Technical Repor t

Fire Management Assessment ofthe Eastern Steppe, Mongolia

GLOBAL FIRE INITIATIVE

GFI technical report 2009-1a

January 2009

Citation: Johnson, Darren, Oyunsanaa Byambasuren, Ronald L. Myers and MichaelBabler. Fire Management Assessment of the Eastern Steppe, Mongolia. GFI technicalreport 2009-1a. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA.

For more information:

Global Fire InitiativeThe Nature ConservancyTall Timbers Research Station13093 Henry Beadel DriveTallahassee, FL 32312 USA850-668-0827fire@tnc.org

Cover Photo: Bogd khan Uul Strictly Protected Area, Töv province. Photo by DarrenJohnson.

AcknowledgementsThe assessment team wishes to acknowledge the following organizations and individuals:

TNC Mongolia - Enkhtuya Oidov, Galbadrakh Davaa, Baigalmaa Dembereldash,Delgermaa Zagd, Susan Antenen, Mr. Gongor (driver and guide), Mr. Zorigoo (herderUmnudelger Soum), the Caretaker of the Baldan Bereeven Monastery, Mr. Batsaikhan(herder Batshireet), Mr. Bazarsad (former Governor Delgerkhaan Bag), Mr. B.Gankhuyag (WWF Project Officer Dadal), Mr. Monh-erdene (State inspector Dadal),Mrs. D. Oyungerel (Governor Dadal), Mr. Ganbat (Governor Norovlin), Mr. Shijir-Erdene (Town Manager Norovlin), Mr. Ulzii (Herder Bayan-Uul), Mr. Ganbat(Governor Bayan-Uul), Mrs. Ch. Oyunchimeg (State Inspector Bayan-Uul), Mr.Ganbaatar (Herder Tsagaan Ovoo), Mr. Nyamdorj (Ranger Tsagaan Ovoo), Mrs.Dulamkhand (Head of Parliament Tsagaan Ovoo), Mr. Batsaikhan (Herder MandalTolgoy), Mrs. Tsevelmaa (Mandal Tolgoy), Mr. Amar (Chief Ranger Toson HulstayNature Reserve), Mr. Ganbat (Director of Dornod Aimag Environmental ProtectionAgency), Mr. B. Batdorj (GIS Specialist for the Eastern Mongolia Protected AreaAdministration), Mrs. P. Amarzaya (Forest Fire Specialist in the Fire PreventionDepartment of the Mongolia National Emergency Management Agency), Mr. Namsrai(Commissioner of the Mongolia National Emergency Management Agency), Mr.Ganbaatar (staff member in the Forest Policy Department in the Ministry of Natureand Environment), Bob Gray and Stefan Teusan (World Bank fire and forestry consult-ants)

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Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Objectives & Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Background on Mongolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2General Ecology of the Eastern Steppe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Trans-Baikal Conifer Forest Ecoregion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4Moist Lowland Meadow Steppe Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5Daurian Forest Steppe Ecoregion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5Mongolian-Manchurian Grassland Ecoregion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Fire and Fire Management in Mongolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10Fire Management History and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

National Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10Regional Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12Provincial (Aymag) Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12District (Soum) Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12Township (Bag) Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Fire Environment and Fire Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13Boreal Coniferous Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14Sub-Boreal Coniferous Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14Forest Steppe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Steppe Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Observations and Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Protected Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Toson Hulstay Nature Reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20Bogd khan Uul Strictly Protected Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Ignition Sources and Suppression Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Proposed Fire Management Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26Integrated Fire Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Conclusions & Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29Socio-Economic Necessities and Perceptions Related to Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29Fire Management Options and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Fire Management Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29Fire Management Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

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PurposeThe purposes of this assessment werethreefold: 1) to gain some preliminaryinsights into the current status of firemanagement in the Eastern Steppe ofMongolia; 2) to assess the role of fire inthe regeneration and maintenance of thedominant vegetative life forms present inthe terrestrial ecosystems found there; and3) to provide recommendations based onthe collected information that will be use-ful in future conservation and fire manage-ment efforts in the Eastern Steppe region.The specific objectives of the assessmentwere to:

(1)Gather information on fire manage-ment needs and issues in the EasternSteppe of Mongolia that may be importantin biodiversity conservation and manage-ment in the region.

(2) Assess the extent to which fire plays arole in the regeneration and maintenanceof the forest steppe and grassland ecosys-tems in northeastern Mongolia.

(3) Evaluate fire management planning,training, research and information needsin northeastern Mongolia, and gain some

preliminary insights into the status of firemanagement and fire ecology in Mongoliaas a whole.

(4) Provide The Nature Conservancy(TNC) in Mongolia with a conceptualframework for identifying and addressingfire-related threats to biodiversity conser-vation at their priority conservation areas.

(5) Provide fire managers and conserva-tion management specialists with recom-mendations of long-term strategies andactions that reduce fire-related threats inthe Eastern Steppe.

(6) Introduce ecological concepts relatedto fire that could be adapted to conserva-tion management strategies in northeast-ern Mongolia.

Objectives and FocusIn July of 2008 a team of four fire ecolo-gists visited the Eastern Steppe region ofMongolia including the provinces of Töv,Khentii and Dornod. The 12-day assess-ment took the team from the capital cityof Ulaanbaatar east to Jargaltkhaan andthen north Bayangol, Batshireet andBinder. From Binder the team continued

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TTeeaamm MMeemmbbeerrss

— DDaarrrreenn JJoohhnnssoonn, Fire Ecologist, Global Fire Team, The Nature Conservancy, USA— OOyyuunnssaannaaaa BByyaammbbaassuurreenn, Ph.D. Student, Georg-August-Universitaet,Goettingen, Germany— RRoonnaalldd MMyyeerrss, Ph.D. Fire Director, Latin America and the Caribbean, GlobalFire Team, The Nature Conservancy, USA— MMiicchhaaeell BBaabblleerr, Fire Manager, Colorado Field Office, The Nature Conservancy,USA

west to Dadal and then south to Norovlin.Crossing from Khentii into Dornodprovince the assessment team first madeits way to Bayan-Uul and then traveledsouth to Tsagaan-Ovoo. Just south ofTsagaan-Ovoo the team visited the TosonHulstay Nature Reserve and concluded thefield portion of the assessment inChoybalsan (Fig. 1). The four-personteam, representing the United States,Canada and Mongolia, was assembled bythe Conservancy’s Global Fire Initiative.

The information in this report is based onobservations by, and discussions among,the members of the Assessment Team andtheir Mongolian hosts during two days ofmeetings in Ulaanbaatar and nine days inthe field in the Eastern Steppe. Thisassessment builds on and draws informa-tion in part from North American vegeta-tion descriptions developed by theConservancy and its partners in the U.S.LANDFIRE national mapping project(www.landfire.gov). Many of the LAND-FIRE vegetation descriptions developed inthe United States are analogous to systemsthat were observed in Mongolia. Thenorthern and central Rocky Mountainregion (Idaho, Montana), and the north-ern part of the Great Basin (Idaho,Wyoming) have a great deal in commonwith Mongolia (Gray 2006). For examplethe lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) ecosys-tems of western Wyoming and Montana,and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) sys-tems of Utah are ecologically similar interms of vegetation structure and fireregimes to the boreal and sub-borealconiferous forest ecosystems found innortheastern Mongolia. Similarly,Colorado’s Front Range ecosystem bearssome distinct similarities to Mongolia’sEastern Steppe grasslands which possesscommonalities in both the structure of the

landscape geology and plant vegetation.The Mongolian steppe grasslands also havestructural and functional similarities withthe steppe grasslands of Patagonia insouthern Argentina.

Background on Mongolia Mongolia is located in central Asia, bor-dered by Russia to the north and by Chinato the south, east and west. The climatecan be categorized by short dry summersand long cold winters, with temperaturesranging from -15° and -30°C (-5° and -22°F) in winter to 10° and 27°C (50° and80°F) in summer. The country has an area

of approximately 1,564,116 km2 (604,250square miles) and a population of2,951,786, of whom 812,000 reside in thecapital city Ulaanbaatar. Forests cover 10percent or about 13 million hectares (ha);grasslands cover about 70–80 percent ofall of Mongolia.

The terrain in Mongolia consists primarilyof mountains and rolling plateaus. Overall,the land slopes from the high AltaiMountains of the west and the north, toplains and depressions in the east and thesouth. The highest point (4,374 meters[m]), Khuiten Orgil (Mount Friendship),is located in western Mongolia, where theMongolian, Russian and Chinese bordersmeet. The lowest point is 560 meters inthe eastern Mongolian plain. The coun-try’s average elevation is 1,580 m (Wordenand Savada 1989).

