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1 Contents Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels s Technical guidance for biofuels Technical information concerning the application of biofuels (Select individual and suitable image)

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Page 1: Technical guidance for biofuels - EUROPA - TRIMIS€¦ · Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels Contents 1 Introduction 6 2 Bioethanol 8 2.1 Summary bioethanol 8 2.2

1Contents

Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

s

fgsdf

Technical guidance for

biofuels Technical information concerning the application of biofuels

(Select individual and suitable image)

Page 2: Technical guidance for biofuels - EUROPA - TRIMIS€¦ · Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels Contents 1 Introduction 6 2 Bioethanol 8 2.1 Summary bioethanol 8 2.2

Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

2 Imprint

Technical guidance to biofuels Publisher SenterNovem, formally represented by Rob Boerée, Managing Director Energy and Climate

Editors Kristina Birath, Haide Backman, Ulrika Franzén, Ulf Liljenroth (WSP Sweden AB), Per Godfroij, Bregje van Keulen (Senternovem)

Authors Kristina Birath, Haide Backman, Ulrika Franzén, Ulf Liljenroth (WSP Sweden AB)

Front page photos WSP Sweden AB

Layout and print SenterNovem and ICLEI European Secretariat

Copyright © 2008, SenterNovem, Utrecht, The Netherlands All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means without written permission of SenterNovem.

Acknowledgement

This publication is part of the activities of the Co-ordination Action Biofuel Cities European Partnership Consortium. The Coordination Action is funded by the Sixth Research Framework Programme of the European Union, under the Activity “Alternative Motor Fuels: Biofuel Cities”.

Legal notice Neither the European Commission nor the Co-ordination Action Biofuel Cities European Partnership Consortium nor any person acting on behalf of these is responsible for the use which might be made of this publication. The views expressed in this publication are the sole responsibility of the author specified and do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Commission nor the Co-ordination Action Biofuel Cities European Partnership Consortium.

Ethical issues The Co-ordination Action Biofuel Cities European Partnership Consortium undertakes to respect all basic ethical principles as outlined in the Charter of European Fundamental Rights, including human dignity; cultural, religious and linguistic diversity; equality and anti-discrimination; freedom of expression and of information; and respect for the environment.

The Biofuel Cities website can be accessed at: www.biofuel-cities.eu

A great deal of information on the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server: http://europa.eu.int

Comments welcome!

The Biofuel Cities Consortium strives to provide relevant and user-friendly services and products, both in terms of quality and quantity of information design and of the actual information supplied. Please help us to improve our work and tailor it according to your needs and wishes! We will carefully evaluate and use all your comments and proposals, please send them to the address mentioned above.

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3Contents

Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

Contents 1 Introduction 6

2 Bioethanol 8

2.1 Summary bioethanol 8

2.2 General fuel properties 9

2.3 Availability 11 2.3.1 Sources of bioethanol 11 2.3.2 Future availability 11

2.4 Use in vehicles 12 2.4.1 Vehicle technology 13 2.4.2 Exhaust gas emissions 16 2.4.3 User experience 18

2.5 Infrastructure requirements 22 2.5.1 Technical aspects of filling stations 22 2.5.2 Technical aspects of storage and transportation 23 2.5.3 Safety risks 25

2.6 Fuel quality standards 26

2.7 Production 28

2.8 Sustainability issues 29 2.8.1 GHG balance 29 2.8.2 Energy balance 32 2.8.3 Other sustainability issues 33

3 Biodiesel 40

3.1 Summary biodiesel 40

3.2 General fuel properties 41

3.3 Availability 42 3.3.1 Sources of FAME 42 3.3.2 Future availability 43

3.4 Use in vehicles 44 3.4.1 Vehicle technology 44 3.4.2 Exhaust gas emissions 47 3.4.3 User experience 48

3.5 Infrastructure requirements 49 3.5.1 Technical aspects of filling stations 49 3.5.2 Technical aspects of storage and transportation 49

3.6 Fuel quality standards 51

3.7 Production 52

3.8 Sustainability issues 54 3.8.1 GHG balance 54 3.8.2 Energy balance 56

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

4 Contents

3.8.3 Other sustainability issues 57

4 Pure Plant Oil, PPO 63

4.1 Summary PPO 63

4.2 General fuel properties 64

4.3 Availability 65 4.3.1 Sources of PPO 65 4.3.2 Future availability 65

4.4 Use in vehicles 66 4.4.1 Vehicle technology 66 4.4.2 Exhaust gas emissions 68 4.4.3 User experience 68

4.5 Infrastructure requirements 69 4.5.1 Technical aspects of filling stations 69 4.5.2 Technical aspects of storage and transportation 70

4.6 Fuel quality standards 71

4.7 Production 71

4.8 Sustainability issues 72 4.8.1 GHG balance 72 4.8.2 Energy balance 73 4.8.3 Other sustainability issues 74

5 Biomethane 78

5.1 Summary biomethane 78

5.2 General fuel properties 79

5.3 Availability 81 5.3.1 Sources of biomethane 81 5.3.2 Future availability 81

5.4 Use in vehicles 82 5.4.1 Vehicle technology 82 5.4.2 Exhaust gas emissions 85 5.4.3 User experience 85

5.5 Infrastructure requirements 86 5.5.1 Technical aspects of filling stations 86 5.5.2 Technical aspects of storage and transportation 87

5.6 Fuel quality standards 88

5.7 Production 89

5.8 Sustainability issues 90 5.8.1 GHG balance 90 5.8.2 Energy balance 91 5.8.3 Other sustainability issues 92

6 Other biofuels 97

6.1 General fuel properties 97

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5Contents

Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

Hydrogen 97 Electricity 97 DME 97

6.2 Availability 98 Hydrogen 98 Electricity 98 DME 99

6.3 Use in vehicles 99 Hydrogen 99 Electricity 99 DME 100

6.4 Infrastructure requirements 100 Hydrogen 100 Electricity 101 DME 101

6.5 Fuel quality standards 101 Hydrogen 101 Electricity 101 DME 102

6.6 Production 102 Hydrogen 102 Electricity 103 DME 103

6.7 Sustainability issues 104 Hydrogen 104 Electricity 104 DME 105

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

6 1. Introduction

1 Introduction To combat climate change, protect the environment and improve

quality of life, emissions from the transport sector must be

reduced. The EU’s objective is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

by 20% prior to 2020. Increased use of biofuels is one way to

achieve this objective. Others measures include increasing the use

and quality of energy efficient vehicles and changeover to cleaner

transport modes.

Many demonstration projects with biofuels, both on small and large

scale, have been performed in the EU during the last 15 years.

Biofuels have been introduced by fleet owners such as

municipalities, private companies and public transport companies.

These experiences have increased knowledge about the use of

biofuels.

The aim of this technical guide is to gather and collate knowledge

about the range of fuels that are currently in use. The target group

is fleet managers and purchasers with an interest in procuring

clean vehicles and fuels. The guide offers an overview of the

availability of vehicles and fuels; practical advice regarding

distribution and handling of fuels; information on fuel standards;

user experiences; and guidance on sustainability issues. However,

it should be noted that the guide only concerns biofuels for road

transport and that biofuels can be used in other transport

applications, such as ferries, trains, aeroplanes, etc.

The guide focuses on those biofuels which are available on a

relatively large scale today: bioethanol, biodiesel, Pure Plant Oil

and biogas. These fuels are likely to make a significant contribution

to EU target to reduce transport emissions by 20% before 2020.

The guide briefly addresses solutions – such as electricity,

hydrogen and DME – which may emerge on the market in the near

future and are anticipated to make a large contribution to the long-

term reduction of emissions from the transport sector.

Interviews with experienced users of biofuels, together with

literature studies, represent an important part of the background

material used to compile this guide. The aim of these interviews

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71. Introduction

Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

was to identify users with in-depth knowledge of the functionality

of the vehicles and fuels. The users were located in Sweden,

Austria and Germany.

Each fuel is presented separately in the guide, together with a list

of references. Whilst the guide is best understood as an entity,

every effort has been made to ensure that each chapter can be

read, understood and utilised independently.

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

8 2. Bioethanol

2 Bioethanol

2.1 Summary bioethanol

Bioethanol is used to substitute petrol around the world and is the

most commonly-used biofuel for this purpose1. Bioethanol can be

combined with petrol in any concentration up to pure bioethanol

(E100).

Bioethanol can be produced from any biological feedstock that

contains sugar or materials that can be converted into sugar such

as starch or cellulose.

First generation bioethanols are characterised by the fact that only

parts of the source plant are used for bioethanol production. The

next-generation (or second generation) bioethanols use nearly the

whole plant, including waste, for bioethanol production. The

process technology for second generation fuels is generally more

complex2.

The main crops used for the industrial production of bioethanol are

sugar cane, corn (maize), wheat and sugar beet3. The last two are

currently, and for the foreseeable future, the main sources of

bioethanol in Europe. Brazil is the world market leader in

bioethanol production.

High blend bioethanol can be used in adapted vehicles with petrol

engines and diesel engines. Bioethanol for adapted petrol engines,

E85, consists of 85% bioethanol and 15% petrol, which mitigates

against cold start problems. E85 is frequently used in Europe,

although pure bioethanol fuel, E100, can be used in warmer

climates where cold start problems are not a factor. Bioethanol

adapted diesel engines can run on ED95, a fuel consisting of 95%

hydrous bioethanol and 5% ignition improver.

