong Region. Asian Journal of Environment and Disaster Management. 1 (1) pp. 23–29.

Lebel, L., J. Xu, C. R. Bastakoti, and A. Lamba. 2010. Pursuits of Adaptiveness in the Shared Rivers of Monsoon Asia. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. 10 (4) pp. 355–375.

Leontiadis, I., G. Marfia, D. Mack, G. Pau, C. Mascolo, and M. Gerla. 2011. On the Effectiveness of an Opportunistic Traffic Management System for Vehicular Networks. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems. 12 (4) pp. 1537–1548.

Lepech, M. D., G. A. Keoleian, S. Qian, and V. C. Li. 2008. Design of Green Engineered Cementitious Composites for Pavement Overlay Applications. In F. Biondini and D. M. Frangopol, eds. Life-cycle Civil Engineering. London, UK: Taylor & Francis Group.

Leslie, J. 2013. A Torrent of Consequences. World Policy Journal. 30 (2) pp. 59–69. http://www.worldpolicy.org/journal/summer2013/torrent-consequences.

Lewis, S. L., B. H. Feighner, W. A. Loschen, R. A. Wojcik, J. F. Skora, J. S. Coberly, and D. L. Blazes. 2011. SAGES: A Suite of Freely-Available Software Tools for Electronic Disease Surveillance in Resource-Limited Settings. PLoS ONE. 6 (5): e19750.

Li, J., and H. R. Rao. 2010. Twitter as a Rapid Response News Service: An Exploration in the Context of the 2008 China Earthquake. Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries. 42 (4) pp. 1–22.

Li, Q., L. Mills, and S. McNeil. 2011. The Implications of Climate Change on Pavement Performance and Design. Report submitted to the University of Delaware Transportation Center (UD-UTC).

Li, V. 2003. On Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC): A Review of Materials and Applications. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology. 1 (3) pp. 215–230.

Li, V., M. Lepech, S. Wang, M. Weimann, and G. Keoleian. 2004. Development of Green Engineered Cementitious Composites for Sustainable Infrastructure Systems. International Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology. http://www.stanford.edu/~mlepech/pubs/sdcd.greenecc.04.pdf

Li, Y., L. Fang, S. Gao, Z. Wang, H. Gao, P. Liu, Z. Wang, Y. Li, X. Zhu, X. Li, B. Xu, Y. Li, H. Yang, S. J. de Vlas, T. Shi, and W. Cao. 2013. Decision Support System for the Response to Infectious Disease Emergencies Based on WebGIS and Mobile Services in China. PLoS ONE. 8 (1): e54842.

Executive Summary

41

Liang, S. 2013. A Joint Water Diversion Olan for China. Journal – American Water Works Association. 105 (5) pp. E264–E277.

Lin, B. B., Y. B. Khoo, M. Inman, C. H. Wang, S. Tapsuwan, and X. Wang. 2013. Assessing Inundation Damage and Timing of Adaptation: Sea Level Rise and the Complexities of Land Use in Coastal Communities. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. doi. 10.1007/s11027-013-9448-0.

Lioubimtseva, E. and G. M. Henebry. 2009. Climate and Environmental Change in Arid Central Asia: Impacts, Vulnerability, and Adaptations. Journal of Arid Environments. 73 pp. 963–977.

Liu, C. 2013. Climate Change Threatens Nepali Farmers’ Livelihood and Nation’s Food Security. ClimateWire. http://www.eenews.net/stories/1059989036.

Liu, J., C. Zang, S. Tian, J. Liu, H. Yang, S. Jia, L. You, B. Liu, and M. Zhang. 2013. Water Conservancy Projects in China: Achievements, Challenges and Way Forward. Global Environmental Change. 23 (3) pp. 633–643.

Liverani, M., P. Hanvoravongchai, and R. J. Coker. 2012. Communicable Diseases and Governance: A Tale of Two Regions. Global Public Health: An International Journal for Research, Policy and Practice. 7 (6) pp. 574–587. doi: 10.1080/17441692.2012.685487.

Lloyd, S., R. Kovats, and Z. Chalabi. 2011. Climate Change, Crop Yields, and Undernutrition: Development of a Model to Quantify the Impact of Climate Scenarios on Child Undernutrition. Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (12) pp. 1817–1823.

Lobell, D. B., M. B. Burke, C. Tebaldi, M. D. Mastrandrea, W. P. Falcon, and R. L. Naylor. 2008. Prioritizing Climate Change Adaptation Needs for Food Security in 2030. Science New Series. 319 (5863) pp. 607–610.

Lockwood, S. 2006. Operational Responses to Climate Change Impacts. Report prepared for TRB/DELS Study on Climate Change and US Transportation.

Long, S. P., E. A. Ainsworth, A. D. B. Leakey, J. Nosberger, and D. Ort. 2006. Food for Thought: Lower-than-Expected Crop Yield Stimulation with Rising CO2 Concentrations. Science. 312 (5782) pp. 1918–1921.

Lovell, S. T., and D. Johnston. 2009. Designing Landscapes for Performance Based on Emerging Principles in Landscape Ecology. Ecology and Society. 14 (1) p. 44.

Lover, A. A., B. A. Sutton, A. J. Asy, and A. Wilder-Smith. 2011. An Exploratory Study of Treated-Bed Nets in Timor-Leste: Patterns of Intended and Alternative Usage. Malaria Journal. 10 p. 199.

Lozano-Fuentes, S., C. M. Barker, M. Coleman, M. Coleman, B. Park, W. K. Reisen, and L. Eisen. 2011. Emerging Information Technologies to Provide Improved Decision Support for Surveillance, Prevention, and Control of Vector-Borne Diseases. In C. Jao, ed. Efficient Decision Support Systems: Practice and Challenges in Biomedical Related Domain.

Luoto, J., N. Najnin, M. Mahmud, J. Albert, M. S. Islam, S. Luby, L. Unicomb, and D. Levine. 2011. What Point-of-Use Water Treatment Products Do Consumers Use? Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial among the Urban Poor in Bangladesh. PLoS ONE. 6 (10): e26132. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0026132.

Lybbert, T. J. and D. A. Sumner. 2012. Agricultural Technologies for Climate Change in Developing countries: Policy Options for Innovation and Technology Diffusion. Food Policy. 37 (1) pp. 114–123.