Mongolia has three major mountainranges. The highest is the Altai Mountains,stretching across the western and thesouthwestern regions of the country. TheKhangayn Nuruu range is older and moreeroded than the Altai and occupies muchof central and north-central Mongolia.The Khentiin Nuruu range, near theSoviet border to the northeast of

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Ulaanbaatar, has the lowest elevation ofthe three ranges. Much of easternMongolia is occupied by a plain known asthe Mongolian steppe grasslands. Therivers drain in three directions: north tothe Arctic Ocean, east to the Pacific andsouth to the deserts and the depressions ofInner Asia. Rivers are most extensivelydeveloped in the north; the country’smajor river system is the Selenge-Moron,which drains into Lake Baykal. Rivers innortheastern Mongolia drain into thePacific through the Argun and Amur(Heilong Jiang) rivers, while the fewstreams of southern and southwesternMongolia run into salt lakes or deserts(Worden and Savada 1989).

General Ecology of the EasternSteppeThe Eastern Steppe region of northeasternMongolia is bordered by Russia to thenorth and China to the south and east andencompasses the provinces (aymags) ofKhentii, Dornod and Sukhbaatar (Fig. 1).

The region covers almost 280,000 km2

(108,109 square miles) and representsthree distinct ecoregions: the Trans-Baikalconifer forest, the Daurian forest steppeand the Mongolian-Manchurian grasslandzone. The following ecological systemdescriptions are based in large part onFerree’s (2008) classification and ecosys-tem mapping work for northeasternMongolia.

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Figure 1. A map of northeastern Mongolia illustrating the locations visited by the assessment teamand the terrestrial ecosystems associated with that portion of Mongolia. The Eastern Steppe regionof Northeastern Mongolia is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south and east. TheEastern Steppe includes the provinces of Khentii, Dornod and Sukhbaatar, which collectively coveran area of approximately 286,208 km2 (Ferree 2008).

TTrraannss--BBaaiikkaall CCoonniiffeerr FFoorreesstt EEccoorreeggiioonnThe Trans-Baikal conifer forest ecoregionoccupies a relatively small area of theEastern Steppe and is composed primarilyof three terrestrial ecosystems: borealconiferous forest (taiga), sub-boreal conif-erous forest and moist lowland meadowsteppe. The latter is usually found in thebottoms of narrow high-elevation valleys.

The boreal coniferous forest ecosystem islocated almost entirely within the Trans-Baikal Conifer Forest Ecoregion where itoccurs in the Eastern Steppe. It occurs onsummits, upper and lower slopes and innarrow valleys from elevations of 1,300 mto about 2,000 m. The tree layer is eithermonospecific or a mix of several conifer-

ous species that include Siberian pine(Pinus sibirica), Siberian larch (Larix sibirica),Siberian spruce (Picea obovata) and Siberianfir (Abies sibirica) (Fig. 2). The understory istypified by a shrub layer that includesblueberries (Vaccinium spp.), round-leaveddwarf birch (Betula rotundifolia) and a varietyof grasses, perennial forbs and mosses.Fire, insect outbreaks and wind are theprimary disturbances in these forests.

The sub-boreal conifer forest or “lighttaiga” ecosystem consists of pure or mixedstands of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica)and/or Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) in thefoothills of Khentii and east Khentiiprovince, at elevations 300 to 400 mlower than the boreal coniferous forest.

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Figure 2. Dense, even-aged stand of Pinus sibirica on lower slope of Bogd Khan Uul Protected Areasouth of Ulaanbaatar. Though dominated by Pinus sibirica, this forest has scattered stands of Pinussylvestris and a few scattered individuals of Picea obovata. Fire scars on the trees are commonthroughout; recently burned patches of several hectares are scattered throughout. As adult trees thethree species seem to be able to tolerate low-intensity surface fires. In more severely burned areas,bark beetle infestations were evident. Photo by Darren Johnson.

They occur on soils with permafrost. Thestand density of sub-boreal coniferous for-est is more open than boreal forest and itmay be more fire-prone due to the abun-dance of fine fuels in the understory. Southof the town of Batshireet in Khentiiprovince the assessment team observedthat north- and east-facing slopes aredominated by larch on the flats and lowerslopes, mixing with Scotch pine and birch(Betula platyphylla) and/or aspen on themid-slopes. The ground cover under thelarches and pines consisted of a widediversity of grasses and forbs along withscattered shrubs like Rhododendron sp. andSalix spp. (Fig. 3). These observations wereconsistent with Ferree’s (2008) descrip-tion of the species composition and struc-ture for sub-boreal coniferous forestecosystems in northeastern Mongolia.

MMooiisstt LLoowwllaanndd MMeeaaddooww SStteeppppeeEEccoossyysstteemmThe moist lowland meadow steppe ecosys-tem most often occurs in narrow bands in

the bottoms of the narrow high-elevationvalleys, in the riparian zones of smallstreams at lower elevations and in thedrier steppe landscapes in areas adjacent tolakes and ponds. Vegetation consists of avariety of graminoids, and forbs (Fig. 4).

DDaauurriiaann FFoorreesstt SStteeppppee EEccoorreeggiioonnThe Daurian forest steppe, also known asthe mountain forest steppe zone, consistsof forest steppe, upland meadow steppeand moist lowland meadow steppe; the lat-ter occurs in the riparian zones of smallstreams at lower elevations. This ecoregionis dissected by large rivers such as theOnon, which drains east to the AmurRiver, and the Ulz.

The forest steppe can be typified as asavanna-type system, largely composed ofopen grasslands and meadows with inter-mittent patches of forest and woodland.The forest predominates on north- andeast-facing slopes; the grassland predomi-nates on south- and west-facing slopes.

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Figure 3. Sub-boreal coniferous forest (Scotch pine, larch, birch) southeast of Batshireet, Khentiiprovince. Past fires are evident throughout as fire scars, charred stumps and trunks and fire-killed stands.Photo by Ronald Myers.

The wooded patches and savanna consistprimarily of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica)and Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) (Fig. 5).Tree densities vary widely: Betula spp. andUlmus sibirica woodlands occur on stoniersites such as rocky outcrops; willow (Salixspp.) and aspen (Populus tremula) occuralong the shores of lakes and rivers.Annual rainfall of about 350 mm providesadequate moisture for a forb-rich herblayer and a well-represented sedge andgrass component. The forest steppe has abroad elevation range occurring fromabout 750 m to 2,000 m. In his descrip-tion of the northeastern Mongolian foreststeppe ecosystem, Ferree (2008) suggeststhat the woodland patches typical of thistype may well be relics of contiguous forest(sub-boreal coniferous) that historicallydominated this landscape. He goes on tostate that changes in large-scale processesover the last 1,000 years such as fire,drought, grazing and logging may haveresulted in a gradual change from denseforest to the forest steppe that now occurs.

Upland meadow steppe, as the name sug-gests, is found in hilly landscapes at eleva-tions just below the forest steppe. Thisecosystem occupies approximately 15 per-cent of the Eastern Steppe and representsa transition zone between forest and foreststeppe to its north and the steppe ecosys-tems to the south. Annual precipitationamounts of 300 mm are less than in areasdominated by forest steppe. This low rain-fall likely accounts for the sporadic occur-rence of trees across the system. Like theforest steppe, there is enough moisture tosupport a variety of forbs, sedges grassesand shrubs (Fig. 6). Many of the forbs andlow shrubs that occur in this system, suchas Artemisia, Thalictrum, Aster, Polygonum,Potentilla, Carex and Galium, are also charac-teristic of larch-dominated forest ecosys-tems classified as forest steppe. Thisspecies association may be an indication ofan ecosystem in flux due to changing dis-turbance regimes that have included exces-sive grazing, logging and/or fire over manyhundreds of years.

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Figure 4. A moist lowland meadow steppe system adjacent to the Onon River in Dornod province.Willow (Salix spp.) shrubs are evident closer to the river. Photo by Oyunsanaa Byambasuren.

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Figure 5. Mixed pine and larch forest steppe ecosystem west of Dadal, Khentii province. Bark char ontrees was pervasive. Lack of regeneration may indicate that seedling establishment is episodic, occurringin occasional fire-free periods. Photo by Ronald Myers.

Figure 6. Upland meadow steppe north of Batshireet, Khentii province. In addition to grasses such asFestuca lenesis, Festuca sibirica, Poa attenuate and Helictotrichon schellianum, a wide variety of forbsmake this a botanically diverse system. Photo by Oyunsanaa Byambasuren.

MMoonnggoolliiaann--MMaanncchhuurriiaann GGrraassssllaannddEEccoorreeggiioonnThe third and largest ecoregion of theEastern Steppe, the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland, is composed ofmoderately dry steppe, dry steppe andmoist lowland meadow steppe. The latteroccurs adjacent to ponds and lakes in thedrier steppe landscapes. Dry and moder-ately dry steppe ecosystems make up themajority of the grasslands of the EasternSteppe of Mongolia, covering nearly

250,000 km2 (96,525 square miles). Thesegrasslands have been subject to extensivegrazing by domesticated livestock for mil-lennia. Over time, disturbances such as fireand drought could result in a significantchange in vegetation structure and compo-

sition, particularly the relative abundanceof grass and forb species.