1 2008. Sustainable Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info 2 Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008, Biofuel Technology Handbook, WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany 3 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commissions Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

92. Bioethanol

Bioethanol fuels Petrol engines Diesel engines

No changes 5-10% E-diesel 15%

Modified engines E85 ED95

Table 1 Functionality of bioethanol blends in petrol and diesel engines

E85 can be distributed and implemented in existing infrastructure

without major modifications, although - as E85 and petrol react

differently with certain plastic and rubber materials – some

materials in the infrastructure must be adjusted to ensure

compatibility with both fuels4.

Bioethanol can be manufactured from different sources and with

different processes. The environmental impact of bioethanol differs

according to the variations in the fuel’s life cycle, from the initial

source of production to use in a vehicle (the route from “well-to-

wheel”). Particularly important issues to consider are greenhouse

gas (GHG) balance and energy balance for the life cycle of the fuel.

2.2 General fuel properties

Bioethanol is a liquid that is soluble in petrol but has different

corrosive properties than petrol. Bioethanol can be used in different

blends as fuel to vehicles, from a small percentage of the fuel

content to 100% bioethanol. There is currently no international

standard for bioethanol, but many countries have their own

standards or guidelines for fuel content and properties. Some

comparisons have been made between different standards and

work is underway to create international quality specifications, in

order to increase the trading potential of bioethanol as fuel.

Bioethanol can be produced in two forms – hydrous (or hydrated)

and anhydrous. Bioethanol with water is hydrous (or hydrated)

bioethanol. Bioethanol with no water is anhydrous bioethanol.

Bioethanol is hydrophilic, meaning it attracts water.

Hydrous bioethanol typically has a purity of about 95% and has

been used in Brazil since the late 1970s. It has been used directly

4 2007, Logistics of fuel from ethanol producer to forecourt in Sweden and the Netherlands, BEST Deliverable D4.8, www.best-europe.org

Focus flexi fuel (Photo www.greenfleet.info)

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

10 2. Bioethanol

as a motor fuel in adapted alcohol vehicles, with modified engines

that are able to use fuel with 95%+ bioethanol content. A second

stage process is required to produce high purity anhydrous

bioethanol for use in petrol blends. Most countries require industrial

bioethanol, whether hydrous or anhydrous, to be denatured (to

prevent oral consumption thereby differentiating it from potable

beverage alcohol for taxation purposes) by the addition of small

amounts (1% to 5%) of unpleasant or poisonous substances5.

The letter ‘E’ is used for fuels which contain bioethanol. For

example, the term E85 is used to designate a mixture of 85%

bioethanol and 15% petrol.

For heavy vehicles there is a bioethanol blending called bus fuel

ED95, which is developed for heavy-duty, bioethanol compression-

ignition engines. The trade name of the fuel is Etamax-D

as produced by SEKAB (Svensk Etanolkemi AB). Etamax-D has a

composition of (percentage by volume)6:

� 93.5 % bioethanol (hydrous 95 %)

� 3.6 % ignition improver

� 3.0 % denaturants (MTBE 2.5 % and iso-butanol 0.5 %

according to Swedish law)

� Corrosion inhibitor

The Etamax-D product for diesel is produced from SEKAB’s 95%

bioethanol. The 95% bioethanol specification is essentially the

same as the anhydrous 99.5% specification for petrol blending in

all respects except bioethanol and water content.

Despite the fact that bioethanol has a very low cetane number the

fuel has high qualities and also works well in a compression-ignition

engine. This property of the fuel is given by the ignition improver

additive.

5 2004, Setting a Quality Standard for Fuel Ethanol, IFQC, International Fuel Quality Center, Australia

6 2007, Experiences from introduction of ethanol buses and ethanol fuel stations, BEST Deliverable D2.1 and D2.2, www.best-europe.org

Ethanol bus in Madrid (Photo EMT Madrid)

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

112. Bioethanol

2.3 Availability Bioethanol is the biofuel that is most commonly used worldwide for

substitution of petrol7. It can be combined with petrol in any

concentration up to pure bioethanol (E100).

Bioethanol can be produced from any biological feedstock that

contains sugar or materials that can be converted into sugar such

as starch or cellulose.

First generation bioethanols are characterised by the fact that only

parts of the source plant are used for bioethanol production. The

next-generation (or second generation) bioethanols use nearly the

whole plant, including waste, for bioethanol production. The

process technology for second generation fuels is generally more

complex.8

2.3.1 Sources of bioethanol

The main crops used for the industrial production of bioethanol are

sugar cane, corn (maize), wheat and sugar beet9. The last two are

currently, and for the foreseeable future, the main sources of

bioethanol in Europe. Large scale bioethanol production in Europe

would rely mostly on wheat. Brazil is the world market leader in

bioethanol production.

2.3.2 Future availability

Production of biomass for energy requires land use. This may

generate competition with crops normally used for food or

feedstock. Some potential sources of additional agricultural

capacity for growing bioethanol energy crops in ways that do not

compete with food production are described below10:

• The reduction of sugar subsidies is expected to reduce

sugar beet production, thereby releasing land currently

used for sugar beet where yields are poor. In high yield

7 2008, Sustainable Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info8 Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008, Biofuel Technology Handbook, WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany 9 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

12 2. Bioethanol

areas, however, some land is still expected to be used for

sugar production if there is a market for bioethanol.

• A steady increase of agricultural yields has been achieved

over the last decades and this trend is expected to

continue.

• Set-aside areas can in principle be used for non-food

production although it is difficult to make an accurate

estimate of land quality and therefore of yields.

• There is a large potential for collection and use of waste

woody biomass as well as straw for advanced bioethanol

fuels.

In recent years there has been great interest in processes to

convert ligno-cellulose into bioethanol via separation and

breakdown of the cellulose into fermentable sugars. Bioethanol

produced from ligno-cellulose is one of the so-called second

generation biofuels.

Ligno-cellulosic “wood” is considered here as a proxy for a range of

materials. The largest potential sources are farmed wood, perennial

grasses and wood waste from forestry.

At present, only small quantities of fuel are manufactured from

these sources, but the future potential is very large and a lot of

research is being devoted to developing such routes.

2.4 Use in vehicles High blend bioethanol can be used in adapted vehicles with petrol

engines and diesel engines. The fuels have different properties.

Bioethanol for adapted petrol engines, E85, consists of 85%

bioethanol and 15% petrol. In warmer climates E100 can be used,

but in Europe E85 is the most common available bioethanol fuel.

Bioethanol adapted diesel engines are dedicated to run on ED95, a

fuel consisting of 95% hydrous bioethanol and 5% ignition

improver.

10 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

132. Bioethanol

Bioethanol fuels Petrol engines Diesel engines

No changes 5-10% E-diesel 15 %

Modified engines E85 ED95

Table 2 Bioethanol blends usable in petrol and diesel engines

2.4.1 Vehicle technology

Light vehicles

Bioethanol can be used at a low blend, 5-10%, in all petrol vehicles

without modification. When bioethanol is blended into fuel at levels

above 10% of volume, some engine modifications may be

necessary. High blended bioethanol, E85, is used in adapted petrol

vehicles. These are flexifuel, which means that they can run on

either petrol or a blend of petrol and bioethanol up to 85 percent.

During the past few years, several major automobile manufacturers

have developed flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs). The main differences

between bioethanol FFVs and petrol vehicles are the materials used

in the fuel management system, metallic and rubber based

materials are replaced with bioethanol compatible substitutes.

Modifications to the engine calibration system are also made. The

corrosive effect of fuel rises when bioethanol content is increased.

15% petrol is added to the bioethanol fuel because bioethanol has

a lower vapour pressure than petrol at low temperatures, making

cold starts more difficult.

The bioethanol cars have only one fuel tank, which can be filled

with either E85 or petrol. The amount of bioethanol in the fuel is

detected by a sensor that analyses the content of the fuel tank

(mixture of bioethanol and petrol). The information is sent to the

engine and the fuel injection system is adjusted according to the

data.

Ford Focus ethanol car in Basque County, Spain

(Photo Kristina Birath)

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

14 2. Bioethanol

A large variety of bioethanol cars are available on the European

market.

Ford: Focus, C-Max, S-max, Mondeo, Galaxy

Volvo: S40, V50 and C30, S80, V70

Saab: 9-5, 9-3

Renault: Megane

Peugot: 307 Bioflex

Skoda: Oktavia Flexifuel (1.6)

Volkswagen: Golf 1.6

Audi A3, A4,

Seat Leon and Altea,

Citroen C4 and C5

Table 3 Bioethanol cars available on the European market 2008

Other bioethanol fuel characteristics, including a high octane rating,

result in increased engine efficiency and performance. In

combination with turbo-technology, engine performance increases

when E85 is used.

Maintenance needs

Compared to conventional petrol cars, bioethanol cars need more

frequent service. The manufacturers recommend service every

10 000 km (or once a year), compared to every 20 000 km (or

once a year) for new petrol cars. The reason for this is that engine

oil and the oil filter have to be changed more often in a bioethanol

car, as the bioethanol fuel is not lubricating the engine as much as

petrol does and the oil gets worn out faster.

Driving range

Bioethanol fuel contains approximately 35% less energy compared

to petrol. This means that the consumption of bioethanol is higher

than petrol and thus the driving range is shorter. A bioethanol car

that uses 0.7 litres petrol/10 km needs 1.0 litre E85/10 km. The

bioethanol fuel has a higher octane number (104) and can be used

with a higher compression ratio, resulting in higher energy

efficiency. This means that engines optimised for bioethanol can be

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

152. Bioethanol

more energy efficient than engines that are currently optimised for

petrol. As bioethanol has a higher octane number than petrol, it

offers increased torque and higher power, especially when used

in combination with turbo-technology.