42

Lybbert, T. J., N. Magnan, D. J. Spielman, A. K. Bhargava, and K. Gulati. 2012. Farmers’ Heterogeneous Valuation of Laser Land Leveling in Eastern Uttar Pradesh: An Experimental Auction Approach to Informing Segmentation & Subsidy Strategies. Presented at the International Association of Agricultural Economists (IAAE) Triennial Conference. Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil. 18–24 August.

Mabey, D., R. W. Peeling, A. Ustianowski, and M. D. Perkins. 2004. Tropical Infectious Diseases: Diagnostics for the Developing World. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2 pp. 231–240.

Mahmud, T. and M. Prowse. 2012. Corruption in Cyclone Preparedness and Relief Efforts in Coastal Bangladesh: Lessons for Climate Adaptation? Global Environmental Change. 22 (4) pp. 933–943.

Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water (MOEEW). 2008. National Adaptation Programme of Action. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/mdv01.pdf

Maldives Ministry of Housing and Environment. (MHE). 2010. National Economic Environment Development Studies. http://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/application/pdf/maldivesneeds.pdf

Mallick, F. and A. Rahman. 2013. Cyclone and Tornado Risk and Reduction Approaches in Bangladesh. In R. Shaw, F. Mallick, and I. Islam, eds. Disaster Risk Reduction Approaches in Bangladesh. Japan: Springer.

Manguerra, H., A. J. Morris, and Z. R. Toups. 2010. Mobile LiDAR: Supporting Multiple Data Needs for Mapping and Modeling Urban Environments. Presented at the Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation, Water Environment Federation Technical Exhibition and Conference (WEFTEC).

Mapato, C., M. Wanapat, and A. Cherdthong. 2010. Effects of Urea Treatment of Straw and Dietary Level of Vegetable Oil on Lactating Dairy Cows. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 42 pp. 1635–1642.

Markandya, A., and A. Chiabai. 2009. Valuing Climate Change Impacts on Human Health: Empirical Evidence from the Literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 6 pp. 759–786.

Marks, S. and K. Clay. 1990. Effects of CO2 Enrichment, Nutrient Addition, and Fungal Endophyte Infection on the Growth of Two Grasses. Oecologia. 84 pp. 207–214.

Martinez, F., C-K. Toh, J-C. Cano, C. Calafate, and P. Manzoni. 2010. Emergency Services in Future Intelligent Transportation Systems Based on Vehicular Communication Networks. IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine, Summer: 6–20. http://monet.knu.ac.kr/~cktoh/data/Emergency_Services.pdf

Mascarenhas, A. 2004. Oceanographic Validity of Buffer Zones for the East Coast of India: A Hydrometeorological Perspective. Current Science. 86 (3) pp. 399–406.

Mayxay, M., P. N. Newton, S. Yeung, T. Pongvongsa, S. Phompida, R. Phetsouvanh, and N. J. White. 2004. Short Communication: An Assessment of the Use of Malaria Rapid Tests by Village Health Volunteers in Rural Laos. Tropical Medicine and International Health. 9 (3) pp. 325–329.

McMichael, T., H. Montgomery, and A. Costello. 2012. Health Risks, Present and Future, from Global Climate Change. BMJ 344. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e1359

Mezher, T., H. Fath, Z. Abbas, and A. Khaled. 2011. Techno-economic Assessment and Environmental Impacts of Desalination Technologies. Desalination. 266: 263–273.

Executive Summary

43

Minard, A. 2009. Bendable Concrete Heals Itself – Just Add Water. National Geographic News. 5 May. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/05/090505-self -healing-concrete.html

Mir, R. R., M. Zaman-Allah, N. Sreenivasulu, R. Trethowan, and R. K. Varshney. 2012. Integrated Genomics, Physiology and Breeding Approaches for Improving Drought Tolerance in Crops. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 125 pp. 625–645.

Molden, D., T. Oweis, P. Steduto, P. Bindraban, M. A. Hanjra, and J. Kijne. 2010. Improving Agricultural Water Productivity: Between Optimism and Caution. Agricultural Water Management. 97: 528–535.

Moller, M. and E. K. Weatherhead. 2007. Evaluating Drip Irrigation in Commercial Tea Production in Tanzania. Irrigation and Drainage Systems. 21: 17–34.

Monnereau, I. and S. Abraham. 2013. Limits to Autonomous Adaptation in Response to Coastal Erosion in Kosrae, Micronesia. International Journal of Global Warming. 5 (4) pp. 416–432.

Moody, A. 2002. Rapid Diagnostic Tests for Malaria Parasites. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 15 (1) pp. 66–78.

Moore, M., D. J. Dausey, B. Phommasack, S. Touch, L. Guoping, S. L. Nyein, K. Ungchusak, N. D. Vung, and M. K. Oo. 2012. Sustainability of Sub-regional Disease Surveillance Networks. Global Health Governance V (2): Spring.

Moore, S. 2013. China’s Massive Water Problem. New York Times. 28 March. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/29/opinion/global/chinas-massive-water-problem.html

Morel, C. M., N. D. Thang, A. Erhart, N. X. Xa, K. P. Grietens, L. X. Hung, L. K. Thuan, P. V. Ky, N. M. Hung, M. Coosemans, U. D’Alessandro, and A. Mills. 2013. Cost-Effectiveness of Long-Lasting Insecticide-Treated Hammocks in Preventing Malaria in South-Central Vietnam. PloS One. 8 (3). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058205.

Morris, M., K. Dreher, J. Ribaut, and M. Khairallah. 2003. Money Matters (II): Costs of Maize Inbred Line Conversion Schemes at CIMMYT Using Conventional and Marker-Assisted Selection. Molecular Breeding. 11: 235–247.

Morse, S. S. 2012. Public Health Surveillance and Infectious Disease Detection. Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science. 10 (1): 16.

Morshed, G., and A. Sobhan. 2010. The Search for Appropriate Latrine Solutions for FloodProne areas of Bangladesh. Waterlines. 29 (3) pp. 236–245.

Morton, J. 2007. The Impact of Climate Change on Smallholder and Subsistence Agriculture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America. 104 (50) pp. 19680–19685.