The moderately dry steppe occupies about26 percent of the Eastern Steppe, occur-ring between 550 and 1,600 meters eleva-tion with average 250 mm annual precipi-tation. This type is characterized by rollinggrasslands that occur at lower elevationsand receive significantly less moisture thanthe upland meadow steppe (Fig. 7).Predominant vegetation consists of Stipa,Festuca, Agropyron, Cleistogenes, Poa, Elymus andKoelaria. Biophysical characteristics, such assoil moisture and topography, combinedwith grazing and other disturbances,including fire, determine the species com-position across this ecosystem type.

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Figure 7. Moderately dry steppe between Dadal and Norovlin, Khentii province. The gently rolling topogra-phy is typical of this ecosystem, which occurs at slightly higher elevations than dominant dry steppeecosystem. This photo shows the dry steppe vegetation several weeks after rains ended a protracted sea-sonal drought. Photo by Ronald Myers.

The dry steppe is the most widespreadecosystem in the Eastern Steppe, occupy-ing approximately 33 percent of that area.It occurs at elevations that are slightlylower than the moderately dry steppe. Asits name suggests, the dry steppe alsoreceives less annual precipitation than themoderately dry steppe. The average annualrainfall is between 130 and 270 mm. Thedominant species in the eastern extent ofthis ecosystem is Stipa krylovii. An increasedpresence of Artemisia adamsii, Caragana micro-phylla, Cleistogenes squarrosa, Artemisia frigidaand Agropyron cristatum are often indicatorsof overgrazing (Fig. 8).

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Figure 8. Dry steppe located on the northern side of Toson Hulstay National Reserve, Dornod province.The dominant grass, Stipa krylovii, is in bloom. Photo by Ronald Myers.

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lia fire and fire management in Mongolia2Fire Management History andStructure in MongoliaThere is no information available on firemanagement and the use of fire inMongolia prior to Soviet control of thecountry which began in the early 1920s.Under Soviet domination, the military(Civil Defense Branch) maintained exclu-sive authority to manage wildfires, coordi-nate fire training and maintain equipment.Fire suppression and prevention were therule. We speculate that during this periodany fire culture that may have existed waslost. The faltering of the MongolianSoviet-era regime in the mid 1980sbrought a significant decline in resourcesto support national fire suppression effortsthat, among other things, required ruralinhabitants to fight fires. Today, most ruralinhabitants fight fires only when theirproperty or pastures are directly threat-ened.

The loss of a centrally controlled fire man-agement apparatus has had a direct effecton the ability of the government to effec-tively suppress many of the fires. It mayalso be a factor in an increased number oflarger fires being reported, although therecent advent of Moderate ResolutionImaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)and National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA) satellite imagerymay have simply increased the capacity ofMongolian authorities to detect and reportfires.

The fire management infrastructure inMongolia has changed significantly sincethe Soviet regime began to falter in theearly 1980s. Existing government depart-

ments have been restructured and newones created at all levels—national, provin-cial and district—with responsibility fordisaster management, including fire sup-pression. Resources, in terms of capital,equipment and trained personnel, havediminished, increasing the reliability onaffordable technology to detect and moni-tor fire location and size. Figure 9 illus-trates the current Mongolian fire manage-ment hierarchy.

NNaattiioonnaall LLeevveellThe National Emergency ManagementAgency (NEMA) is responsible for firefighting at the national level and was cre-ated in 2004. Before 1996 NEMA had alarge smokejumper program that wasestablished in 1968 with assistance fromthe former Soviet Union. The programwas officially known as the MongolianProtection and Aerial Patrol Service. Itsprimary function was to provide earlydetection and response to fires. At thattime, there were eight aircraft in use and200 trained smokejumpers located inseven provinces; however, due to the highcost, the program has been reduced to 40people based in Ulaanbaatar. MODISsatellite imagery, obtained under contractfrom the Information and ComputerCentre, National Remote Sensing Centre,is now used to detect fires.

The MODIS data are received on-line atthe central offices in Ulaanbaatar and thendistributed to the provinces. TheMeteorological Agency also provides pre-cipitation and temperature data used todetermine a fire danger rating and then

predict red flag days. On average, about 10lightning fires are reported annually, butrecently the number has jumped to 20 peryear and the distribution seems to bechanging. This is most likely due toimproved fire detection techniques such asMODIS that have become available in thelast several years. Smokejumpers are dis-patched to large fires via a privately con-tracted helicopter. Smokejumpers alsoserve as ground crews in fire fightingefforts. There are currently more than2,000 firefighters, both structural andwildland, in Mongolia.

The Fire Prevention Department existswithin NEMA and is primarily responsiblefor forest and steppe fires. It is headed by aforest fire specialist and a structural firespecialist.

The Ministry of Nature and Environmentis responsible for disseminating fire occur-

rence information, laws/policy and otheradministrative issues but does not activelyparticipate in suppression-related activi-ties. The Forest Policy Department withinthis ministry is primarily responsible forforest protection and fire policy, exceptwithin protected areas. Another depart-ment within the Ministry of Nature andEnvironment has jurisdiction over protect-ed area policy. During and after fires theForest Policy Department calculates andproduces reports regarding the cost of lostlivestock, burnt pasture land and otheragricultural losses resulting from fire. Thedistricts, called soums, and provinces areresponsible for providing the Departmentwith all necessary information for thecompilation of these reports.

The Forest Policy Department also issuespermission for salvage logging or “clean-ing” in burned areas. Two types of permitsare available: commercial and fire wood.

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Figure 9. Mongolian fire management structure (2008).

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The commercial permits cost 1,000Tugriks/m3; the fire wood permits cost700 Tugriks/m3. The Center for Waterand Forestry Inventory monitors salvagelogging and forest inventory activities andreports its findings to the Forest PolicyDepartment. The Forest PolicyDepartment is being re-structured; there-fore, titles and positions will change in thenear future. Currently there is little or nocoordination within multi-lateral projectsin terms of fire-related policy issues.However, the Forest Policy Departmentdoes coordinate with NEMA and theInstitute of Botany on fire-related issues.

RReeggiioonnaall LLeevveellThe Dornod Provincial EnvironmentalProtection Agency lies within the EasternMongolia Protected Areas Administrationand has jurisdiction over five parks. Theagency employs four specialists for 1) con-servation, 2) foreign affairs and tourism, 3)research, monitoring and buffer zones and4) public affairs. Seven rangers areassigned to the five parks. TheAdministration has been collecting fireinformation since 1996, using informationgathered from reports written by therangers. The reports contain informationsuch as the location and size of each fire.The assessment team was told that rangersoften have difficulty estimating the size offires; this was apparent when comparingfire size data from ranger reports toNOAA spatial data. The problem is mostlikely due to the fact that rangers makeocular assessments of fires from horseback.The fires may cover many hundreds and insome cases thousands of hectares in rela-tively flat terrain. In general terms, thereports provided by the rangers are notaccurate, so data are now being compiledfrom provincial and state emergencyagency reports. These agencies have in-

house specialists (semi-army level) whocreate fire reports.

PPrroovviinncciiaall LLeevveell ((AAyymmaagg))Each province has a Provincial EmergencyUnit that consists of 10-person crewswhose members receive formal fire man-agement training when they join a team.Ongoing training occurs in the provincesduring the winter months prior to the fireseason. The provinces cooperate with eachother when fires burn across provincialboundaries by sharing resources, personneland equipment. In addition to having aspecific budget for fire fighting activities,all fire-related costs within the provinces,including at the soum and township (bag)level, are dealt with by the ProvincialEmergency Units. The Units are responsi-ble for coordinating fire fighting efforts inprotected areas where they also have juris-diction.

DDiissttrriicctt LLeevveell ((SSoouumm))Agreements are in place to facilitate andcoordinate fire fighting activities betweensoums. In each soum, the governor, stateinspector and chief of police are responsi-ble for coordinating fire fighting effortsand collectively make up what is known asfir

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The Administration hasbeen collecting fireinformation since 1996,using information gathered from reportswritten by the rangers.

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a soum Commission. One of the tasks ofthe Commission, which is headed up bythe governor, is to ensure that volunteerfirefighters from each bag are local andhave fire fighting experience. The moneyto pay for fire fighting expenses, such asfood and fuel for volunteers, is allocated bythe governor from emergency funds; how-ever, funding is usually insufficient tocover all fire fighting costs. The governor’soffice submits detailed invoices to theprovince for reimbursement.

The soums request “expert” fire fightingcrews from the province in the event ofsevere fires. In such instances the provinceseeks approval for the request from theFire Prevention Department of NEMA.The budget for disaster management—including fire, flooding and zud (a combi-nation of blizzard and bitter cold, preced-ed by drought)—is obtained from theprovince and distributed to the soum.Generally, the budget is not sufficient tosupport all disaster management activities.In terms of fire prevention, official lettersindicating how people can prevent fires aresent out to all families in the soum. Uponreceipt of the letter, each family is requiredto sign a document stating that they haveread, understood and will comply with therecommendations; the signed letters arekept on file in the governor’s office. Theresult from this approach has been amarked decrease in local accidental fires.