Cost

Bioethanol cars can cost up to €800 more than a comparable petrol

model. However, some car manufacturers do not charge extra for

the bioethanol version. The additional cost includes the engine

heater which is standard equipment.

Cold start properties

Bioethanol cars can have cold start problems when the temperature

goes below -15ºC. From 5ºC use of engine heater is recommended.

Another reason for using the engine pre-heater is that the

emissions of hydrocarbons increase in cold weather. For these

reasons, bioethanol vehicles are equipped with an engine heater

when delivered.

Retrofitting

It is possible to retrofit a petrol car to operate on bioethanol, and

also to flexifuel E85-petrol. All parts in the fuel system must be

durable to bioethanol. When a car is retrofitted, the fuel injectors

are changed and the engine control plan has to be calibrated for

the new fuel. In Sweden, it is legal to retrofit petrol cars to

bioethanol cars since mid-2008. After conversion, the cars have to

be certified at the Swedish Motor Vehicle Inspection Company. The

car has to meet the emission standard it did prior to the retrofit.

Heavy duty vehicles

Heavy duty vehicles running on bioethanol are equipped with a

diesel engine adapted for bioethanol. At present, it is not possible

to retrofit diesel engines to enable bioethanol propulsion. The fuel

used consists of bioethanol and an ignition improver. Neat

bioethanol has a low cetane number and therefore the ignition

improver is required, together with increased compression ratio in

the engine.

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

16 2. Bioethanol

Available vehicles

Today, bioethanol buses, waste trucks and distribution trucks are

available from Scania. The bioethanol bus is a standard city bus

with a compression-ignition engine modified for bioethanol fuel.

The main differences compared to a conventional diesel powered

engine are:

� Raised cylinder compression ratio

� Larger injector holes

� Modified injection timing

� Fuel pump with larger flow capacity

� Gaskets and filters in the fuel system exchanged to

materials more resistant to alcohol11

Maintenance needs

Bioethanol buses require as frequent maintenance as diesel buses

(every 10 000 km is the recommended frequency). However,

compared to diesel buses, bioethanol buses need more extensive

service each time and it is very important to keep the scheduled

service. The main service needs are change of motor oil and oil

filter. Change of fuel injectors is required at every second service,

as pollutants formed in the engine can get stuck in the fuel

injector, making the injection pressure fall. The cost for

maintenance of bioethanol buses is twice as high as for diesel

buses12.

Driving range

ED95 has about 60% lower energy content compared to diesel,

meaning that 60% more fuel is needed to drive a bioethanol bus

the same distance as a diesel bus. Both engines are as energy

efficient. Today’s bioethanol buses are equipped with a 500 litre

fuel tank in order to operate over the same distances as diesel

buses.

2.4.2 Exhaust gas emissions

There is no emission certification for flexifuel vehicles running on

E85, although this will become possible in the emission standard

for 2013. The emission test is thus made on petrol.

11 2007, Frequently asked questions on ethanol buses, www.ethanolbus.com 12 Interview with Per Wikström, Busslink, see Appendix IV.

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

172. Bioethanol

Fuel/limits CO (g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km)

E85 0,86 0,09 (a) 0,02

E5 petrol (b) 0,43 0,077 0,041

Limits (Euro 4) 1 0,1 0,08

(a) HC as measured by a FID instrument. The ethanol part of the organic gases

is some 30% to 40%.

(b) The 95 octane petrol in Sweden contains 5% ethanol since 2001.

Table 4 Average emissions from a car with 50 000 km aged catalyst (manual

transmission) (Source: Exhaust characterisation study, April 200813)

Emissions of HC increase when the temperature decreases. Tests of

cold start emissions were performed at +22ºC and -7ºC for E5 and

E8514. At +22ºC many emission components were lower for E85

than for E5 Aldehyde emissions increased due to the increase of

bioethanol in the fuel. During cold starts, the emissions of HC

increased substantially. Emissions of aldehydes (formaldehydes and

acetaldehydes) were generally higher for flexifuel vehicles running

on E85 compared to E5. The impact was more pronounced at -7ºC.

Therefore, car manufacturers recommend use of engine heater at

temperatures below+ 5ºC.

The bioethanol compression ignition engine emits less particulate

matter (PM), and nitrogen oxide (NOX) compared to conventional

diesel engines. Tests have been performed on a bioethanol adapted

diesel engine with catalytic converter and EGR (exhaust gas

recirculation, system for NOX reduction)15. The emission tests show

that bioethanol buses meet the level for Euro 5 and EEV for both

NOX and particulates.

13 Westerholm R., et al, 2007, An exhaust characterisation study based on regulated and unregulated tailpipe and evaporative emissions from bi-fuel and flexi-fuel light-duty passenger cars fuelled by petrol (E5), bio-ethanol (E85) and biogas tested at ambient temperatures of +22ºC and -7ºC, Institution for Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Sweden 14 Westerholm R., et al, 2007, An exhaust characterisation study based on regulated and unregulated tailpipe and evaporative emissions from bi-fuel and flexi-fuel light-duty passenger cars fuelled by petrol (E5), bio-ethanol (E85) and biogas tested at ambient temperatures of +22ºC and -7ºC, Institution for Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Sweden 15 Egebäck, K-E., 2004, A clean ethanol fuelled compression ignition bus engine, Report for Bioalcohol Fuel Foundation (BAFF), Örnsköldsvik, Sweden

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

18 2. Bioethanol

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

Scania DSI 9E med EGR 2) with catalytic converter and particulate filter

g/k

Wh

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Level for Euro 4

Level for Euro 5 & EEV 1)

1) EEV = Enhanced Environmentally Friendly Vehicle2) EGR = Exhaust Gas Recirculation

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

Scania DSI 9E med EGR 2) with catalytic converter and particulate filter

g/k

Wh

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Level for Euro 4

Level for Euro 5 & EEV 1)

1) EEV = Enhanced Environmentally Friendly Vehicle2) EGR = Exhaust Gas Recirculation

Figure 1 Emissions of NOX from an ethanol engine equipped with catalytic converter and EGR emission treatment system.

0,002

0

0,005

0,01

0,015

0,02

0,025

0,03

Scania DSI 9E med EGR 2) with catalytic converter and particulate filter

g/k

Wh

ParticulatesLevel for Euro 4 & 5

Level for Euro EEV 1)

1) EEV = Enhanced Environmentally Friendly Vehicle2) EGR = Exhaust Gas Recirculation

0,002

0

0,005

0,01

0,015

0,02

0,025

0,03

Scania DSI 9E med EGR 2) with catalytic converter and particulate filter

g/k

Wh

ParticulatesLevel for Euro 4 & 5

Level for Euro EEV 1)

1) EEV = Enhanced Environmentally Friendly Vehicle2) EGR = Exhaust Gas Recirculation

Figure 2 Emissions of PM from an ethanol engine equipped with catalytic converter and EGR emission treatment system

2.4.3 User experience

Bioethanol cars

Many actors have experiences of driving bioethanol cars,

particularly in Sweden where 160,000 bioethanol cars have been

sold.

Taxi Stockholm has many affiliated driving companies that use

biofuels in their vehicles. The main reason for using biofuels is the

economic advantage – fuel prices are lower, biofuelled taxis are

prioritised in many queues making waiting times shorter; and

customers demand environmentally adapted cars. It has not been

Want to know more? There is interesting information at www.baff.infowww.sugre.infowww.bioethanolcarburant.com

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

192. Bioethanol

hard for car dealers to supply E85 vehicles to Taxi Stockholm. The

bioethanol cars need a little more maintenance, but not so much as

to make the cost a burden. Since E85 can be refuelled at almost

any fuel station, supply and availability of fuel does not present a

problem. Driving the cars is no different from driving diesel fuelled

taxi vehicles.

Within the EU-funded BEST project (Bioethanol for sustainable

transport) a survey of the attitudes among bioethanol car drivers

has been performed. The survey was done among drivers in the

BEST sites (see the number of respondents under the figure

below). The results are presented in a report “FFV driver attitudes -

Results from survey 2007”16. The drivers were asked about their

opinion on the performance of the cars. In Figure 3-5 the results

are presented. Total number of responses: Brandenburg 26,

Rotterdam 43, Madrid 13, Basque Country 14, Somerset 41,

BioFuelRegion (a part of Northern Sweden) 25, City of Stockholm

83, Stockholm - private 152, Stockholm - commercial 144.

Altogether 541 responses were included in the study.

Figure 3 Answers to the question: In your opinion, is an ethanol car worse or better than a conventional car in the following aspects:

8%

11%

15%

6%

88%

94%

78%

83%

94%

46%

51%

80%

96%

10%

6%

13%

10%

88%

43%

33%

14%

2%

2%

2%

1%

2%

9%

10%

92%

5%

4%

4%

2%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Passenger comfort

Driver comfort

Operation

Noise

Safety

Emissions

Smell

Accelleration

Speed

Braking

Range

Worse Equal Better

16 2007, FFV driver attitudes - Results from survey 2007, Input to the final report for the BEST project, intermediate report

Want to know more? Have a look at the website for the EU project BEST (Bioethanol for sustainable transport) www.best-europe.org

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

20 2. Bioethanol

The drivers were also asked how satisfied or dissatisfied they were

with their bioethanol cars. Overall, 75% are satisfied, 18% are

neither satisfied nor dissatisfied and 7% are dissatisfied.

Figure 4 Answers to the question: In general, how satisfied or dissatisfied are you with your experience driving an ethanol car?