Murray, C. K., R. A. Gasser, A. J. Magill, and R. S. Miller. 2008. Update on Rapid Diagnostic Testing for Malaria. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 21 (1) pp. 97–110.

Nardone, A., B. Ronchi, N. Lacetera, M. S. Ranieri, and U. Bernabucci. 2010. Effects of Climate Changes on Animal Production and Sustainability of Livestock Systems. Livestock Science. 130: 57–69.

Naresh, R. K., R. K. Gupta, A. Kumar, S. Prakesh, S. S. Tomar, A. Singh, R. C. Rathi, A. K. Misra, and M. Singh. 2011. Impact of Laser Land Leveler for Enhancing Water Productivity in Western Uttar Pradesh. International Journal of Agricultural Engineering. 4 (2) pp. 133–147.


44

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), US. 2009. Thorthormi Glacier Lake, Bhutan. NASA Earth Observatory image by Robert Simmon. 1 November. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id = 40962

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), US. 2007. Driven to Extremes: Health Effects of Climate Change. Environmental Health Perspectives. 115 (4) pp. A196–A203.

Naylor, R. L., D. S. Battisti, D. J. Vimont, W. P. Falcon, and M. B. Burke. 2007. Assessing Risks of Climate Variability and Climate Change for Indonesian Rice Agriculture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (19) pp. 7752–7757.

Nellemann, C., and E. Corcoran, eds. 2010. Dead Planet, Living Planet: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Restoration for Sustainable Development. A rapid response assessment. Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal.

Nelson, K. D. 2011. Design and Construction of Small Earth Dams. 3rd edition. Crows Nest, NSW: Engineers Media.

Nepal, S. K. 2011. Mountain Tourism and Climate Change: Implications for the Nepal Himalaya. Nepal Tourism & Development Review. 1 (1) pp. 1–14.

Nepal Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MOSTE). 2010. National Adaptation Programme of Action. Kathmandu. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/npl01.pdf

NetComposites. 2005. University Researchers Apply Flexible Fibre Reinforced Concrete to US Bridge. 5 June. http://www.netcomposites.com/news/university-researchers-apply-flexible-fibre-reinforced-concrete-to-us-bridge/2962

Nguyen, H. and J. Pearce. 2011. Community-Scale Wind-Powered Desalination for Selected Coastal Mekong Provinces in Vietnam. In M. A. Stewart and P. A. Coclanis, eds. Springer.

Nienaber, J. A. and G. L. Hahn. 2007. Livestock Production System Management Responses to Thermal Challenges. International Journal of Biometeorology. 52: 149–157.

Olson, T., C. Chase, C. Lucena, E. Godoy, A. Zuniga, and R. Collier. 2006. Effect of Hair Characteristics on the Adaptation of Cattle to Warm Climates. In Proceedings of the 8th World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production. Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 13–18 August.

Onishi, N. 2011. In Japan, Seawall Offered a False Sense of Security. New York Times. 31 March. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/02/world/asia/02wall.html?pagewanted = all

Oregon State University (OSU). 2012. Flexible Pavement Distress: Transverse (Thermal) Cracking. http://classes.engr.oregonstate.edu/cce/winter2012/ce492/Modules/09 _pavement_evaluation/09-7_body.htm#transverse_cracking

Ortiz, R., K. D. Sayre, B. Govaerts, R. Gupta, G. V. Subbarao, T. Ban, D. Hodson, J. M. Dixon, J. I. Ortiz-Monasterio, and M. Reynolds. 2008. Climate Change: Can Wheat Beat the Heat? Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 126 (1–2) pp. 46–58.

Oweis, T. and A. Hachum. 2004. Water Harvesting and Supplemental Irrigation for Improved Water Productivity of Dry Farming Systems in West Asia and North Africa. Proceedings of the 4th International Crop Science Congress. Brisbane, Australia. 26 September– 1 October .

Padgham, J. 2009. Agricultural Development under a Changing Climate: Opportunities and Challenges for Adaptation. Joint Departmental Discussion Paper. Issue 1: Agriculture and Rural Development & Environment Departments. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Executive Summary

45

Palada, M., S. Bhattarai, M. Roberts, N. Baxter, M. Bhattarai, R. Kimsan, S. Kan, and D. Wu. 2010. Increasing On-Farm Water Productivity through Farmer-Participatory Evaluation of Affordable Microirrigation Vegetable-Based Technology in Cambodia. Journal of Applied Irrigation Science. 49 (2) pp. 133–143.

Palanisami, K., K. Mohan, K. R. Kakumanu, and S. Raman. 2011. Spread and Economics of Micro-irrigation in India: Evidence from Nine States. Economic & Political Weekly Supplement. XLVI (26–27) pp. 81–86.

Pantanella, E., M. Cardarelli, P. P. Danieli, A. MacNiven, and G. Colla. 2011. Integrated Aquaculture–Floating Agriculture: Is It a Valid Strategy to Raise Livelihood? Acta Horticulturae (International Society for Horticultural Science). 921: 79–86.

Paul, B. K. and S. Dutt. 2010. Hazard Warnings and Responses to Evacuation Orders: The Case of Bangladesh’s Cyclone Sidr. The Geographical Review. 100 (3) pp. 336–355.

Pender, J. 2008. Community-Led Adaptation in Bangladesh. Forced Migration Review. 31: 54–55.

Pennisi, E. 2003. Fungi Shield New Host Plants from Heat and Drought. Science. 301 (5639) p. 1466.

Perry, C., P. Steduto, R. G. Allen, and C. M. Burt. 2009. Increasing Productivity in Irrigated Agriculture: Agronomic Constraints and Hydrological Realities. Agricultural Water Management. 96: 1517–1524.

Piao, S., P. Ciais, Y. Huang, Z. Shen, S. Peng, J. Li, L. Zhou, H. Liu, Y. Ma, Y. Ding, P. Friedlingstein, C. Liu, K. Tan, Y. Yu, T. Zhang, and J. Fang. 2010. The Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources and Agriculture in China. Nature. 467 (2) pp. 43–51.

Piette, J. D., K. C. Lun, L. A. Moura Jr., H. S. F. Fraser, P. N. Mechael, J. Powell, and S. R. Khoja. 2012. Impacts of e-Health on the Outcomes of Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Where Do We Go from Here? Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 90: 365–372.