TToowwnnsshhiipp LLeevveell ((BBaagg))Each small town (bag) must provide atleast 10 people when there is a fire in thesoum; however, it is difficult to find thembecause neither incentive (pay) nor pres-tige is associated with fire fighting.Firefighters from the bag are usually vol-unteers who are provided with food and,in most cases, fuel for equipment while

fighting the fire. Bayan-Uul was the onlyexception noted by the assessment team.There the governor pays firefighters 300Tugriks a day along with food and fuel. Inmost instances volunteers lack any type offormal training; rather, they draw on theirmany years of fire fighting experience.Equipment used by volunteer firefightersconsists of fire swatters fashioned from oldtires and wire, Chinese-made leaf blowers,and water-soaked, felt saddle blankets.

Fire Environment and Fire EffectsBetween 1981 and 1999, an average of 160fires per year were recorded in Mongolia,each burning an average of 2,933,659 ha(7,249,229 acres) (Goldammer 1999). Inthe eight years between 2000 and 2008,an average of 188 fires per year wererecorded in Mongolia, each burning anaverage of 3,253,000 ha (8,038,338 acres)(NEMA 2008). The increased occurrenceof fires in the last decade can be attributedin part to an increase in dependency bylocal populations on natural resources bothfor local consumption as well as for sale.Their activities include logging, fuel woodcollection, collection of non-timber forestproducts (NTFPs) and hunting. The ces-sation of Soviet-era, state-subsidized socialservices in Mongolia, combined withopening of formerly restricted markets, hasmade natural resource utilization, includ-ing wildlife trade, extremely lucrative(Brunn 1996).

The fire season in Mongolia begins inFebruary and continues through most ofJune. This is followed by a second, shortfire season in September and October.The majority of fires that start during thetwo fire seasons (spring and fall) arehuman-caused (Valendik et al. 1998).With the exception of 2002 and 2008,many areas in the Eastern Steppe have

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experienced drought conditions over thelast 10 years, manifested in an averagereduction in annual winter and summerprecipitation. Fire and drought are strong-ly and positively correlated over short peri-ods of time; fires generally will not occurin fully hydrated vegetation (Brown et al.2005). This relationship makes it difficultto separate the independent contributionsor effects that both fire and drought haveon ecosystems in this region. The assess-ment team, therefore, did not attempt todraw any conclusions based on annual firefrequency and climatic variations in theEastern Steppe.

BBoorreeaall CCoonniiffeerroouuss FFoorreessttThe mature Siberian pine- (Pinus siberica)and Siberian larch- (Larix sibirica) dominat-ed stands of the boreal coniferous forestexhibit a closed canopy structure. As aresult grass is less abundant in the under-story and fires are less frequent than in theless dense stands of the sub-boreal conif-erous forest and forest-steppe(Goldammer 2002). Average fire returninterval is greater than 100 years and is ofmixed severity, with climate playing animportant role in dictating the flammabili-ty of these systems (Gray 2006).

The Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine for-est ecological system of western NorthAmerica is analogous to the Mongolianboreal coniferous forest ecosystem withrespect to its overstory structure, silvicul-tural traits and relationship with fire. TheNorth American system is typified by anoverstory dominated by Pinus contorta and ashrub and grass understory (Kramer et al.2007). This type encompasses mid- andupper-elevations of west-central Wyomingin the western United States. Lodgepolepine is an early successional, shade-intoler-ant species that typically colonizes areas

following large-scale disturbances(Schmidt and Alexander 1985). In thisforest type the primary large-scale distur-bance is a stand-replacing crown fire withan average fire return interval of 175 years(Heavilin and Powell 2007; Kramer et al.2007). Both the physiological characteris-tics and fire regime of this ecosystem arecomparable with the Siberian pine-domi-nated Mongolian boreal coniferous forests.In the Rocky Mountain lodgepole pineforest, stand-replacing fires are the mostimportant in shaping stand structures,with surface fires playing a minimal role.These large, stand replacement fires createa coarse-grained landscape pattern, whilemortality from bark beetles creates a finer-grained landscape pattern. Over much ofits range, lodgepole pine would be replacedby spruce/fir forests without periodicmajor disturbance events. Where aspen ispresent, lodgepole pine mortality frombark beetles favors aspen spread throughsuckering. Longer periods between firesfavor spruce and fir regeneration (Krameret al. 2007). As with Siberian pine, a pro-portion of cones produced by lodgepolepine are serotinous and release seeds onlyin the presence of high heat produced byintense fires. In addition, seed establish-ment is closely linked to conditions creat-ed by stand-replacing fires such as exposedmineral soil (Muir and Loan 1985).

SSuubb--BBoorreeaall CCoonniiffeerroouuss FFoorreessttThe subtaiga ecosystem, characterized bystands of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica) andScotch pine (Pinus sylvestris), tends to growon seasonally freezing soils and is more fireprone than the boreal coniferous forestdue to its more open, grassy understory.The fire return interval in this forest typeaverages once every 30 years on warmeraspects and every 50 years on sites locatedon cooler aspects (Gray 2006). Fire effects

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tend to range from mixed-severity to low-severity surface fires, often resulting inpatchy ground fires. The overstory is leftrelatively intact. Fires in this forest typemay burn down into the organic litterlayer, i.e. duff, and smolder for months.The consumption of the duff by smolder-ing combustion may promote early post-fire seedling recruitment of sexually repro-ducing tree species of pine and larch (St.Pierre et al. 1992; Duschesne and Sirois1995; Charron and Greene 2002). Oftenthe most favorable seedbeds for pine andlarch seed germination are thin humus orexposed mineral soil resulting from thesesmoldering ground fires.

In North America, the northern RockyMountain dry-mesic montane mixedconifer forest -ponderosa pine (Pinus pon-derosa)-Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)ecological system (Rust et al. 2005a) isvery similar in its overstory structure, lifehistory traits and relationship with fire tothe Mongolian sub-boreal coniferous for-est type. The ponderosa pine ecosystem isfound in the northern Rocky Mountains ofwestern Montana, eastern Washington andnorthern Idaho at elevations between 760m (2,500 ft) and 1,200 m (4,000 ft). Thissystem extends south to the Great Basin.Ponderosa pine is generally the dominantspecies on southerly aspects and drier sites,with Douglas-fir dominating on northerlyaspects. Southerly aspects support relative-ly open stands while northerly aspects sup-port more closed stands. On mesic siteswith longer fire return intervals, Douglas-fir often co-dominates the upper canopylayers. The understory can be dominatedby shrubs such as Ceanothus sanguineus,Physocarpus malvaceus and Spiraea spp., oropen grass dominated by Carex spp. andCalamagrostis rubescens. However, in theabsence of fire, Douglas-fir and grand fir

tend to dominate stand understories.Surface- and mixed-severity fires occur atvarying intervals ranging from between 35and 60 years (Brown and Smith 2000;Crane 1986; Bradley et al. 1992a; Bradleyet al. 1992b; Barrett 1988; Morgan et al.1996; Brown et al. 1994). Occasionalreplacement fires may also occur with amean return interval of approximately 300years. Mixed-severity fire increases andsurface fires decrease further north and athigher elevations as canopy closureincreases and the grassy understorydecreases. This is similar to the change infire regime exhibited as the Mongoliansub-boreal coniferous forest type transi-tions to boreal coniferous forest. Insectsand disease play an important role, espe-cially in the absence of fire. Bark beetlessuch as mountain pine beetle, western pinebeetle and Douglas-fir beetle are active inthe mid- and late-structural stages, partic-ularly in closed canopies (Ager et al. 1995).

FFoorreesstt SStteeppppeeAnnually, the grassy understory of the for-est steppe and the adjacent steppe grass-lands become very flammable at about thesame time and historically could haveburned with similar frequency

... the northern RockyMountain... ecologicalsystem is very similar...to the Mongolian sub-boreal coniferous foresttype.

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(Goldammer 2002; Schulman 1996). Theforest steppe is thought to have exhibited amixed-severity fire regime, with an averagefrequency of less than 10 years. However,in the last century, intense grazing, whichremoves much of the understory fine fuels,combined with fire suppression, may havealtered the historical fire regime of thisecosystem (Gray 2006). The results areless frequent low- and mixed-severity firesand more frequent, severe stand-replacingfires. This shift in fire regime severity hassignificantly altered the vegetation struc-ture and composition.