8%

7%

20%

5%

9%

7%

23%

21%

17%

24%

30%

14%

17%

18%

69%

86%

77%

71%

76%

56%

65%

76%

80%

75%

3%

7%

0%

15% 8%

14%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Brandenburg

Rotterdam

Madrid

Basque

Somerset

BFR

City of Sthlm

Sthlm - private

Sthlm - commercial

Total

Dissatisfied Neither dissatisfied nor satisfied Satisfied

The drivers were also asked if they would recommend bioethanol

cars to others. 83% said they would.

Figure 5 Would you recommend others to drive ethanol cars?

62%

83%

67%

78%

85%

83%

23%

29%

12%

21%

18%

11%

10%

13%

15%

9%

0%

5%

13%

5%

89%

71%

84%

100% 0%

7%

0%

3%

1%

4%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Brandenburg

Rotterdam

Madrid

Basque

Somerset

BFR

City of Sthlm

Sthlm - private

Sthlm - commercial

Total

Yes Uncertain No

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212. Bioethanol

Bioethanol buses

Stockholm Public Transport Authority, SL, introduced bioethanol

buses in the fleet in the beginning of 1990’s. The reason for the

change was mainly a need for better air quality in the city centre.

The bioethanol buses emit less NOX and PM. Busslink, a public

transport company, has been operating the bioethanol buses since.

SL owns and maintains the bioethanol fuel stations and Busslink is

responsible for operation and maintenance of the buses. The

bioethanol buses work well but they need frequent maintenance.

This is the most important lesson learned from the users. The

energy consumption is the same as for a diesel bus, but as the fuel

contains 60% less energy the buses need more fuel by volume.

This makes the refuelling takes some more time compared to

diesel. The buses also need larger fuel tanks in order to be able to

drive the same mileage as the diesel buses.

Within BEST a survey has been performed among drivers of

bioethanol buses. 54 drivers had been driving bioethanol buses

between 1–3 years in Stockholm, Sweden. They got questions

about the performance of the buses compared to diesel buses.

They were most positive to the lower emissions and the better

smell and most negative to the worsened acceleration and speed.

Figure 6 Ethanol bus drivers opinion on bus performance

In respect to the following statements, are ethanol buses in your

opinion better, equal or worse than conventional diesel buses

0 10 20 30 40 50

Comfort for passangers

Comfort for driver

Driving the vehicle

Effort, exhaustion of the driver

Safety

Pollution, exhaust emission

Smell

Acceleration

Speed

Brake

Number of drivers

BetterEqualWorseI don't knowNo answer

The drivers also got the question about their opinion towards

bioethanol buses and the majority of the drivers are positive.

Want to know more? You find information at: www.ethanolbus.com

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22 2. Bioethanol

What is your opinion to ethanol buses?

27

18

9

26

19

5

2 1 10

5

10

15

20

25

30

Verypositive

Ratherpositive

Neither/nor Rathernegative

Verynegative

No answer

Num

ber

ofdr

iver

s

BeforeNow

Figure 7 Ethanol bus drivers opinion on ethanol buses.

Diskteknik AB, in Sweden, has 13 cars available for their sales

people. These run on ethanol, E85. The vehicles are of the brands

Ford and Saab. Diskteknik has long experience with renewable

fuels as RME, biogas and now ethanol. The company has good

experiences with ethanol cars. These work just as well as

conventional vehicles and the drivers are very motivated to refuel

the vehicles with ethanol rather than petrol. At the moment it is

cheaper to drive on ethanol in Sweden.

2.5 Infrastructure requirements

It is important that proper fuel handling techniques are practiced to

prevent fuel contamination. Also choosing the right materials for

fuel storage and dispensing systems is crucial. Local and national

regulations and legislation applicable for fuel infrastructure must be

followed. These requirements can be different in individual regions

and countries.

2.5.1 Technical aspects of filling stations

Authorisation is required for the handling of flammables at petrol

stations. Authorisation granted for the handling of petrol does not

automatically apply to the handling of E85 or E9517. A petrol station

that sells petrol must, when wanting to sell E85/E95, also obtain

17 2007, Experiences from introduction of ethanol buses and ethanol fuel stations, BEST Deliverable D2.1 and D2.2, www.best-europe.org

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

232. Bioethanol

authorisation for the handling of E85/E95. One important aspect is

that bioethanol and petrol have different explosive limits. This

means that an explosive gas atmosphere in an E85 storage tank

will exist across a wider temperature range than in a petrol storage

tank. Other aspects that could be included in legal requirements

are the increased risk of ignition, a recovery system for gases,

depth gauging and extinguishing agents.

E85 can be distributed and implemented in available infrastructure

without any major modifications18. E85 and petrol react differently

with some plastic and rubber materials. It is therefore important to

choose a material that is compatible with bioethanol for use in

pumps, pipes and tanks. Examples of materials that are suitable for

use with E85 are stainless steel, galvanised steel and bronze.

Materials that should not be used with E85 include zinc, brass, lead

and aluminium.

Since bioethanol is hydrophilic (it attracts water) it is important to

avoid water leakage in storage and distribution systems.

The bioethanol blend E85 is sold in two different kinds of pumps;

either a pump that is used only for E85 (a static pump) or a

flexifuel pump. An important benefit of the flexifuel pump is that it

can offer different blends of bioethanol and petrol, which

encourages the development of a flexible fuel market.

In Sweden there are examples of flexi-pumps where the client can

choose from E10, E25 or E85. More varieties are possible. For

example, in the future, both E85 and E100 could even be sold from

the same pump. The flexifuel pump is connected to two different

underground tanks – one with petrol and one with bioethanol.

2.5.2 Technical aspects of storage and

transportation

The technology for storing and dispensing petrol can be applied to

alcohol fuels such as E85/95 because alcohols and alcohol blends,

like petrol, are liquid fuels at ambient pressures and

18 2007, Logistics of fuel from ethanol producer to forecourt in Sweden and the Netherlands, BEST Deliverable D4.8, www.best-europe.org

Refuelling station for buses, Stockholm

(Photo Kristina Birath)

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24 2. Bioethanol

temperatures19. However, only E85/95-compatible materials should

be used in storage and dispensing systems. Most operating

problems with bioethanol-fuelled vehicles have been traced to

contaminated fuel. Consequently, choosing the right materials for

fuel storage and dispensing systems and following proper fuel

handling procedures are crucial for successfully operating

bioethanol-fuelled vehicles.

An example of the preparation and transport systems for

bioethanol fuel is given below where the situation in Sweden is

described:

The mixing of the different types of bioethanol fuels are performed

at designated sites20. These sites are preferably located close to

existing infrastructure like harbours, railways and roads. This will

facilitate the transport of raw material and fuels to and from the

mixing site.

At the mixing site there are storage tanks for the components in

the fuels; the size of these tanks depend on the volumes of fuels

produced at each specific site. From the storage tanks there are

pipe connections to the different means of transport so that raw

material and fuel can be pumped to and from the storage tanks.

The tanks are placed within an embankment which will collect any

leakages. This embankment must be able to collect the total

volume of the largest tank and also ten percent of the volume of all

tanks placed within the embankment. A spill collection system and

rain protection are required at the mixing site, as is a control

system that monitors the levels in the tanks, pumps and other

equipment associated with the mixing site.

From the mixing site the fuels are either transported by boat, train

or truck. For the product E5, dehydrated bioethanol is transported

to the oil companies’ own fuel preparation sites. E85 is produced at

the mixing sites and transported either directly to the filling

stations by truck or to fuel depots using all three modes of

19 2005, Storing and Dispensing E85 and E95, Experiences from Sweden and the US, BEST Deliverable D4.02A, www.best-europe.org

20 2007, Logistics of fuel from ethanol producer to forecourt in Sweden and the Netherlands, BEST Deliverable D4.8, www.best-europe.org

Refuelling station for cars, Stockholm

(Photo Kristina Birath)

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252. Bioethanol

transport. The ED95 (Etamax-D) is today mainly distributed directly

to the public transport companies by truck and used in buses.

2.5.3 Safety risks

E85

Bioethanol has a lower vapour pressure than petrol at low

temperatures. For example, E85 is more flammable than petrol at

0°C but at higher, normal, temperatures E85 is less flammable

because of the higher auto ignition temperature of 454°C21.

There is no increased risk associated with E85 compared with petrol

fuel when it comes to fire and safety aspects22. The risks with E85,

however, are different from petrol. Combustible vapours of E85 fuel

can occur in closed spaces (fuel tank in vehicles and at filling

stations) at higher ambient temperatures – and in a broader

temperature interval – than for conventional petrol fuels.

The advice and recommendations given by The Swedish Petroleum

Institute together with the special adaptations in today’s E85 cars

are sufficient to compensate for these risks.

E85 fires can be assessed to be less damaging to humans and

property and are less difficult to extinguish than petrol and diesel

fires. In Sweden no serious fire or explosion accidents have

occurred despite the fact that E85 is now widely used.

Filling stations for E85 are also modified in accordance with safety

recommendations from the Swedish Petroleum Institute. An

example of a measure is that the pistol valve on refilling pumps for

E85 should not be equipped with lock-up mechanism, because it

not should be possible to leave the pistol and build up static

electricity. With the exception of refilling of FFV cars as designed by

Saab, fuel vapours are emitted into open air by fuel refilling of E85

cars at Swedish filling stations. New regulations from the Swedish

Environmental Protection Agency are expected to address this issue

in the near future.

21 Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info

Want to know more? Information about fuel vapour composition and flammability properties of E85 can be found in SP Report 2008:15, available at www.sp.se/en/publications/Sidor/Publikationer.aspx

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

26 2. Bioethanol

There are several benefits associated with E85 compared with

petrol, such as, slower fire propagation and less violent fires that

are easier to control than petrol fires.