Pilkey, O. H., and H. L. Wright. 1988. Seawalls versus Beaches. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 4: The Effects of Seawalls on the Beach (Autumn 1988). pp. 41–64.

Pollner, J., J. Kryspin-Watson, and S. Nieuwejaar. 2008. Disaster Risk Management and Climate Change Adaptation in Europe and Central Asia. Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. http://www.gfdrr.org/sites/gfdrr.org/files/publication/GFDRR_DRM_and_CCA_ECA.pdf

Port Technology International (PTI). 2014. Cavotec Looks to the Long Term Despite Revenue Slump. 27 February. http://www.porttechnology.org/news/cavotec_looks _to_the_long_term_despite_revenue_slump/#.U2K-iVfW71U.

Procter & Gamble (P&G). 2013. Children’s Safe Drinking Water. http://www.csdw.org/csdw/index.shtml

Prowell, B. D. 2007. Warm Mix Asphalt Scan Summary Report. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. http://international.fhwa.dot.gov/pubs/wma/wma.pdf

Racloz, V., R. Ramsey, S. Tong, and W. Hu. 2012. Surveillance of Dengue Fever Virus: A Review of Epidemiological Models and Early-Warning Systems. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 6 (5): e1648. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001648.

Raj, K. B. G., S. N. Remya, and K. Vinod Kumar. 2013. Remote Sensing-Based Hazard Assessment of Glacial Lakes in Sikkim Himalaya. Current Science. 104 (3) pp. 359–364.


46

Rakhmatullaev, S., F. Huneau, P. Le Coustumer, M. Motelica-Heino, and M. Bakiev. 2010. Facts and Perspectives of Water Reservoirs in Central Asia: A Special Focus on Uzbekistan. Water. 2: 307–320.

Rambags, F., K. J. Raat, I. Leunk, and G. A. van den Berg. 2011. Flood Proof Wells: Guidelines for the Design and Operation of Water Abstraction Wells in Areas at Risk of Flooding. Report No. PREPARED 2011.007. http://www.wise-rtd.info/sites/default/files/d-2011-11-24 -PREPARED_Flood_proof_wells_-_Guidelines_for_the_design_and_operation _of_water_abstraction_wells_in_areas_at_risk_of_flooding_D5.2.1.pdf

Ratnakumar, P., V. Vadez, L. Krishnamurthy, and G. Rajendrudu. 2011. Semi-arid Crop Responses to Atmospheric Elevated CO2. Plant Stress. 5 (1) pp. 42–51.

Read, D. J. 1999. Mycorrhiza: The State of the Art. In A. Varma and B. Hock, eds., Mycorrhiza. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Redman, R. S., Y. O. Kim, C. J. D. A. Woodward, C. Greer, L. Espino, S. L. Doty, and R. J. Rodriguez. 2011. Increased Fitness of Rice Plants to Abiotic Stress via Habitat Adapted Symbiosis: A Strategy for Mitigating Impacts of Climate Change. PLoS ONE. 6 (7): e14823.

Redman, R. S., M. J. Roossinck, S. Maher, Q. C. Andrews, W. L. Schneider, and R. J. Rodriguez. 2002. Field Performance of Cucurbit and Tomato Plants Colonized with a Nonpathogenic Mutant of Colletotrichum magna (teleomorph: Glomerella magna; Jenkins and Winstead). Symbiosis. 32 pp. 55–70.

Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System for Africa and Asia (RIMES). n. d. About RIMES: Overview. http://www.rimes.int/about_overview.php

Renaudeau, D., A. Collin, S. Yahav, V. de Basilio, J. Gourdine, and R. J. Collier. 2010. Adaptation to Tropical Climate and Research Strategies to Alleviate Heat Stress in Livestock Production. Advances in Animal Biosciences. 6 (5) pp. 707–728.

Resources, Environment and Economics Center for Studies, Inc. (REECS). 2010. National Environmental, Economic and Development Study (NEEDS) for Climate Change. http://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/application/pdf/philippinesneeds.pdf

Rodriguez, R. J., R. S. Redman, and J. M. Henson. 2004. The Role of Fungal Symbioses in the Adaptation of Plants to High Stress Environments. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 9: 261–272.

Rogers, D., and V. Tsirkunov. 2011. Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction. United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) and World Bank.

Rosa, G. and T. Clasen. 2010. Estimating the Scope of Household Water Treatment in Low- and Medium-Income Countries. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 82 (2) pp. 289–300.

Roy, D., J. Barr, and H. D. Venema. 2011. Ecosystem Approaches in Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM): A Review of Transboundary River Basins. United Nations Environment Programme and the International Institute for Sustainable Development

Russell, T. L., D. W. Lwetoijera, D. Maliti, B. Chipwaza, J. Kihonda, J. D. Charlwood, T. A. Smith, C. Lengeler, M. A. Mwanyangala, R. Nathan, B. G. J. Knols, W. Takken, and G. F. Killeen. 2010. Impact of Promoting Longer-Lasting Insecticide Treatment of Bed Nets upon Malaria Transmission in a Rural Tanzanian Setting with Pre-existing High Coverage of Untreated Nets. Malaria Journal. 9: 187. doi:10.1186/1475-2875-9-187.

Executive Summary

47

Sachs, J., R. Remans, S. Smukler, L. Winowiecki, S. J. Andelman, K. G. Cassman, D. Castle, R. DeFries, G. Denning, J. Fanzo, L. E. Jackson, D. R. Leemans, J. Lehmann, J. C. Milder, S. Naeem, G. Nziguheba, C. A. Palm, P. L. Pingali, J. P. Reganold, D. D. Richter, S. J. Scherr, J. Sircely, C. Sullivan, T. P. Tomich, and P. A. Sanchez. 2010. Monitoring the World’s Agriculture. Nature. 466: 558–560.

Sahmaran, M. and V. Li. 2010. Engineered Cementitious Composites: Can Composites Be Accepted as Crack-Free Concrete? Journal of the Transportation Research Board. 2164: 1–8.