The Northern Rocky Mountain ponderosapine (Pinus ponderosa) woodland and savan-na ecological system (Rust et al. 2005b) isa close analog to the Mongolian foreststeppe ecosystem. In particular, the sys-tems share a characteristic grass-dominat-ed understory, low tree density, and opencanopy. This ecosystem is located through-out the northern and central RockyMountains in Montana, central Idaho andnortheastern Washington. In Idaho, thedistribution is limited to lower slope posi-tions in the Boise, Payette and Salmonriver drainages. In northeasternWashington, it is found on sites with ele-vations of less than 1,300 m (4,500 ft),particularly along the Columbia and Kettlerivers and in the Okanogan Highlands. Ahealthy savanna often consists of open andpark-like stands dominated by Pinus pon-derosa. Frequent fires promote a grass-dom-inated understory with sparse shrubs and aponderosa pine overstory. Understory veg-etation consists predominantly of grassessuch as Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis),rough fescue (Festuca campestris), Carex spp.and forbs that re-sprout following surfacefires (Fischer and Bradley 1987). TheFestuca and Carex representation in theunderstory is a characteristic that is also

shared with this system’s Mongolian foreststeppe analog. Prior to European settle-ment, frequent, non-lethal surface fireswere the dominant disturbance, occurringevery three to 30 years (Arno and Petersen1983; Arno 1980; Fischer and Bradley1987). Mean fire return interval for thistype ranges from 10 to 15 years, which isroughly equivalent to the historical firereturn interval of the Mongolian foreststeppe ecosystem. Mixed-severity fire has amean fire return interval of about every 50years; stand-replacement fire is rare butwill occur where there are closed stands. Inthose instances the fire return interval isapproximately 300 to 700 years. Wherestands are open, stand-replacement firesare uncommon.

SStteeppppee GGrraassssllaannddssThe steppe grasslands are considered to beboth fire-prone and fire-dependent. Fire-dependent ecosystems are defined as thosewhere fire is essential and the species haveevolved adaptations to respond positivelyto fire and to facilitate fire’s spread (Myers2006). Fire return intervals in this ecosys-tem type average about 10 years and can becharacterized as being low-severity as themajority of the biomass is unaffected bythese fires and remains alive below ground.As fire-dependent grasslands, many of thespecies have developed physiological prop-erties and morphological features to storelarge amounts of resources in their below-ground structures. This enables them tore-sprout following burning and/or graz-ing. In addition, because of the short dura-tion of many grassland fires and the factthat much of the available fuel is aboveground, temperatures tend to peak rapidly.This means that soil heating into the rangewhere roots and subterranean buds can bedamaged (>60ºC) is minimal (Zedler2007).

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The western Great Plains shortgrassprairie system (Milchunnas et al. 2007) issimilar to the dry and moderately drysteppe grassland systems observed innortheastern Mongolia. Most notable aresimilarities in fire regimes, species compo-sition and biophysical conditions, i.e. geol-ogy, topography and precipitation levels.The North American shortgrass prairieecosystem occurs in the Great Plains fromnortheastern Colorado to easternWyoming and Montana and into southernAlberta, Canada. It occurs primarily on flatto rolling uplands with loamy soils rangingfrom sandy to clayey. There are north-south bands of productivity within thisshortgrass vegetation type, correspondingto increased precipitation going east dueto the rain shadow of the RockyMountains. Mean annual precipitation isapproximately 300–500 mm, with mostprecipitation occurring in the summermonths (Lauenroth and Milchunas 1991).Historically, vegetation was dominated byshort grass, and to a lesser extentmidgrasses and shrubs. Dominant speciesinclude Bouteloua gracilis, Pascopyrum smithii,Stipa krylovii, shrub species such as Artemisiafrigida and Gutierrezia sarothrae, which iscyclical and often abundant followingdrought or heavy grazing. Chrysothamnusspp. may also be present. Large-scaleprocesses such as climate, fire and grazinginfluence this system. The often dry, semi-arid conditions can decrease the fuel load

and thus the relative fire frequency.Historically, however, fires that did occurwere often expansive. There is a wide vari-ability of mean fire return interval acrossthis system, based on precipitation andfuel. It is thought that the average firereturn interval in shortgrass prairie rangesbetween five and 20 years. This is depend-ent on the precipitation gradient east towest within the system. Both lightning-induced fire and spring fires set by NativeAmericans are recognized as importantpre-European components of the fireregime (Williams 2003).

Brown et al. (2005) suggest that protracteddrought (lower than average rainfall forseveral years) in North American steppegrasslands reduces the amount of fine fuel,resulting in fewer and smaller fires. Thesame scenario seems to take place in theMongolian steppe. The removal of finefuels or mulch in grassland ecosystems byperiodic fire can be an important influenceon ecosystem function. Fires often havethe effect of enhancing productivity byminimizing self-shading and opening thehabitat for regeneration in many grasslandsystems (Launchbaugh 1973; Oesterheld etal. 1999; Lunt and Morgan 2002). Itmight be expected that a lack of fire wouldresult in a grassland community thatexhibits reduced biodiversity due to limit-ed opportunities for the establishment ofsmaller and shorter-lived species.However, large grazing animals such ashorses, cows, sheep, camels and, morerecently, goats have over several hundredyears also played an important role inshaping the grassland ecology of theEastern Steppe and western United States.The grasses that dominate the westernGreat Plains shortgrass prairie system areextremely drought- and grazing-tolerant.These species evolved with drought and

Large-scale processessuch as climate, fire andgrazing influence thissystem.

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large herbivores and, because of theirstature, are relatively resistant to overgraz-ing. It is thought that the shortgrass sys-tem adapted evolutionarily with heavygrazing and, therefore, represents a highlyco-evolved system (Milchunas et al. 1988;McNaughton 1985). The degree to whichgrasslands and large mammalian grazersform a type of mutual co-evolutionaryecological system is, however, debated asthese grasslands are also heavily utilized bysmall mammals such as the Mongolianmarmot (Marmota sibirica) or tarvaga(Bonham and Lerwick 1976; Strombergand Griffin 1996). The same is true of theshortgrass prairie systems in the westernUnited States where black-tailed prairiedogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) are an ecologi-cally important component of the grazingregime (Gober 2000).

There is no doubt that the impact of heavygrazing in natural grasslands can be signifi-

cant and that grazing by domesticated ani-mals can alter fire regimes by reducing fuelamounts and fuel bed connectivity (Savageand Swetnam 1990). Heavy grazing of theMongolian steppe combined with alteredfire regimes and drought may over timeresult in degradation of these grasslandsystems. A grass-free, shrub-dominatedtype may result as these two life formsseem to overlap broadly and coexist(Woodward et al. 2004).

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Protected AreasProtected areas in Mongolia fall into twocategories: Strictly Protected Areas (SPAs)and Nature Reserves. These are areas ofland dedicated to the protection andmaintenance of biological diversity and ofnatural and associated cultural resources.SPAs are generally delineated into threezones: pristine, conservation and limiteduse.

Pristine zones are areas in which only pro-tection activities are permitted and inwhich only observation-based research orresearch activities that do not create dis-turbance can be done.

Conservation zones have similar restric-tions as those associated with pristinezones with the addition of permittingactivities that support indigenous plantand animal populations. Disaster preven-tion activities are also allowable as long asthere is minimal environmental impact.

Restrictions that apply to limited usezones are the same as those for pristineand conservation zones, with the followingexceptions:

(1) Additional restrictions are in place toimprove soil and plant cover condition.

(2) Forest thinning and sanitary loggingare permitted activities.

(3) Utilization of natural springs for med-ical purposes is permitted.

(4) Limited ecotourism via predeterminedroutes is permitted.

(5) With permission, tourists are allowedto camp.

(6) Photographing and audio or videorecording for scientific purposes are per-mitted.

(7) Traditional ceremonies such as ovoo(mountain ceremony) are permitted.

(8) Local people can utilize medicinalplants, traditional food sources and othernon-timber products with permission.

The Department of SPA Administrationis responsible for implementation of lawsand regulations concerning SpecialProtected Areas. Its functions includecoordinating activities related to expansionof the Special Protected Areas networkand implementation of associated pro-grams, projects and actions, as well as pro-viding professional and practical assistanceto the administrative authorities of SPAs.It focuses on assuring an integration ofpolicies and actions promoting sustainablenatural resource use and ecological bal-ance. These responsibilities are carried outby developing partnerships with all organi-zations engaged in policy implementation,ensuring the effective allocation ofresources and organizing and coordinatingtheir activities in line with governmentpolicy, programs and plans.

Nature Reserves are protected areas thatare considered important for wildlife, floraand fauna or for features of geological orother special interest. These areas arereserved and managed for conservation

observations and interpretations3

and to provide special opportunities forscientific study and research.

Eighteen of Mongolia’s SPAs are classifiedas “Nature Reserves”; six more are classi-fied as “Monuments” (natural or mixednatural-cultural heritage sites). Such areasaccount for only 0.38 percent of SPAs.Based on their respective site conservationobjectives, Nature Reserves are dividedinto four sub-categories: complex, histori-cal artifacts, biological and geologicalnature reserves. Monuments are dividedinto two sub-categories: natural and his-torical-cultural.