E95

The bioethanol fuel for heavy-duty vehicles is explosive for a much

wider range of ambient temperatures than diesel. Several

measures have already been taken to reduce the risk for fire and

explosion in fuel distribution and refuelling. Recommendations

regarding E85 refuelling equipment have been issued by the

Swedish Petroleum Institute (SPI). For example a “spill-free” fuel

dispensing system reduces the risk of explosion during refuelling.

The vehicle manufacturers have also taken several measures to

increase safety. This is on-going work for E85 and the issue should

be addressed in more detail for bioethanol used in heavy-duty

vehicles as well23.

Besides the mentioned recommendations by SPI for refuelling,

some of the issues and conclusions for light-duty vehicles using

E85 also apply to heavy duty vehicles. For example, flame arresters

could be considered on heavy-duty vehicles. As for the tank at the

refuelling station, the air-fuel mixture in the vehicle tank is

explosive for a considerable range of temperatures and similar

precautions need to be taken into consideration.

Fires in the engine compartment have tended to be more frequent

in alcohol-fuelled buses in Sweden in comparison to diesel-fuelled

buses, although the statistic basis for such a conclusion is small.

2.6 Fuel quality standards There is currently no international standard for bioethanol as

vehicle fuel, but there is ongoing work in establishing standards

and agreements as an effect of the growing demand of biofuels.

22 2006, Safety aspects with E85 as a fuel for vehicles - Fire Safety Consideration, BEST Deliverable D4.02B, www.best-europe.org 23 Rehnlund, B., et al, 2007, Heavy-duty ethanol engines, BIOScopes EC project TREN/D2/44-LOT 2/S07.54739

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272. Bioethanol

Besides standards for the composition of the fuel there are a lot of

other regulations, or lack of regulations, that affects the use of

bioethanol as a vehicle fuel.

EU standards

CEN, the European Committee for Standardization, developed in

March 2005 a Workshop Agreement CEN CWA 15923 – Automotive

fuels – Ethanol E85 – Requirements and test methods. It is not a

standard, but lays down requirements for bioethanol-petrol blends

as delivered by the supplier for use in so-called flex-fuel vehicles.

The CWA has been prepared under a mandate given to CEN by the

European Commission. In the CWA all relevant characteristics,

requirements and test methods are specified. National adaptations

of the CWA may choose differently based on either local conditions

and/or updated knowledge24.

At the end of 2007 the European quality specification for bioethanol

as a blending component for petrol up to 5% in volume was

finalised. This activity was undertaken in response to a mandate to

CEN from the European Commission in support of its policy to

promote renewable fuels. The CEN technical commission (CEN/TC

19) accepted the EN 15376. Mixing was possible even before that,

but there was not a European standard drawn up containing

requirements for this blending component. Tax legislations allow

chemical substances in order to denature alcohol. Most of these

chemical substances are disadvantageous for car engines. In the

standard there is a strong advice written that no denaturant alcohol

is added to alcohol for fuel application. The maximal water content

is set at 0.3% (weight)25.

Current fuel specifications allow blending of up to 5vol% biodiesel

and bioethanol and up to 15% ETBE in the standard petrol and

diesel that is being sold. The 2007 proposal for changes to the Fuel

Quality Directive contains a proposal for specifications for the base

fuel for a 10% bioethanol blend26.

24 2005, I.S. CWA 15293:2005, Automotive fuels – Ethanol E85 – Requirements and test methods, NSAI (National Standards Authority of Ireland), Dublin

25 2007-11-09, European standard for ethanol in petrol finalized, Article from NEN, Centrum van Normalisatie, Delft, Netherlands

26 Verbeek, R., et al, 2008, Impact of biofuels on air pollutant emissions from road vehicles, TNO Science and Industrie Report report MON-RPT-033-DTS-2008-01737, Delft, Netherlands

Want to know more? The directive 2003/30/EC can be found at: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/res/legislation/doc/biofuels/en_final.pdf

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28 2. Bioethanol

2.7 Production The production process consists of conversion of biomass to

fermentable sugars, fermentation of sugars to bioethanol, and the

separation and purification of the bioethanol. Fermentation initially

produces bioethanol containing a substantial amount of water.

Distillation removes the majority of water to yield about 95% purity

bioethanol, the balance being water27.

In commercial bioethanol production, sugar can be obtained

directly from sugarcane (Brazil), sugar beet (Europe), or hydrolysis

of starch-based grains such as corn (USA) and wheat (Europe). In

the latter, the starch feedstock first needs to be ground to a meal

which is further hydrolysed to glucose by means of enzymes.

The mash is fermented using natural yeast and bacteria. Finally,

the fermented mash is separated into bioethanol and residues (for

feed production) via distillation and dehydration. The process

scheme for bioethanol production from starch is shown in the figure

below.

Figure 8 Process flow diagram for bioethanol production from starch28.

Besides sugar and starch, cellulose can also be converted into

ethanol, but the cellulosic biomass-to-ethanol production process is

more complicated than the sugar- or starch-to ethanol process29.

27 2008. Sustainable Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info28 Schwietzke, S., et al, 2008, Gaps in the Research of 2nd Generation Transportation Biofuels, IEA Bioenergy T41(2): 2008:01 29 Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008, Biofuel Technology Handbook, WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany

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292. Bioethanol

In the newest bioethanol production plant concepts, biogas is an

important by-product30. The biogas can be used, if necessary, for

the plants own energy needs, or sold as an “extra” commodity.

2.8 Sustainability issues Bioethanol can be manufactured from different sources and with

different processes. Depending on variations in the life cycle of a

particular bioethanol, from initial source to use in a vehicle, the

environmental impact will be different.

Below the important issues greenhouse gas (GHG) balance and

energy balance for different bioethanol fuels are explained and

presented. Also some other sustainability issues are highlighted,

however in more general terms.

2.8.1 GHG balance

Greenhouse gases are gases causing the greenhouse effect. The

greenhouse gases taken into account in this presentation are

carbon dioxide, CO2, nitrous oxide, N2O and methane, CH4.

The GHG balance for any biofuel is influenced by details like growth

location, use of fertilisers, use of agricultural machinery, production

processes, energy use, use of by products, transports etc. The GHG

balance will be different for different biofuels.

Greenhouse gas emission savings from biofuels are calculated as

the reduction of total emissions from the biofuel compared to the

total emissions from the fossil fuel comparator. These values in

table 5 originate from the Directive of the European Parliament and

of the Council on the promotion of the use of energy from

renewable sources, 2008/0016. How greenhouse gas emission

savings from biofuels are calculated is presented in Appendix I.

Typical values for different bioethanol used today, if produced with

no net carbon emissions from land use change are shown in Table

5. The emissions represent all emissions from well-to-wheel

30 2008, www.ber-rotterdam.com

Want to know more? Sustainability issues are not the focus in this report. Further information can be found at the website http://www.biofuel-cities.eu/index.php?id=6780.

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30 2. Bioethanol

(WTW), i.e. from extraction of raw materials to use of the fuel in

vehicles.

CO2 emissions from land use change: emissions of carbon

dioxide due to changes in land use mainly come from deforestation

for development of agriculture or built-up areas. When forested

areas are cut down, the land often becomes less productive and

has considerably less capacity to store CO2. This effect is not taken

into account.

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312. Bioethanol

Bioethanol production pathway

(CHP = Combined Heat and Power)

Typical greenhouse gas

emission saving

sugar beet bioethanol 48%

wheat bioethanol (process fuel not

specified) 21%

wheat bioethanol (lignite as process

fuel in CHP plant) 21%

wheat bioethanol (natural gas as

process fuel in conventional boiler) 45%

wheat bioethanol (natural gas as

process fuel in CHP plant) 54%

wheat bioethanol (straw as process fuel

in CHP plant) 69%

corn (maize) bioethanol, Community

produced (natural gas as process fuel in

CHP plant)

56%

sugar cane bioethanol 74%

Table 5 Typical greenhouse gas emission savings for different bioethanol fuels31.

Future bioethanol

Estimated typical values for future bioethanol that are not, or in

negligible quantities, on the market in January 2008, if produced

with no net carbon emissions from land use change are shown in

Table 6 below.

These fuels are typically produced from waste from agricultural or

forestry activities and have higher GHG saving potential than

bioethanol produced today.

31 21.1.2008, Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, Commission of the European Communities, 2008/0016, Brussels, Belgium

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32 2. Bioethanol

Bioethanol production pathway Typical greenhouse gas

emission saving

wheat straw bioethanol 87%

waste wood bioethanol 80%

farmed wood bioethanol 76%

Table 6 Typical greenhouse gas emission savings for different future bioethanol fuels32.

2.8.2 Energy balance

The fossil (non renewable) energy use for a biofuel over its life

cycle is an important sustainability factor.

The use of biofuels reduces the use of fossil energy. The energy

balance presented below includes both fossil and renewable (bio)

energy. Evidence of fossil energy savings does not automatically

mean that biofuel pathways are total energy (fossil and renewable)

efficient.

As with the greenhouse gas balance, the fossil energy savings of

biofuels are critically dependent on details like growth location, use

of fertilisers, use of agricultural machinery, production processes,

energy use, use of by products, transports etc. The energy use will

be different for different biofuels.

Taking into account the energy contained in the biomass resource,

one can calculate the total energy involved. The figure below shows

energy figures for different bioethanol fuels. Figures for fossil and

total (fossil and renewable bioenergy) well-to-wheel (WTW) energy

are presented. This represents the energy from well or source of

the biofuel to use of the fuel in the vehicle.