Salem, M. B. and R. Bouraoui. 2009. Heat Stress in Tunisia: Effects on Dairy Cows and Potential Means of Alleviating It. South African Journal of Animal Science. 39 (5) pp. 259.

Salem, M. B., M. Djemali, C. Kayouli, and A. Majdoub. 2006. A Review of Environmental and Management Factors Affecting the Reproductive Performance of Holstein-Friesian Dairy Herds in Tunisia. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 18 (4).

Samoa National Climate Change Country Team (NCCCT). 1999. First National Communication to the UNFCCC. Department of Lands, Surveys and Environment. Samoa. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/samnc1.pdf

Sanyal, J., and X. X. Lu. 2009. Ideal Location for Flood Shelter: A Geographic Information System Approach. Journal of Flood Risk Management. 2 (4) pp. 262–271.

Sarsby, R. W., ed. 2007. Geosynthetics in Civil Engineering. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd.

Schmidt, C. W. 2012. Trending Now: Using Social Media to Predict and Track Disease Outbreaks. Environmental Health Perspectives. 120 (1) pp. a30.

Schwab, J. 2013. High and Dry on the Waterfront. Zoning Practice Issue Number 11: Practice Adaptive. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association.

Schweitzer, J. and C. Synowiec. 2012. The Economics of e-Health and m-Health. Journal of Health Communication. 17 pp. 73–81.

Scott, H., D. McEvoy, P. Chhetri, F. Basic, and J. Mullett. 2013. Climate Change Adaptation Guidelines for Ports. Enhancing the Resilience of Seaports to a Changing Climate Report. National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility. http://global-cities.info/ wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Climate-resilient-ports-series-Adaptation -Guidelines.pdf

Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP). 2012. Pacific Environment and Climate Change. Samoa: Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme. http://www.unep.org/pdf/PEECO.pdf

Shah, T. 2009. Climatic Change and Groundwater: India’s Opportunities for Mitigation and Adaptation. Strategic Analyses of the National River Linking Project (NRLP) of India: Series 5. Proceedings of the Second National Workshop on Strategic Issues in Indian Irrigation. International Water Management Institute. http://sa.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/strategic%20issues%20in%20indian%20irrigation.pdf#page = 184

Shah, T., M. U. Hassan, M. Z. Khattak, P. S. Bannerjee, O. P. Singh, and S. U. Rehman. 2009. Irrigation Water Free? A Reality Check in the Indo-Gangetic Basin. World Development. 37 (2) pp. 422–434.

Shah, T. and J. Keller. 2002. Micro-irrigation and the Poor: A Marketing Challenge in Smallholder Irrigation Development. Regional Seminar on Private Sector Participation and Irrigation Expansion in Sub-Saharan Africa. Accra, Ghana.


48

Shaheen, S., M. Camel, and K. Lee. 2012. Exploring the Future of Integrated Transportation Systems in the United States from 2030 to 2050: Application of a Scenario Planning Tool. Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting. 15 November.

Sheffield, P. E., and P. J. Landrigan. 2011. Global Climate Change and Children’s Health: Threats and Strategies for Prevention. Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (3) pp. 291–298.

Shepard, C. C., C. M. Crain, and M. W. Beck. 2011. The Protective Role of Coastal Marshes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. PLoS One. 6 (11): e27374.

Shepherd, A., T. Mitchell, K. Lewis, A. Lenhardt, L. Jones, L. Scott, and R. Muir-Wood. 2013. UK: The Geography of Poverty, Disasters and Climate Extremes in 2030. Overseas Development Institute.

Shiba, N., E. Tsuneishi, M. Matsuzaki, and S. Shioya. 2003. Effect of Linseed Oil Calcium Salt on the Methane Emission and Carcass Characteristics of Beef Cattle. Nihon Chikusan Gakkaiho. 74: 37–42. (In Japanese.)

Shibata, M., and F. Terada. 2010. Factors Affecting Methane Production and Mitigation in Ruminants. Animal Science Journal. 81 (1) pp. 2–10.

Shimi, A. C., G. A. Parvin, C. Biswas, and R. Shaw. 2010. Impact and Adaptation to Flood: A Focus on Water Supply, Sanitation and Health Problems of Rural Community in Bangladesh. Disaster Prevention and Management. 19 (3) pp. 298.

ShoreTension. 2014. ShoreTension Website. http://www.shoretension.nl.

Shrestha, B. B., H. Nakagawa, K. Kawaike, Y. Baba, and H. Zhang. 2013. Glacial Hazards in the Rolwaling Valley of Nepal and Numerical Approach to Predict Potential Outburst Flood from Glacial Lake. Landslides. 10 (3) pp. 299–313.

Sima, L. and M. Elimelech. 2013. More than a Drop in the Bucket: Decentralized MembraneBased Drinking Water Refill Stations in Southeast Asia. Environmental Science & Technology. 47 pp. 7580–7588.

Singh, S., M. Gathala, H. Pathak, R. K. Gupta, J. K. Ladha, Y. S. Saharawat, M. L. Jat, K. Singh, and R. K. Malik. 2009. Evaluation and Promotion of Integrated Crop and Resource Management in the Rice-Wheat System in Northwest India. AGRIS: International Information System for the Agricultural Science and Technology, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?f = 2011/QR/QR1101.xml;QR2010000045

Smithius, F. M., M. K. Kyaw, U. O. Phe, I. van der Broek, N. Katterman, C. Rogers, P. Almeida, P. A. Kager, K. Stepniewska, Y. Lubell, J. A. Simpson, and N. J. White. 2013. The Effect of Insecticide-Treated Bed Nets on the Incidence and Prevalence of Malaria in Children in an Area of Unstable Seasonal Transmission in Western Myanmar. Malaria Journal. 12.

Sovacool, B., A. L. D’Agostino, H. Meenawat, and A. Rawlani. 2012. Expert Views of Climate Change Adaptation in Least Developed Asia. Journal of Environmental Management. 97: 78–88.

Sovacool, B. K., A.L. D’Agostino, A. Rawlani, and H. Meenawat. 2012. Improving Climate Change Adaptation in Least Developed Asia. Environmental Science & Policy. 21: 112–125.

Srivastava, A., S. N. Kumar, and P. K. Aggarwal. 2010. Assessment on Vulnerability of Sorghum to Climate Change in India. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 138: 160–169.