TToossoonn HHuullssttaayy NNaattuurree RReesseerrvveeToson Hulstay Nature Reserve was estab-lished in 1998 and covers an area of nearly470,000 ha (1,161,395 acres) in northeast-

ern Mongolia. Vegetation in the reserve isa dry to moderately dry steppe grasslandecosystem which provides critical habitatfor a number of species including theMongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) or zeer(Fig. 10). Toson Hulstay is the focus ofmuch of TNC’s Mongolia program con-servation effort in the Eastern Steppe. Thefuture staffing plan includes up to 10rangers for the park. According to thechief ranger of the reserve, most fires inthe reserve start in the spring after snowmelt or in late June prior to the summerrainy season. The ranger suggested themajority are caused by lightning; few arestarted by people. Of particular concern isthe fact that when fires do occur they tendto burn the vast majority of the area with-in the reserve boundaries. This results insignificant short-term loss of habitat for

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Figure 10. A pair of Mongolian gazelle in Toson Hulstay nature reserve, Dornod province. In recentyears the steppe grasslands have been under increasing threat from development such as oil and min-eral exploration, which would disrupt gazelle migration. Changing land use patterns, including agricul-tural expansion, fencing of land, overgrazing and altered fire regimes, also affect gazelle habitat in thearea. Photo by Ronald Myers.

species such as the Mongolian gazelle thatinhabit the area. Gazelle will graze burnedareas if there is enough rainfall to producenew grass growth; however, if it is dry fol-lowing a fire they will move to unburnedareas to graze. Additionally, fires reducesuitable gazelle breeding areas that havegrass that is two years or older, causing theanimals to seek habitat outside of the pro-tected area.

The chief ranger stated that late-June firesare not good for the pastures/grasses dueto the lack of precipitation. This contra-dicts comments we received from at leastone herder who stated that June fires werebetter than fall fires because of the rapidgreen-up with the coming of the rains.Conversely, fires that occur earlier in theyear during the wet season have better re-growth of grass due to the availability ofmoisture. Mid-March is generally the ear-liest that fires occur as there is still snowcover prior to that.

Toson Hulstay straddles both Dornod andKhentii provinces and contains five soums,each of which is responsible for fightingfires in the area, both inside and outsidethe park. According to Mr. Amar, this is asource of conflict as the soums feel thatthe park personnel should be responsiblefor the fires that occur there, and little tono coordination between the soums existswhen it comes to fighting fire in the park.

In 2007 park personnel began to managebuffer zones around the perimeter of thepark. Problems exist within the park whenthe area within the buffer zones becomesover-grazed or burned and herders movelivestock into the park to graze. The gov-ernment has allowed livestock into thepark during the winter months; however,many remain year round. Under

Mongolian law, people can move freely,even though protected area laws restrictuse and movement.

Fire data were obtained from the EasternMongolia Protected Area Administrationin Choybalsan for the period from 1996 to2008 for Toson Hulstay Nature ReserveAccording to the data, over the last 13years this landscape had an average firereturn interval of between four and fiveyears (Table 1). This level of fire frequencyis supported by research conducted byDaubenmire (1968) for similar grasslandecosystems in North America which foundthat about three to five years is requiredfor grassland litter biomass to accumulateto pre-fire levels. However, it is more fre-quent than the 10-year average fire returninterval for similar grassland ecosystems inMongolia cited by Gray (2006). This dis-crepancy is most likely due to the relativelyshort duration (13 years) of fire occurrencerecord-keeping in the Nature Reserve.Analogous grassland systems in parts ofthe North America, such as in easternColorado, exhibit fire return intervals ofbetween five and 20 years (Milchunnas etal. 2007).

BBooggdd kkhhaann UUuull SSttrriiccttllyy PPrrootteecctteedd AArreeaaIn 1996, Bogd khan Uul was designated asa UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve inlarge part due to the fact that in the 12thand 13th centuries the khan of KhereidAimag banned logging on the mountainand declared it a holy site. Bogd KhanMountain is classified as a StrictlyProtected Area whose boundaries encom-pass approximately 42,000 ha (103,784acres), with an additional 26,000 ha(62,247 acres) in buffer and transitionzones. The reserve is located in Tövprovince just a few kilometers south of theMongolian capital city Ulaanbaatar. The

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Total Area Year Area Burned/Year Area Burned/Year(ha) (ha) (%)

462,070 1996 397,381 86462,070 1997 365,054 79462,070 1998 0 0462,070 1999 3,601 1462,070 2000 130,562 28462,070 2001 0 0462,070 2002 0 0462,070 2003 0 0462,070 2004 162,800 35462,070 2005 277,242 60462,070 2006 0 0462,070 2007 0 0462,070 2008 0 0

Figure 11. A stand of Siberian pine on a north-facing slope in Bogd khan Uul Strictly Protected Areathat exhibited evidence of beetle infestation and fire damage, including scorched foliage and charredbark. It was not apparent which disturbance event occurred first in this stand—beetle infestation or fire.Photo by Darren Johnson.

Table 1. Fire data for Toson Hulstay Nature Reserve (1996–2008).(Source: Eastern Mongolia Protected Area Adminstration)

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highest point on the mountain reserve isthe summit of Tsetseegun Uul, at 2,256meters above sea level. Bogd Khan occu-pies a transition zone between borealconiferous forest and forest steppe, andeventually grades into dry steppe grass-lands. Much of the mountain is vegetatedby dense stands of Siberian pine (Pinussibirica) and Scotch pine and occasionalSiberian spruce. Scotch pine tends to beon upper slopes, Siberian pine on lowerslopes and the majority of the spruce scat-tered with the Siberian pine. Trees growprimarily on north-facing slopes; southernslopes are covered in steppe grass androcky outcrops.

The assessment team observed areas thatwere burned as recently as two years agoon the north-facing mid-slope and on theridge tops. There was evidence of barkbeetle infestation in a stand of Siberianpine in and around one of the mid-slopeburn sites (Fig. 11). Large patches ofstanding dead trees are visible on thenorth-facing slope of the reserve fromnearby Ulaanbaatar. Based on its obser-vations, the assessment team speculatethat mortality is due to a combination ofbeetle kill and fire. However it is notclear which disturbance event occurredfirst. A similar mountain pine beetle(Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) distur-bance occurs in the pine forests of west-ern North America. These beetles areone of a small number of bark beetlesthat kill their host in order to reproduce.The beetles spend most of their lifecyclefeeding on the inner bark or phloem ofliving trees (Heavilin and Powell 2007).Tree mortality caused by these beetlescreates the fuel conditions that predis-pose a stand to fire (Peterman 1978).

Ignition Sources and SuppressionResponsesLightning was cited as an important sourceof ignitions. Other commonly cited igni-tion sources are Russian farmers burningtheir fields, hunters using tracer bulletsand general carelessness with cooking fires.Hunting roe deer for the blood and antlertrade has significantly increased over thelast decade and is an important source ofsupport for many low income families inthe Eastern Steppe forests. Many individu-als interviewed during this assessmentbelieve the majority of fires occurring innortheastern Mongolia originate justnorth of the border in Siberia, usuallybetween March and early June. Locals stat-ed that since the early 1990s, fires startedon the Mongolian side of the border havedecreased, while fires originating in Russiahave been more common. In TsagaanOvoo, for example, there were reports oflarge fires occurring in 1993, 1995, 1998,2007 and 2008, with all but the 1993 fireoriginating further north in Siberia. In2007 a large fire was thought to have orig-inated on the Russian side of the border,40 km north of Dadal, burned to Dadaland continued 150 km south to Norovlinbefore being extinguished. Satelliteimagery (NOAA) from August 5, 2007indicates that the fire originated nearMogoyt, Siberia just north of theMongolian border. The prevailingnorth/northwest winds in this region maybe a factor in pushing most of these firessouth from Siberia into Mongolia.

In 2006, in an effort to mitigate the prob-lem of cross-border fires, a blackline wascreated along a section of the MongolianRussian border north of Dadal. The black-line was created by 20 fire techniciansfrom the Khentii provincial capital and 30locals from the Dadal area. This 140-km-

observations and interpretations

24

long, 10-m-wide blackline significantlyreduced the amount of fire coming intoMongolia from Russia. Individualsinvolved in constructing the blackline wereinitially paid by the Mongolian govern-ment; however, there have not been fundsavailable to maintain this fire break. As aresult, the blackline has fallen into disre-pair and fire coming from Siberia intoMongolia is again perceived as a problem.The general belief of locals is that themajority of fires start in Siberia. Satelliteimagery shows that fires often originate inMongolia. In 2006, two fires occurred inthe forests a few kilometers north ofNorovlin. Locals stated that one of themwas started by someone smoking and theother from people logging in the forest.Both fires started in the springtime; one ofthem burned into the peat and re-ignitedin the autumn. In 2004, a particularly dryyear, there were seven documented fires inthe area surrounding Norovlin that werestarted by lightning in mid-summer.

Each year the Russians and Mongolianshold a regional meeting in order to discussthe number and causes of large fires in thecross-border region and to develop corre-sponding fire management strategies. Onestrategy was the development of an agree-ment between the two countries thatallows resources to cross back and forthacross the border. The Mongolian borderarmy is responsible for performing manyof the fire suppression activities along theRussian border, a task often done in col-laboration with the Russian military.