32 21.1.2008, Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, Commission of the European Communities, 2008/0016, Brussels, Belgium

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332. Bioethanol

Figure 9 WTW total versus fossil energy. For gasoline (petrol) total energy is equal to fossil energy. DDGS = Distiller’s Dried Grain with Solubles: the residue left after production of ethanol from wheat grain33.

2.8.3 Other sustainability issues

Soil quality/erosion

Soil erosion by water, wind and agricultural growth affects both

agricultural conditions and the natural environment.

Sugar beet can cause soil erosion, especially if grown on the light

soils of southern Europe. New techniques of inter-sewing between

cover crops can help the situation. However, sugar beet production

would probably not spread beyond areas of northern Europe with

heavy soils. In wet areas, the heavy machinery used for harvesting

sugar beet can cause soil compaction.

33 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commissions Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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34 2. Bioethanol

Continually removing straw instead of incorporating it in the soil

will decrease the soil’s organic content and may lead to reduced

moisture retention. This may be a larger problem in light southern

soils but probably does not represent a significant problem in the

prime cereals-growing areas of Northern Europe where a high

density of straw availability makes it most economic to site straw-

to-bioethanol fuel conversion plants34.

Acidification and Eutrophication

Acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems are two

environmental problems that to a great extent are caused by the

same pollutants.

The main cause of acidification is the airborne deposition of

sulphur. Nitrogen compounds (nitrogen oxides and ammonia) are

the dominant cause of eutrophication of many ecosystems, but also

contribute increasingly to acidification.

Acidification causes soil depletion, disappearance of plants and

animals as well as forest damage. The deposition of nitrogen

compounds favours forest growth, but at the same time leads to

the chemical disruption of a long list of ecosystems, and results in

decrease of biodiversity.

Because intensive agriculture using fertilisers tends to cause

eutrophication and acidification, increased crop production for

bioethanol fuels would tend to accelerate the problem. The driving

force for intensification is crop price: hence meeting biofuels

targets will probably cause intensification of oilseed (biodiesel)

production rather than of cereals (bioethanol) production.

Short rotation forest and other “advanced bioethanol fuels” crops

generally use less fertiliser than the other crops35.

34 2008, Sustainable Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info

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352. Bioethanol

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variety of life: the different plants, animals and

micro-organisms, their genes and the ecosystems of which they are

a part.

Growing energy crops instead of permanent crops and on “natural”

land now in voluntary set-aside areas would decrease biodiversity.

A European study concluded that the negative biodiversity impacts

are medium for sugar beet and low to medium for short rotation

forestry.36

The use of wood residues is considered to have no impact. Pesticide

use affects biodiversity negatively.

Large increases of pesticide applications are needed if the

frequency of sugar beet crops in a rotation is increased beyond

about one year in four. Sugar beet generally requires much more

pesticide than other crops.

Impact on ground water table

The increased growth of crops requiring extensive irrigation in arid

areas will put pressure on water resources. For example sugar beet

cultivation in Spain and Greece has a very high percentage of

irrigated area.

Increased cultivation of trees can also lead to a lowering of the

ground water table. Lowering of the water table can have

significant impact on the natural environment in the area

concerned.

Introduction of non-native species and GMOs

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose

genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering

techniques.

35 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commissions Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu) 36 2006, How much bioenergy can Europe produce without harming the environment?, EEA Report No 7/2006, ISBN 92-9167-849-X, ISSN 1725-9177, Copenhagen, Denmark

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36 2. Bioethanol

There is some risk that non-native energy crops could spread in the

wild, because they lack natural predators. Using sterile varieties

(including GMOs) greatly reduce this risk. However, there are some

general concerns about the environmental and health impacts of

GMO crops.

Social impact, working conditions

In general, working conditions in relation to farm and agricultural

labour are regulated, particularly in the EU-27 and the US. In other

parts of the world the working conditions could be questioned.

However similar problems exist both for biofuel production and for

food and feed production.

Working conditions at sugar cane production sites in Brazil are

sometimes argued to be hard and to involve child workers. More

than 80% of the harvest is done by hand but the automatisation

rate is increasing37.

Competition with food production

Biomass for energy needs land and is therefore in competition with

other crops. A criticism raised against biomass, particularly against

large-scale fuel production, is that it could divert agricultural

production away from food crops, especially in developing

countries38.

The topic is complex and there are different opinions, pro and con,

from various stake holders.

37 Smeets, E., et al, 2006, Sustainability of Brazilian bio-ethanol, Copernicus Institute, Department of Science, Technology and Society Report NWS-E-2006-110, ISBN 90-8672-012-9, University of Utrecht, Netherlands 38 Peña, N., 2008, Biofuels for transportation: A climate perspective, Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Arlington, U.S.A.

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372. Bioethanol

Literature Bioethanol A clean ethanol fuelled compression ignition bus engine,

Egebäck, K-E., 2004

Report for Bioalcohol Fuel Foundation (BAFF), Örnsköldsvik,

Sweden

An exhaust characterisation study based on regulated and

unregulated tailpipe and evaporative emissions from bi-fuel

and flexi-fuel light-duty passenger cars fuelled by petrol

(E5), bio-ethanol (E85) and biogas tested at ambient

temperatures of +22°C and -7°C. Westerholm, R., et al,

2007

Institution for Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Sweden

Biofuels for Transportation: A Climate Perspective, Peña, N.,

2008

Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Arlington, U.S.A.

Biofuel Technology Handbook, Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008

WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany

DIRECTIVE 2003/30/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT

AND OF THE COUNCIL of 8 May 2003, on the promotion of

the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for transport,

2003

European Union, Brussels, Belgium

EU-27, Bio-fuels, Annual 2007

GAIN Report E47051, Washington, U.S.A.

European standard for ethanol in petrol finalised, 2007-11-

09

Article from NEN, Centrum van normalisatie, Delft, Netherlands

Experiences from introduction of ethanol buses and ethanol

fuel stations, 2007

BEST Deliverable D2.1 and D2.2, www.best-europe.org

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

38 2. Bioethanol

FFV driver attitudes - Results from survey 2007

Input to BEST (Bio-Ethanol for Sustainable Transport) Final report,

intermediate report

Frequently asked questions on ethanol buses, 2007

www.ethanolbus.com

Gaps in the Research of 2nd Generation Transportation

Biofuels, Schwietzke, S., et al, 2008

IEA Bioenergy T41(2): 2008:01

Heavy-duty ethanol engines, Rehnlund, B. et al, 2007

BIOscopes, EC project TREN/D2/44-LOT 2/S07.54739

How much bioenergy can Europe produce without harming

the environment? 2006

EEA Report No 7/2006, ISBN 92–9167–849-X, ISSN 1725-9177,

Copenhagen, Denmark

I.S. CWA 15293:2005, Automotive fuels – Ethanol E85 –

Requirements and test methods, 2005

NSAI (National Standards Authority of Ireland), Dublin

Impact of biofuels on air pollutant emissions from road

vehicles, Verbeek, R. et al, 2008

TNO Science and Industrie Report MON-RPT-033-DTS-2008-

01737, Delft, Netherlands

Logistics of fuel from ethanol producer to forecourt in

Sweden and the Netherlands, 2007

BEST Deliverable D4.8, www.best-europe.org

Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT

AND OF THE COUNCIL on the promotion of the use of energy

from renewable sources, 23.1.2008

Commission of the European Communities, 2008/0016, Brussels,

Belgium

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392. Bioethanol

Safety aspects with E85 as a fuel for vehicles – Fire safety

consideration, 2006

BEST Deliverable D4.02B, www.best-europe.org

Setting a Quality Standard for Fuel Ethanol, 2004

IFQC, International Fuel Quality Center, Australia

Storing and Dispensing E85 and E95 – Experiences from

Sweden and the US, 2005

BEST Deliverable D4.02A, www.best-europe.org

Sustainable Green Fleets website, 2008

www.sugre.info

Sustainability of Brazilian bio-ethanol, Smeets, E., et al,

2006

Copernicus Institute, Department of Science, Technology and

Society Report NWS-E-2006-110, ISBN 90-8672-012-9, University

of Utrecht, Netherlands

Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and

powertrains in the European context, 2007

JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Institute for

Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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40 3. Biodiesel

3 Biodiesel

3.1 Summary biodiesel

In general discussions, the name biodiesel is used for many

different types of biofuels that could replace fossil diesel. However

in more detailed discussions it is wise to use more specific names,

as ‘biodiesel’ does not say something about the physical properties

of the fuel nor the quality, production process or feedstock used.

Different biofuels that can replace fossil diesel are: first generation

biodiesels: esterified plant oils and animal fats (FAME),

hydrotreated vegetable oils (HVO), pure plant oils (PPO – not

commonly named biodiesel, see chapter 4) and second generation

biodiesel: Fisher-Tropsch diesel (BTL- Biomass To Liquids),

produced by gasification of biomass and the production of synthetic

fuels via the chemical Fischer-Tropsch process. In this chapter,

FAME, HVO and BTL will be described.

First generation biodiesels are characterised by the fact that only

parts of the source plant are used for biodiesel production. The

next-generation (or second generation) biodiesels use nearly the

whole plant, including waste, for biodiesel production. The process

technology for second generation fuels is generally more complex.39

There are many options for utilising different sources for production

of the the first generation of biodiesels. Besides widely-used

dedicated oilseed crops such as rapeseed and soybean, animal fats

and waste oil can provide viable options for fuel production.

However, these feedstock types are not yet used on a large scale

today40. For BTL, all kinds of biomass can be used.