Executive Summary

49

Starbird, K. and L. Palen. 2011. “Voluntweeters”: Self-Organizing by Digital Volunteers in Times of Crisis. CHI 2011 Vancouver, BC, Canada. 7–12 May.

Stemp-Morlock, G. 2007. Australia’s War on Drought. Environmental Health Perspectives. 115 (7) pp. A348.

Sterrett, C. 2011. Review of Climate Change Adaptation Practices in South Asia. Melbourne, Australia: Climate Concern. http://www.oxfam.org/en/grow/policy/review -climate-change-adaptation-practices-south-asia

Stucker, D., J. Kazbekov, M. Yakubov, and K. Wegerich. 2012. Climate Change in a Small Transboundary Tributary of the Syr Darya Calls for Effective Cooperation and Adaptation. Mountain Research and Development. 32 (3) pp. 275–285.

Subbiah, A. R. 2006. Changing Perceptions and Practices in Risk Management: Climate Field Schools. Disaster Reduction in Asia Pacific. UNISDR Informs. 2: 38.

Takemoto, S. 2011. Moving towards Climate-Smart Flood Management in Bangkok and Tokyo. Master’s Thesis for a Master in City Planning Degree at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Tao, F., M. Yokozawa, Y. Hayashi, and E. Lin. 2003. Future Climate Change, the Agricultural Water Cycle, and Agricultural Production in China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 95: 203–215.

Thornton, P. K. and M. Herrero. 2010. Potential for Reduced Methane and Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Livestock and Pasture Management in the Tropics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (46) pp. 19667–19672.

Tran, M. 2013. Aquatic Agriculture Offers a New Solution to the Problem of Water Scarcity. The Guardian. 5 January. http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty -matters/2013/jan/05/marine-agriculture-solution-water-scarcity

Traore, B., M. Corbeels, M. T. van Wijk, M. C. Rufino, and K. E. Giller. 2013. Effects of Climate Variability and Climate Change on Crop Production in Southern Mali. European. Journal of Agronomy. 49: 115–125.

Turral, H., M. Svendsen, and J. M. Faures. 2010. Investing in Irrigation: Reviewing the Past and Looking to the Future. Agricultural Water Management. 97: 551–560.

United Nations. 2006. Global Survey of Early-Warning Systems: An Assessment of Capacities, Gaps and Opportunities towards Building a Comprehensive Global Early Warning System for All Natural Hazards. http://www.unisdr.org/2006/ppew/info-resources/ewc3/Global-Survey-of-Early-Warning-Systems.pdf

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Government of Armenia, and the Global Environment Facility. 2003. Capacity Building in the Republic of Armenia for Technology Needs Assessment and Technology Transfer for Addressing Climate Change Problems. Country Study on Climate Change, Project II Phase. http://unfccc.int/ttclear/sunsetcms/storage/contents/stored-file-20130313103502137/ReportCCArmII_2003_Eng.pdf

United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). 2011. Pooling Water Systems in a Small Developing Island: Cebu City, Philippines’ Integrated Stormwater Management. http://www.unescap.org/esd/environment/lcgg/documents/roadmap/case_study_fact_sheets/Case%20Studies/ CS-Philippines-Integrated-Stormwater-Management.pdf


50

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 1998. Sourcebook of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Small Island Developing States. Division of Technology, Industry and Economics. http://www.unep.or.jp/i.e.tc/Publications/techpublications/TechPub-8d/index.asp

———. 2007. Dams and Development: Relevant Practices for Improved Decision-Making: A Compendium of Relevant Practices for Improved Decision-Making on Dams and Their Alternatives. http://www.unep.org/dams/files/compendium/compendium.pdf

———. 2010a. Clearing the Waters: A Focus on Water Quality Solutions. http://www.unep.org/PDF/Clearing_the_Waters.pdf

———. 2010b. Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: Coastal Erosion and Flooding. http://tech-action.org/Guidebooks/TNA_Guidebook_AdaptationCoastalErosion Flooding.pdf

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Afghanistan National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA), and the Global Environment Facility (GEF). 2009. Afghanistan: National Capacity Needs Self-assessment for Global Environmental Management (NCSA) and National Adaptation Programme of Action for Climate Change (NAPA). http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/afg01.pdf

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2000. Sri Lanka: Initial National Communication under the UNFCCC. Final draft. 27 October. http://unfccc.int/ttclear/sunsetcms/storage/contents/stored-file-20130313150045305/SriLankaINC_finaldraft.pdf

———. 2005. Report on the Seminar on the Development and Transfer of Technologies for Adaptation to Climate Change: Note by the Secretariat. FCCC/SBSTA/2005/8.

———. 2006. Technologies for Adaptation to Climate Change. Bonn, Germany.

———. 2010. Indonesia’s Technology Needs Assessment on Climate Change Mitigation – Synthesis Report. Minister of Environment, Minister of Research and Technology, Chairman of Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology. http://unfccc.int/ttclear/sunsetcms/storage/contents/stored-file-20130313114859662/TNA_%202010%20FULL%20VERSION-indonesia.pdf

———. n. d. Community-based Coastal Habitat Restoration (“Green Project”). http://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/application/pdf/13eba.pdf

———. n. d. Database on Ecosystem-based Approaches to Adaptation. http://unfccc.int/adaptation/nairobi_work_programme/knowledge_resources_and_publications/items/6227.php.

United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat). 2008. Constructed Wetlands Manual. Kathmandu, Nepal: UN-Habitat Water for Asian Cities Programme.

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). 2011. At the Crossroads: Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia and the Pacific: A Review of the Region’s Institutional and Policy Landscape. http://www.unisdr.org/files/21414_21414apregionalmappingdrrcca1.pdf

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2012. A Toolkit for Integrating Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation into Ecosystem Management of Coastal and Marine Areas in South Asia. Outcome of the South Asian Consultative Workshop on Integration of Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation into Biodiversity and Ecosystem Management of Coastal and Marine Areas in South Asia, New Delhi. 6–7 March.

Executive Summary

51

Uppasit, S., N. Silaratana, A. Fuangswasdi, S. Chusanatus, P. Pavelic, and K. Srisuk. 2013. Managed Aquifer Recharge Using Infiltration Pond: Case Study of Ban Nong Na, Phitsanulok, Thailand. Journal of Earth Science and Engineering. 1: 1422.