Several herders with pastures located inthe upland meadow steppe betweenBatshireet and Dadal indicated that therehad been more rain in 2008 than in theprevious eight years. This was evidencedby the abundance of green grass in the area

in early July, which in this part ofMongolia is late in the dry season and justprior to the onset of the rainy season. Theherders added that the winter of2007/2008 had very little snow, resultingin a very dry early spring. This initial lackof moisture combined with heavy grazingfrom livestock resulted in few grasslandfires due to the lack of fuel. Fires tended tobe restricted to the surrounding forest andforest steppe where grazing pressure wasless intense and higher moisture levelsmaintained higher fine fuel loadings.

Fires in the forest and forest steppe startedin early spring and burned until June whenrain eventually extinguished them. Someignited peat or duff and continued tosmolder through the summer; a few re-ignited as surface fires in the fall. Fires thatoccur in forested vegetation are generallyleft to burn, as they typically prove too dif-ficult to suppress by locals with limitedresources.

A list of the primary terrestrial ecosystemsfound in the Eastern Steppe, fire manage-ment needs and issues and a brief descrip-tion of the fire ecology of the region aresummarized in Box 1.

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observations and interpretationsBox 1: Summary

Primary EcosystemsBoreal coniferous forestSub-boreal coniferous forestUpland meadow steppeMoist lowland meadow steppeModerately dry steppeDry steppe

Fire Management NeedsFormal training in fire suppression techniques that take into consideration minimal resources and technical capability.Education and awareness programs that focus on prevention and suppression.Increased understanding by locals and conservation managers of the ecological role that fire plays these grassland ecosystems.

IssuesCross-border fires between Mongolia and Russia.Climate change effects on fire regimes and regional weather trends.Increasing land use pressure from increasing rural population, intensive grazing and mining interests. Dwindling critical habitat for key species such as the Mongolian gazelle.Minimal available resources, including funding, equipment and trained personnel.

Fire EcologyThe majority of the terrestrial ecosystems found in this region can bebroadly classified as fire dependent, where fire is essential and specieshave evolved adaptations both to respond positively to fire and to facili-tate its spread (Myers 2006). Fire regimes vary considerably from theforested ecosystems to the grassland steppe systems in this region ofMongolia. Current average fire return intervals range from 10 to 175years in the forested systems to an average of every 10 years in thegrasslands.

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Integrated Fire ManagementIntegrated Fire Management (IFM) is the con-ceptual framework that the Conservancyproposes to use to identify and addressfire-related threats to biodiversity conser-vation at priority conservation areas. Theterm refers to various aspects of fire man-agement. TNC’s definition includes thecombination of science and society withfire management technologies at multiplelevels. It implies a comprehensiveapproach to address fire issues that inte-grates biological, environmental, cultural,social, economic and political issues.Furthermore, IFM addresses problemsand issues posed both by damaging andbeneficial fires within the context of thenatural environments and socio-economicsystems in which they occur (Myers2006).

IFM helps communities find cost-effective approaches to preventing damag-ing fires while maintaining ecologicallyappropriate and socially acceptable fireregimes. When fires do occur, IFM pro-vides a framework to:

(1) evaluate whether the effects will bedetrimental, beneficial or benign;

(2) weigh relative benefits and risks; and

(3) respond appropriately and effectivelybased on stated objectives for the area inquestion.

IFM takes into account fire ecology, socio-economic issues and fire managementtechnology to generate practical solutionsto fire-related threats to biodiversity. This

concept can be visualized as a triangle withthree sides: 1) fire management, 2) fire sci-ences, and 3) communities (Fig. 12).

The Conservancy’s approach to IFMincludes eight fundamental steps that canbe adapted and incorporated into conser-vation management planning efforts inMongolia. They are designed to developand implement IFM approaches inecosystems that are fire-dependent as wellas those that are fire-sensitive (defined asecosystems largely composed of specieswhich have not evolved with fire as a sig-nificant recurring process). Species in fire-dependent areas lack adaptations torespond to fire, and mortality can be higheven when fire intensity is low. Vegetationstructure and composition tend to inhibitignition and fire spread. Under natural,

4proposed fire management conceptualframework

Figure 12. The Integrated Fire Management trian-gle illustrates a conceptual framework that inte-grates basic perceptions of fire and the need touse fire by local communities with the beneficialand detrimental role that fire may play in ecosys-tems, coupled with all the technical aspects offire management.

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undisturbed conditions, fire may be such arare event that some of these ecosystemscould be considered fire-independent.

Step 1: Assessment and Situation AnalysisEffective analysis of a given situation is keyto integrating ecology, social issues andappropriate fire management technologiessuccessfully. Identifying the role that fireplays in the cultural, economic and socialcontext of various stakeholders is criticalin developing this understanding.Questions that should be asked when con-ducting such an analysis include:

What is the ecological role and impactof fire in a given area? What is the social, cultural and eco-nomic context in which fires are occur-ring? Who is doing the burning and why? How are they burning? What are the characteristics of the fuelsin the area and how does fire behave inthem under different burning condi-tions? What other factors or threats are exac-erbating the fire problem, such as landtenure issues, illegal logging, invasivespecies or climate change?

Step 2: Fire Management Goals andDesired Ecosystem ConditionIdentify desired future conditions andestablish fire management goals that willachieve and maintain those conditions.Key questions are:

What role should fire be allowed to playin the landscape? Are there land uses or other constraintsthat limit fire from playing an ecologi-cally appropriate role? How and where should fires be con-strained? Should some fires be purposely ignitedand who should do that?

What mix of fire use, prevention andsuppression strategies should be uti-lized? How will local communities beinvolved?

Step 3: Laws, Policy and InstitutionalFrameworkIn addition to an institutional frameworkthat embraces the concept of IFM, sup-portive laws and policies must be in place.To ensure adequate dissemination andimplementation, ecological and socialinformation must be incorporated into firemanagement curricula at universities, tech-nical schools and professional training pro-grams.

Step 4: Prevention and EducationThis step aims at gathering and dissemi-nating information so that fire managersand communities can make informed deci-sions about on-the-ground fire manage-ment. It is necessary to understand theecology of fire in a particular landscape inorder to make assessments as to whetherpeople are burning too much, too little orinappropriately to meet both conservationgoals and to maintain the ecosystems onwhich communities depend. The informa-tion gained from these assessments can beused in developing appropriate and effec-tive fire prevention programs and educa-tional curricula and supporting materials.Identifying and understanding local needsas well as the ecological constraints of anarea will lead to the design and applicationof more effective fire management andoutreach programs.

Step 5: Fire UseFires can be both beneficial and/or detri-mental depending on how, where, whenand why they are burning. In order tomake decisions that maximize potential

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kbenefits and minimize damages, a goodunderstanding of local ecology, fire behav-ior and the variables that determine thatbehavior is essential. When fire is deter-mined to be beneficial, either as a tool tocombat detrimental fire or to maintain thenatural role of fire in a particular ecosys-tem, it can then be applied judiciously withminimal risk.

Step 6: Preparedness and ResponseEffective fire management invariablyinvolves preparedness and response capa-bility to deal with emergency situations.Fire events can be better anticipated, andbetter decisions made when fires do occur,if managers know about past fires, ignitionsources and the need and propensity ofcertain vegetation types to burn.

Step 7: Restoration, Recovery, andMaintenanceThe objective of this step is to gatherinformation needed to deal with a post-fire environment. Post-fire recovery andrestoration efforts are frequently poorlydesigned, ineffective and costly. They canbe better designed by incorporating eco-logical knowledge of the burned vegetationand its recovery potential.

Step 8: Adaptive Management, Researchand Information TransferThis final step ensures that active learningwill constantly occur and will refine themanagement of fire. This is extremelyimportant because many IFM decisionswill be made with incomplete knowledgeand limited experience. It is importantthat an adaptive management frameworkexists, through which continual improve-ment and adjustments can be made.Current plans and actions should be basedon existing knowledge and inferencesderived from the initial situation analysis(Step 1). The effects of those decisionsmust be monitored, and it is those moni-tored trends along with the incorporationof new knowledge that will inform futuremanagement actions. Effective mecha-nisms need to be in place that will facili-tate review of implementation strategies,and translation and dissemination of tech-nology, information and new knowledge.