FAME is more commonly used in Europe than in other parts of the

world. In Central and Northern Europe the main crops are rapeseed

and, of less importance, sunflower is used in the south. Waste

cooking oils are also used to a limited extent.

39 Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008, Biofuel Technology Handbook, WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany 40 Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008, Biofuel Technology Handbook, WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany

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413. Biodiesel

FAME can be used in almost unmodified diesel-engines. B20 (20%

biodiesel blend in fossil diesel) and lower blends of biodiesel can be

used in most existing heavy duty vehicles without modifications.

B100, pure FAME, can only be used in vehicles when a warranty is

given by the car manufacturer. Synthetic diesel from biomass, BTL

and fossil based natural gas and coal, GTL and CTL, can be used in

diesel engines without modifications. Hydrated bio-oils, HVO, also

have the same characteristics as fossil diesel and can be used in

unmodified engines.

Fuel

Diesel engines

no changes

Modified diesel

engines Petrol engines

Biodiesel (FAME) B20 B100 X

BTL, (CTL, GTL) up to 100%

no change

needed X

Hydrated bio-oils

(HVO) up to 100%

no change

needed X

Table 7 Biodiesel and use in different kind of vehicles

The main difference between fossil diesel and FAME is that FAME is

more aggressive to elastomers so materials in the infrastructure

need to be compatible to both.

All kinds of biodiesels can be manufactured from different sources

and with different processes. Depending on circumstances in the

life cycle of a particular biodiesel from initial source to use in a

vehicle the environmental impact will be different. Particularly

important issues to consider are greenhouse gas (GHG) balance

and energy balance for the life cycle of the fuel.

3.2 General fuel properties Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) is generally called biodiesel41 but

as there are many fuels that can replace fossil diesel FAME will be

used when oil based esters are discussed. FAME is used as fuel for

compression ignition. It is similar to fossil diesel fuel except that it

41 Verbeek, R. et.al., 2008, Impact of biofuels on air pollutant emissions from road vehicles, TNO Science and Industrie Report MON-RPT-033-DTS-2008-01737, Delft, Netherlands

FAME fuelled truck (Photo www.greenfleet.info)

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42 3. Biodiesel

is produced from renewable biomass42. B100 is pure FAME without

any blending of fossil diesel fuel. B99 is FAME that has been mixed

with a small amount of fossil diesel. This fuel mixing is also known

as “splashing.”

Biodiesel from vegetable oil can be used directly as a fuel with

minor engine modifications or blended up to 20% into petroleum

derived diesel fuel without modifications in areas of the world

where climate conditions permit the use of such a fuel. Today it is

possible to blend in up to 5% FAME in fossil diesel according to the

CEN standard EN 590.

FAME is practically immiscible with water, has a high boiling point,

a low vapour pressure and it is non-toxic and biodegradable43.

3.3 Availability

FAME is more commonly used in Europe than in other parts of the

world because Europe has a relative large diesel fleet.

There are many options for utilising different sources for FAME

production. Besides dedicated oilseed crops such as rapeseed and

soybean, animal fats and waste oil also provide viable options for

fuel production (although these feedstock types are currently not

used on a large scale).

First generation biodiesels are characterised by the fact that only

parts of the source plant are used for biodiesel production. The

next-generation (or second generation) biodiesels use nearly the

whole plant, including waste, for biodiesel production. The process

technology for second generation fuels is generally more complex44.

3.3.1 Sources of FAME

Biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters, FAME) is usually derived from

vegetable oils and animal fats by a chemical process known as

42 2008-08-20, Properties of biodiesel, www.inforse.org/europe/dieret/altfuels/biodiesel.htm 43 Moura, L., 2007, User manual for fleet owners concerning AFVs, PROCURA Deliverable D2.4, Lisbon, Portugal 44 Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008, Biofuel Technology Handbook, WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany

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433. Biodiesel

transesterification, where a feedstock of oil reacts with methanol

and a potassium hydroxide catalyst45.

In addition, FAME may be produced by esterification of free fatty

acids with low molecular weight alcohols.

In Europe the main crops are rape (also known as colza) in the

centre and north and, of less importance, sunflower in the south.

Waste cooking oils are also used to a limited extent46.

3.3.2 Future availability

Biomass for energy needs land and could create competition with

crops for food or feed. The additional sources of agricultural

capacity for future growth of different biodiesel energy crops are

described below47:

• A steady improvement of agricultural yields has been

achieved over the last decades and this trend is expected to

continue.

• Set-aside areas can in principle be used for non-food

production although it is difficult to make an accurate

estimate of land quality and therefore of yields.

• There is a large potential for collection and use of waste

woody biomass for advanced, second generation, biodiesel

fuels, BTL.

Second generation biodiesel fuels are produced by using biomass-

to-liquid technologies. Using the so-called Gas-To-Liquid (GTL)

technology it is possible to produce liquid diesel fuels from

synthesis gas. This synthesis gas can be obtained by means of

gasification from a variety of feedstocks including coal (coal-to-

liquid, CTL), natural gas (GTL) and biomass (biomass-to-liquid,

BTL). Diesel is produced from the syngas using the Fischer-Tropsch

(FT) process.

45 Kousoulidou, M., 2008, Effect of biodiesel and bioethanol on exhaust emissions, Laboratory of applied thermodynamics, Mechanical engineering department, Report No.: 08.RE.0006.V1. Aristotle University Thessaloniki, Greece

46 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu) 47 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

Rape seeds (Photo www.greenfleet.info)

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44 3. Biodiesel

NExBTL referred to as HVO (Hydro-treated Vegetable Oil) is

produced in a vegetable oil refining process, which entails direct

catalytic hydrogenation of plant oil. The resulting fuel has

specifications very close to that of fossil diesel, so that it requires

no modification or special precautions for the engine.

BTL diesel is chemically different from the methyl-ester biodiesel

produced from rapeseed or soybeans. It is likely that BTL will

receive the most attention over the next years, especially in

Europe48.

3.4 Use in vehicles

FAME can be used in almost all unmodified diesel-engines. B20

(20% FAME blend in fossil diesel) and lower blends of FAME can be

used in most existing heavy duty vehicles without modifications.

B100, pure FAME, can only be used in vehicles when a warranty is

given by the car manufacturer. Synthetic diesel from biomass, BTL

and fossil fuels as natural gas and coal, GTL and CTL, can be used

in diesel engines without modifications. Hydrated bio-oils also have

the same characteristics as fossil diesel and can be used in

unmodified engines.

Fuel

Diesel engines

no changes

Modified diesel

engines Petrol engines

Biodiesel (FAME) B20 B100 x

BTL, (CTL, GTL) up to 100%

no change

needed x

Hydrated bio-oils up to 100%

no change

needed x

Table 8 Use of biodiesel in different engines

3.4.1 Vehicle technology

Pure FAME (B100) is not compatible with natural rubber, which

may sometimes be found in older vehicles (before 1994). Because

48 Verbeek, R., et al, 2008, Impact of biofuels on air pollutant emissions from road vehicles, TNO Science and Industrie Report MON-RPT-033-DTS-2008-01737, Delft, Netherlands

Want to know more? Available vehicles

can be found at:

www.ufop.de

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453. Biodiesel

FAME functions as a solvent, it can degrade natural rubber hoses

and gaskets. FAME may also deteriorate polyurethane foam

materials. This is not usually a problem with B30 and lower

percentage FAME blends.

Availability of vehicles

UFOP (Union for the Promotion of Oil and Protein Plants) performed

a survey among car manufacturers in 2008. The survey shows that

use of pure FAME, B100, in the new Euro 4 cars with self-

regenerating particle filter system is not possible. The reason is

that the post-injection of FAME accelerates the dilution of the motor

oil. In older diesel cars from VW, Audi, Skoda and Seat B100 are

accepted49. Retrofitting with particle filters approved for FAME is a

way to use FAME in newer vehicles.

For heavy vehicles with Euro 4 and 5 engines, B100 is accepted by

Mercedes Benz, MAN, Scania and Volvo, as long as the FAME

complies with the European Biodiesel Standard EN 14214.

Maintenance

FAME is different from fossil diesel. If fossil diesel has been used, it

can be necessary to change the oil filter, before and occasionally

after a change to high blends of FAME. FAME has a solvent effect

that may release deposits accumulated on tank walls and pipes

from previous diesel fuel storage. The FAME works as a solvent and

can dissolve particulates, gum and other build-up in the engine

parts which initally leads to clogged filters. If FAME is used

continuously after that the filter does not have to be changed more

often compared to running on diesel.

For blends over B20 it is recommended to contact the original

equipment manufacturer to determine if seals, hoses, and gaskets

are compatible with the FAME blend being considered. Inspection

and replacement of degradable materials is wise.50 The

maintenance needed for heavy duty vehicles is motor oil change

every 30 000 km. No special motor oil is needed. The engine

49 2006, Status report regarding the granting of approval for operation with biodiesel as a fuel, UFOP Berlin, Germany 50 Moura, L., 2007, User manual for fleet owners concerning AFVs, PROCURA Deliverable D2.4, Lisbon, Portugal

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46 3. Biodiesel

abrasion is equal to diesel use. The buses have 5% higher

consumption than the diesel buses51.

Driving range

The energy content in B100 is about 92% of the energy content in

fossil diesel. The driving range is therefore shorter when driving on

FAME.