United States Agency for International Development (USAID). 2009. Adapting to Coastal Climate Change: A Guidebook for Development Planners. http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/climate/policies_prog/vulnerability.html

———. 2010. Final Report: Findings and Recommendations. Asia-Pacific Regional Climate Change Adaptation Assessment. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADS197.pdf

———. 2011. Canal Improvement Ensures Irrigation in Qarghaee District. Kabul. 21 September. http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/USAID/Article/2429/Canal_Improvement_Ensures _Irrigation_in_Qarghaee_District

———. 2013a. Water Sense. http://www.epa.gov/watersense/index.html

———. 2013b. What are Biopesticides? http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/biopesticides/whatarebiopesticides.htm

———. 2013. Warm Mix Asphalt: FAQs. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/everydaycounts/technology/asphalt/faqs.cfm

van Aalst, M. K., T. Cannon, and I. Burton. 2008. Community Level Adaptation to Climate Change: The Potential Role of Participatory Community Risk Assessment. Global Environmental Change. 18 (1) pp. 165–179.

van der Burg, G. 2008. ShoreTension: Secured to Shore at All Times. Port Technology International. http://www.porttechnology.org/images/uploads/technical_papers/PTI52-08.pdf

van Vliet, O., A. P. C. Faaij, and W. C. Turkenburg. 2009. Fischer-Tropsch Diesel Production in a Well-to-Wheel perspective: A Carbon, Energy Flow and Cost Analysis. Energy Conversion and Management. 50 (4) pp. 855–876.

Varma, A., S. Verma, S. Sudha, N. Sahay, B. Butehorn, and P. Franken. 1999. Piriformospora indica, a Cultivable Plant-Growth-Promoting Root Endophyte. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 65: 2741–2744.

Vaz Patto, M. C., B. Skiba, E. C. K. Pang, S. J. Ochatt, F. Lambein, and D. Rubiales. 2006. Lathyrus Improvement for Resistance against Biotic and Abiotic Stresses: From Classical Breeding to Marker Assisted Selection. Euphytica. 147: 133–147.

Verdin, J., C. Funk, G. Senay, and R. Choularton. 2005. Climate Science and Famine Early Warning. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. B 360 (1463) pp. 2155.

Viet Nam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE). 2005. Technical Report on the Identification and Assessment of Technology Needs for GHG Emission Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation in Viet Nam. Hanoi. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/slb01.pdf

Walsh, S., and R. Miskewitz. 2013. Impact of Sea Level Rise on Tide Gate Function. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. 48 (4) pp. 453–463.

Wanapat, M., S. Polyorach, K. Boonnop, C. Mapato, and A. Cherdthong. 2009. Effects of Treating Rice Straw with Urea or Urea and Calcium Hydroxide upon Intake, Digestibility, Rumen Fermentation and Milk Yield of Dairy Cows. Livestock Science. 125 (2–3) pp. 238–243.

Wang, L., Y. Wang, G. Yang, J. Ma, L. Wang, and X. Qi. 2013. China Information System for Disease Control and Prevention (CISDCP). http://www.pacifichealthsummit.org/downloads/HITCaseStudies/Functional/CISDCP.pdf


52

Wang, X., M. G. Stewart, and M. Nguyen. 2012. Impact of Climate Change on Corrosion and Damage to Concrete Infrastructure in Australia. Climatic Change. 110 (3–4) pp. 941–957.

West, J. W. 2003. Effects of Heat-Stress on Production in Dairy Cattle. Journal of Dairy Science. 86 (6) pp. 2131–2144.

Wetlands International. 2012a. Bio-rights: Micro-credit for Nature Conservation. http://www.wetlands.org/Aboutus/Howwework/Biorights/tabid/2732/Default.aspx.

———. 2012b. Green Coasts: Community-Based Coastal Restoration. http://www.wetlands.org/Whatwedo/Ouractions/GreenCoastscommunitybasedrestoration/tabid/436/Default.aspx

White, M. T., L. Conteh, R. Cibulskis, and A. C. Ghani. 2011. Costs and Cost-Effectiveness of Malaria Control Interventions: A Systematic Review. Malaria Journal. 10: 337.

Whitehead, P., R. L. Wilby, R. W. Battarbee, M. Kernan, and A. J. Wade. 2009. A Review of the Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Surface Water Quality. Hydrological Sciences. 54 (1) pp. 101–123.

Wilby, R., and R. Keenan. 2012. Adapting to Flood Risk under Climate Change. Progress in Physical Geography. 36 (3) pp. 348–378.

Wisser, D., S. Frolking, E. M. Douglas, B. M. Fekete, A. H. Schumann, and C. J. Vörösmarty. 2010. The Significance of Local Water Resources Captured in Small Reservoirs for Crop Production: A Global-Scale Analysis. Journal of Hydrology. 384: 264–275.

Woltering, L., A. Ibrahim, D. Pasternak, and J. Ndjeunga. 2011. The Economics of Low Pressure Drip Irrigation and Hand Watering for Vegetable Production in the Sahel. Agricultural Water Management. 99 (1) pp. 67–73.

Wong, E. P. Y., T. de Lacy, and M. Jiang. 2012. Climate Change Adaptation in Tourism in the South Pacific: Potential Contribution of Public–Private partnerships. Tourism Management Perspectives. 4: 136–144.

Wongsrichanalai, C. 2001. Rapid Diagnostic Techniques for Malaria Control. Trends in Parasitology. 17 (7) pp. 307–309.

Woo, C.-K., W.-K. Wong, I. Horowitz, and H.-L. Chan. 2012. Managing a Scarce Resource in a Growing Asian Economy: Water Usage in Hong Kong. Journal of Asian Economics. 23: 382.