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endationsconclusions and recommendations5

Socio-Economic Necessities andPerceptions Related to FireThe Mongolian Eastern Steppe regionexhibits a culture that does not use fireand in which fire is considered negatively.This seems at odds with the flammabilityof the vegetation and fire use in similarsteppe environments elsewhere in theworld. During informal interviews manyof the pastoralists who reside in theEastern Steppe indicated that they wereunaware of any benefits resulting fromeither wild or controlled fire. For example,locals seemed to make no clear linkagebetween the use of fire and the stimula-tion of berries for food, or of fire and theimprovement of pasture quality for live-stock grazing. Fire, when it does occur inthe Eastern Steppe, is fought quickly andaggressively, particularly when it threatensproperty and pastures. Due to the eco-nomic importance of steppe grasslandsfor livestock grazing, and the fact thatmuch of this grazing is done at the subsis-tence level, the current focus on fire pre-vention and suppression as the sole firemanagement approach is understandable.However, recent conservation efforts infire-dependent steppe ecosystems such asToson Hulstay Nature Reserve may neces-sitate a shift in this suppression/preven-tion approach to fire management in areasof the Eastern Steppe. Coupled with anincreasing pressure on regional land use bymining interests, an increasing rural popu-lation and more intensive grazing prac-tices, effective conservation in the EasternSteppe may well require a paradigm shiftin the way fire is perceived and managed.

Fire Management Options andStrategies

FFiirree MMaannaaggeemmeenntt OOppttiioonnssFire management encompasses all techni-cal strategies, actions and decisions involv-ing fire prevention, suppression and use.

PreventionThe prevention of unwanted or undesirablefires is the hallmark of fire management inboth fire-dependent and fire-sensitiveecosystems, as it is considerably cheaper andmore effective to prevent unwanted firesthan to try to put them out after they areignited. Prevention is an essential compo-nent of all fire management programsbecause of the risk of fires that threatenhealth, life and property, or which are eco-logically and economically damaging. Inmany places, prevention campaigns andprograms have been so successful thatundesirable environmental changes result.

Existing fire prevention campaigns inMongolia focus exclusively on the negativeaspects of fire, e.g., it is assumed that allfires are bad and must be prevented. Thecampaigns ignore the ecological necessityof fire to maintain the health of conifer-dominated forest ecosystems and steppegrasslands. The assessment team recom-mends a more balanced approach that rec-ognizes fire as an essential element of theenvironment.

SuppressionControl of unwanted fires is an expensiveand logistically difficult part of the firemanagement equation. Suppression is par-

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and property or could be ecologically dam-aging. Except for the limited suppressionactivities of the National EmergencyManagement Agency and the ProvincialEmergency Management Departments andDivisions, suppression capacity in theEastern Steppe is very limited. Suppressionshould be community-based with greateremphasis being placed on the training andcoordination of organized local volunteerfirefighters.

The assessment team noticed that equip-ment such as hand tools and tractors isscarce in many towns. A strategy to remedythis is needed.

The development of comprehensive com-munity fire management plans supportseffective decision-making regarding areas: 1) that need to be protected from fire forspecific intervals, 2) that can be allowed toburn, 3) that need to burn either to stimu-late regeneration or to protect them fromintense wildfires and 4) where firebreaks,particularly blacklines would be effective.Such plans would likely improve the effec-tiveness of the limited fire suppressionresources.

Fire UseFire use is the purposeful application of fireto meet specific economic or ecologicalobjectives. Fires may be controlled oruncontrolled, and planned or unplanned.Prescribed burning is the controlled use offire using a written plan designed to meetspecific objectives. Controlled burning isessentially the same thing but without awritten plan. Unplanned, uncontrolled firesalso can be used or managed to meet specif-ic objectives and resource managementgoals. Decisions are made regarding appro-priate courses of action regarding fires thatoccur or which may occur in a given area.

Decisions may involve aggressive suppres-sion, monitoring or indirect managementregarding locations where fire could beallowed to burn based on fuels, natural firebreaks, weather patterns and other factors.

FFiirree MMaannaaggeemmeenntt SSttrraatteeggiieessIn most instances, the prevailing attitude inthe Eastern Steppe is that fire is a negativeevent. Therefore, a management strategy isneeded that focuses on an integratedapproach to fire prevention that includessuppression, training, education and out-reach. For example, the use of fire breaks orblacklines, though currently practiced, couldbe expanded and more strategically utilized,particularly in protected natural areas. TheEastern Steppe is crisscrossed with two-track roads and trails whose width could beexpanded using fire that is ignited off theexisting tracks and ruts. Resulting blacklinescould halt the spread of unwanted fires,assist in fire suppression efforts and facili-tate controlled burning in protected areaswhere fire may be beneficial. Most burningcould be done using existing knowledge offuels, weather, topography and fire effectsand by using locally available resources.Most burns need not be highly technicalprescribed burns, though providing basicprescribed fire training to individualsresponsible for the programs would be help-ful.

The latter would be an appropriate strategyin Toson Hulstay Nature Preserve. A poten-tial fire management approach in the parkmight be the use of extensive blacklines thatare constructed along and use the existingtwo-track roads. These dirt roads tend tohave multiple ruts that could serve as initialfire breaks or baselines for the blackline.The park, and perhaps some of the sur-rounding buffer grasslands, could be dividedinto a relatively small number of compart-ments that would be surrounded by black-

lines, and thus potentially reduce the spreadof fires that occur in and around the park.They would also prevent the entire protect-ed area from burning in a single fire event.This strategy has been applied in EmasNational Park, an extensive savanna inBrazil (Fig. 13). The theory behind usingblacklines is that fires operate at a signifi-cantly larger scale than the park itself andthere is a relatively high probability that theentire park will burn in any one year, elimi-nating forage for gazelles and other wildlifein the short term. As grazing pressuresincrease outside the park, the option ofmoving the gazelles outside the park, if itburns, may become less feasible. A system ofcompartments separated by blacklineswould reduce the probability of the wholepark (and more) burning in one season. Atthe same time, it allows fire to play its eco-logical role in those compartments that doburn. In effect, this strategy would make thepark landscape a microcosm of what it usedto be, with smaller patches burning eachyear.

Another useful fire management strategyfor Toson Hulstay Nature Preserve might bethe organization of Fire Councils orCommissions that consist of representativesfrom each of the five soums that encompassthe preserve. Such a group might be able tomake better decisions regarding fire man-agement in the park. This strategy shouldbe incorporated into the TNCConservation Action Planning (CAP)process for the Eastern Steppe.

Education and outreach should always be acomponent of effective fire managementplanning. The development of fire preven-tion and safety brochures to distribute tolocal herders could provide a way to reachmany of the people directly affected by fire.The brochures could be designed to includenformation on black lining and basic sup-

pression techniques. (There is a 100 per-cent literacy rate in Mongolia even amongstpastoralists.) Similarly, fire season calendarsand posters could be developed that depictlocal heroes such as wrestlers and horse rid-ers that contain information regarding fireprevention and safety. The months whenfire risk is high could be highlighted andoffer important information regarding pre-vention and safety.

Technology TransferAdopting and using technology that isaffordable, useful and which requires mini-mal technical support would be of greatvalue in Mongolia where current fire man-agement resources and expertise are limited.There are some obvious opportunities totransfer existing modeling technology andmethodology from the U.S. LANDFIRENational Mapping Project directly to firemanagement and conservation efforts in theMongolian steppe grasslands.

The ecological models developed for theLANDFIRE project are useful tools in

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Figure 13. Blackline in the savannas of EmasNational Park, Brazil used to prevent lightningfires from burning the entire park in a single sea-son, while at the same time allowing fire to playits ecological role. Photo by Ary Soares.

illustrating and summarizing current scien-tific and management knowledge as well asinferences and hypotheses about thedynamics of vegetation and fire regimes.Ecological models illustrate relationshipsbetween vegetation types and their distur-bance regimes. In some cases LANDFIREmodels developed in the U.S. can be “cross-walked” to corresponding analogs in theEastern Steppe. These cross-walked modelswould need only slight modifications tomore closely represent specific situations inMongolia. The LANDFIRE vegetationmodels and their descriptions can be down-loaded from the LANDFIRE Web site athttp://www.landfire.gov/NationalProductDescriptions24.php.

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(1) Disseminate report to TNC Mongoliafor comment. Translate and dissemi-nate in Mongolia.

(2) Discuss with TNC Mongolia thepotential implementation of selectedstrategies and actions.

(3) Invite up to two key representativesfrom Mongolian agencies to attend thejoint FAO-TNC CBFiM trainingworkshop in Yunnan, China in March2009.

(4) Identify and discuss training needswith TNC Mongolia and their part-ners.

(5) Promote IFM concepts within NEMAto better address and manage the largenumber of fires that occur in the foreststeppe and steppe ecosystems of north-eastern Mongolia.

(6) Promote the Two Faces of Fire as analternative to existing prevention cam-paigns. The Two Faces of Fire is alearning approach being used byTNC's Global Fire Initiative in someareas to explain the dual role that firemay play in ecosystems and communi-ties.

(7) Identify possible demonstration proj-ects within the Eastern Steppe or else-where in Mongolia where IFM con-cepts can be applied through commu-nity-based programs. Seek funding forone or more programs.

(8) Discuss the value of a similar assess-ment and report for the HulunbuirGrasslands in Inner Mongolia.

(9) Discuss who in TNC’s MongoliaProgram could take the lead on firemanagement issues and serve as liaisonwith the Global Fire Initiative.

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