World Bank. 2008. Reducing Water Loss in Developing Countries Using Performance-based Service Contracting. Washington, DC. June. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/07/16/000333037_20080716021833/Rendered/PDF/447220BR0Box321IC10Water0PNOTE41NRW.pdf

———. 2013. China: Improving Flood Protection for 1.3 Million People in Ma’anshan. Washington, DC. 4 June. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2013/06/04/china-improving-flood-protection-1-3-million-people -maanshan

World Commission on Dams (WCD). 2000. Dams and Development: A New Framework for Decision-Making. http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/attached-files/world_commission_on_dams_final_report.pdf

World Health Organization (WHO). 2010. The Resilience of Water Supply and Sanitation in the Face of Climate Change: CDRom Vision 2030. Department for International Development. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/9789241598422_cdrom/en/

Executive Summary

53

———. 2013a. Diarrhoeal Disease: Fact Sheet. April. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/

———. 2013b. Neglected Tropical Diseases: Integrated Vector Management (IVM). http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/vector_ecology/ivm_concept/en/index.html

World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 1997. Water Pollution Control: A Guide to the Use of Water Quality Management Principles, ed. by R. Helmer and I. Hespanhol. London: E & FN Spon. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/resourcesquality/wpcbegin.pdf

World Maritime News. 2012. Cavotec Wins First MoorMaster Automated Mooring Project in the Netherlands. 24 December. http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/71918/cavotec-wins-first-moormaster-automated-mooring-project-in-the-netherlands/

World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP). 2009. Water in a Changing World. Third edition of the United Nations World Water Development Report (WWDR3). United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3-2009/

Xu, J., R. E. Grumbine, A. Shrestha, M. Eriksson, X. Yang, Y. Wang, and A. Wilkes. 2009. The Melting Himalayas: Cascading Effects of Climate Change on Water, Biodiversity, and Livelihoods. Conservation Biology. 23 (3) pp. 520–530.

Yan, S. W., and J. Chu. 2010. Construction of an Offshore Dike Using Slurry Filled Geotextile Mats. Geotextiles and Geomembranes. 28: 422–433.

Yan, W., S. Nie, B. Xu, H. Dong, L. Palm, and V. K. Diwan. 2012. Establishing a Web-Based Integrated Surveillance System for Early Detection of Infectious Disease Epidemic in Rural China: A Field Experimental Study. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making 12 (4). http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6947/12/4

Yan, W., L. Palm, X. Lu, S. Nie, B. Xu, Q. Zhao, T. Tao, L. Cheng, L. Tan, H. Dong, and V. K. Diwan. 2013. ISS: An Electronic Syndromic Surveillance System for Infectious Disease in Rural China. PLoS ONE. 8 (4): e62749. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062749.

Yang, Y., M. Lepech, E. Yang, and V. Li. 2009. Autogenous Healing of Engineered Cementitious Composites under Wet-Dry Cycles. Cement and Concrete Research. 39 (5) pp. 382–390.

Yasuhara, K. and J. Recio-Molina. 2007. Geosynthetic-Wrap Around Revetments for Shore Protection. Geotextiles and Geomembranes. 25: 221–232.

Yevjevich, V. 2001. Water Diversions and Interbasin Transfers. International Water Resources Association. 26 (3) pp. 342–348.

Yokota, T. 2004. Innovative Approaches to the Application of ITS in Developing Countries. World Bank Technical Note 3. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTROADSHIGHWAYS/Resources/ITSNote3.pdf

Young, G., H. Zavala, J. Wandel, B. Smit, S. Salas, E. Jimenez, M. Fiebig, R. Espinoza, H. Diaz, and J. Cepeda. 2010. Vulnerability and Adaptation in a Dryland Community of the Elqui Valley, Chile. Climatic Change. 98: 245–276.

Yuan, F., J. Pan, and C. K. Y. Leung. 2013. Flexural Behaviors of ECC and Concrete/ECC Composite Beams Reinforced with Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Polymer. Journal of Composites for Construction. 17 (5) pp. 591–602.

Zhang, C., G. Wang, Y. Peng, G. Tang, and G. Liang. 2012. A Negotiation-Based Multi-objective, Multi-party Decision-Making Model for Inter-basin Water Transfer Scheme Optimization. Water Resources Management. 26 (14) pp. 4029–4038.


54

Zhang, Q. 2009. The South-to-North Water Transfer Project of China: Environmental Implications and Monitoring Strategy. Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 45 (5) pp. 1238–1247.

Zhengbin, Z., X. Ping, S. Hongbo, L. Mengjun, F. Zhenyan, and C. Liye. 2011. Advances and Prospects: Biotechnologically Improving Crop Water Use Efficiency. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 31 (3) pp. 281–293.

Zhou, X., and L. Chen. 2013. Event Detection over Twitter Social Media Streams. The VLDB Journal. doi: 10.1007/s00778-013-0320-3.

Zhu, Q. Y., Y. M. Zhang, G. W. Hui, and Y. Zhuang. 2013. Laboratory Investigation of Pavement Performance of Warm Mix Asphalt with Different Addition Methods. Advanced Materials Research. 734–737: 2292–2297.

Zhu, X., M. Linham, and R. Nicholls. 2010. Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: Coastal Erosion and Flooding. Denmark: UNEP Risø Centre on Energy, Climate and Sustainable Development.

Ziervogel, G. and T. E. Downing. 2004. Stakeholder Networks: Improving Seasonal Climate Forecasts. Climatic Change. 65 (1–2) pp. 73–101.

Zschau, J. and A. N. Küppers, eds. 2003. Early-Warning Systems for Natural Disaster Reduction. Springer.

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.org

Technologies to Support Climate Change Adaptation in Developing Asia

Asia and the Pacific region is expected to be hit hard by the impacts of climate change. Developing member countries (DMCs) of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) are among the most vulnerable, with seven of the top ten vulnerable countries being in the region. Scaling-up of mitigation and adaptation efforts are among ADB’s mid-term priorities for 2020. ADB is reaffirming its commitment to invest $2 billion annually in clean energy. ADB also aims for $30 billion more for sustainable transport by 2021. Enhancing focus on adaptation, the linkage between disaster risk management and adaptation, and climate financing are also priority action areas for ADB’s assistance to DMCs. This publication seeks to address these concerns by showcasing a number of useful technologies that can be used to address the impact of climate change across six sectors: agriculture, coastal resources, human health, transportation, water resources, and disaster risk management. The solutions presented may serve to demystify the technologies surrounding adaptation options.

About the Asian Development Bank

ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to approximately two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.6 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 733 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.

Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.