Cold start properties

The cloud point for FAME depends on which type of vegetable oil it

is based on. Palm oil based FAME has a cloud point at +12ºC,

compared with Canola-based FAME at –1ºC. B100 made from used

cooking oils performs well down to +4 ºC. In colder temperatures

the fuel is susceptible to gelling and may cause blockages in the

fuel system. Should colder weather occur, blending with petroleum

diesel is advised. Rape methyl ester (RME) made from fresh rape

oil is cold tolerant down to -6ºC.

Retrofitting

The material in the engine has to be compatible to FAME. It is

necessary to check with the manufacturer if it is possible to drive

on blends over B30 with a valid warranty. There are companies in

Germany which give warranty for FAME for all particle systems

according to the UFOP survey, “Status report regarding the

granting of approval for operation with biodiesel as a fuel”.

BTL, CTL and GTL

The synthetic diesel fuels from gasification of biomass and coal or

natural gas are very similar to the standard components in fossil

diesel and it is generally accepted that synthetic diesels have no

adverse effect on the engine52. GTL – gas-to-liquid diesel is used in

some extent in Europe. The energy content is the same as diesel

which means that the driving range is not affected. The large

difference between the fuels is the emissions of CO2, BTL is a

biofuel but CTL and GTL are fossil fuels.

51 Amtmann, G., January 2008, Our experiences with biodiesel – “From the frying pan into the tank“ Presentation by Amtmann at Grazer Stadtwerke AG 52 Verbeek, R., et al, 2008, Impact of biofuels on air pollutant emissions from road vehicles, TNO Science and Industrie Report MON-RPT-033-DTS-2008-01737, Delft, Netherlands

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473. Biodiesel

3.4.2 Exhaust gas emissions

Use of pure FAME leads to increase of NOX emissions for both

passenger cars and heavy duty vehicles. This is mainly an effect of

the higher cetane number, which leads to lower ignition delay

hence combustion advance and higher combustion temperature

and pressure. FAME has a higher oxygen content compared to

diesel which in combination with higher flame temperature may

lead to higher NOX. There can be up to 38% higher NOX emissions

according to experimental studies53. Tests by the US EPA show, in

Table 9, decreased emissions of emissions of HC and PM, more with

high blends than low-blends.

Emission Type B100 B20

Regulated

Emissions in relation

to conventional diesel

Total Unburned Hydrocarbons -67% -20%

Carbon Monoxide -48% -12%

Particulate Matter -47% -12%

NOx +10% +2%

Non-Regulated

Sulfates -100% -20% a

PAH (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) b -80% -13%

nPAH (nitrated PAH’s) b -90% -50% c

Ozone potential of speciated HC -50% -10%

a Estimated from B100 result.

b Average reduction across all compounds measured.

c 2-nitroflourine results were within test method variability.

Table 9 Average Biodiesel (B100 and B20) Emissions Compared to Conventional Diesel Heavy duty vehicles54

53 Kousoulidou, M., 2008, Effect of biodiesel and bioethanol on exhaust emissions, Laboratory of applied thermodynamics, Mechanical engineering department, Report No.: 08.RE.0006.V1. Aristotle University Thessaloniki, Greece

54 Testing was performed by the EPA. The full report titled "A comprehensive Analysis of Biodiesel Impacts on Exhaust Emissions" can be found at: www.epa.gov/otaq/models/biodsl.htm

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48 3. Biodiesel

3.4.3 User experience In order to gather information about experiences, several

interviews with users of biofuels have been performed. The

complete questions and answers can be found in Appendix IV.

The Public Transport Operator of the Town of Graz in Austria,

Grazer Verkehrsbetriebe, GVB, has used B100 in their bus fleet for

many years (since 1992). The FAME in Graz is made from collected

reused cooking oil. The procurement of the buses included a

requirement that the buses had to be adapted to FAME. This

includes exchange of fuel pipes and gaskets. The engine must be

capable to work with FAME (auxiliary heating systems, injection

pump, etc.). The experience from Graz is that if the requirement is

included already in the procurement the price for adapted buses is

not higher than for conventional diesel buses. There is no

difference in delivery time for the FAME adapted buses. There have

been no notable changes in the engine performance according to

GVB: “Our buses have very strong engines (more than 300 hp) and

nobody can notice a difference”. The fuel consumption increases by

5% and the need for maintenance increases slightly because it is

nesessary to change the oil filter and the engine oil in 30 000km

instead of 60 000km. The precise cost for this is not available.

The airport coaches, Flygbussarna, at Arlanda Airport in Sweden

have a fleet of approximately 50 vehicles. Five are run on 100%

RME. The others are diesel fuelled with 5% RME blending. The

B100 was introduced in April 2008. The five buses meet emission

standards Euro 3 and 4. In autumn 2008 another (sixth) bus was

bought which is Euro 5. The buses meet different emission

standards as part of a strategy to compare emissions from different

buses. All five buses are retrofitted and adapted to FAME. The

availability of vehicles on the market has been very limited and the

vehicle manufacturers leave much responsibility to the operator

after the vehicles have been retrofitted. Volvo is a partner in this

project. There are no ready for use FAME-adopted buses available

on the market, so work has to be done through projects and issues

such as guarantees must be solved seperately each time. So far

the project progresses well but there is still no experience from

cold weather/winter driving.

RME bus, Flygbussarna (Photo Agneta Weissglas)

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493. Biodiesel

3.5 Infrastructure requirements It is important that proper fuel handling techniques are practiced to

prevent fuel contamination. Also choosing the right materials for

fuel storage and dispensing systems is crucial. Local and national

regulations and legislation applicable for fuel infrastructure must be

followed. These requirements can be different in individual regions

and countries.

3.5.1 Technical aspects of filling stations

FAME filling stations need to fulfil largely the same legal

requirements as filling stations selling petroleum-based fuel.

Physically FAME is very similar to fossil diesel fuel. There has been

no proof that any of the metals currently used in the distribution,

storage, dispensing, or onboard fuel systems for diesel fuel would

not be compatible with FAME. The main difference between fossil

diesel and FAME is that the latter is more aggressive to the

elastomers that may be used in pumps and meters.55 Existing filling

stations and tanks can be used for FAME with only small

modifications. In order to prevent blockage in the pumps filter

systems, the storage tanks have to be cleaned thoroughly.

Dispensers used for diesel fuel can also be used for FAME, but

dispensers with elastomers in their composition may not be

compatible. The hose of the petrol pump has to be substituted for

one made of resistant FAME material. The petrol pump pistol has to

be checked accordingly to the specifications of the producer to

assure the FAME compatibility.

FAME spills should be cleaned up immediately. FAME is a very good

solvent and has thus the potential to damage paints and finish.

3.5.2 Technical aspects of storage and

transportation

FAME resistant storage tank materials include aluminium, steel,

fluorinated polyethylene, fluorinated polypropylene and Teflon.

Copper, brass, lead, tin, and zinc should be avoided. FAME can be

55 Moura, L., User manual for fleet owners concerning AFVs, PROCURA Deliverable D2.4, Lisbon, Portugal

Biodiesel fuelling station Graz Austria

(Photo www.greenfleet.info)

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50 3. Biodiesel

stored in above-ground or underground fuel tanks (same as

petroleum diesel). Conservation vents are not required since the

vapour pressure is very low, as for diesel fuel. The fuel should be

stored in a clean, dry, dark environment. The sealing surface

should be made of concrete.

The tank has to be cleaned every two years to avoid cases of

product liability and to retain permanently high quality of FAME.

Due to production and storage failures, FAME are frequently sold

out of their fuel specifications. Water and impurities in the fuel may

have impact on vehicle and engine performance and functionality.

The pipelines in the storing tank area are generally made of steel

(black or galvanised), fibreglass, or plastic suitable for fuel use.

Any built-in or added parts of nonferrous heavy metal (copper,

brass, bronze) or any zinc coated materials have to be substituted

by equivalent parts of steel or, if applicable, to be removed. These

measures avoid corrosion with a subsequent formation of metal

soaps which can deteriorate the quality of the FAME. All the joints

have to be tested for leaks, and a Teflon tape can be used as a

thread sealant (with the compatibility with FAME assured).

FAME is more susceptible to water contamination than petroleum

diesel. If there is water in the FAME fuel it can cause corrosion and

growth of micro-organisms. Large temperature swings in storage

tanks can promote moisture condensation on the inside.

Underground storage tanks are best at preventing condensation

because the fuel is kept at a relatively constant temperature, but

on the other hand an underground storage tank can have other

potential problems such as leakage56. Aboveground storage tanks

should be insulated (double wall) and shaded if possible to

moderate temperature swings. This will reduce the problem with

condensation.

Other techniques to prevent water contamination are to:

� Drain a small amount of fuel from the bottom of the storage

tanks every six months to remove any water that might have

accumulated in the tank.

Biodiesel tank (Photo www.greenfleet.info)

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513. Biodiesel

Want to know more? CEN, the European Committee for Standardization has an informative web page: www.cen.eu

� Avoid prolonged exposure of fuel to light which can cause algae

growth. Fibreglass tanks should be painted and/or placed in

shaded areas.

� If biological growth is a problem the same products that are

used with petroleum diesel can be used in FAME to “dry” the

fuel and clean up biological contaminants.

FAME should not be stored for more than six months without

antioxidant additive. Fuel aging and oxidants can lead to

heightened acid content, high viscosity and the formation of gums

and sediments that clog filters.

3.6 Fuel quality standards

In 1991, the first worldwide standard for rapeseed oil methyl ester

was published in Austria. In the following years, standards were

published in Germany and the Czech Republic (1994), Sweden

(1996), Italy and France (1997) and the U.S.A. (1999)57. National

standards of European countries were replaced by a common

European standard for biodiesel as automotive diesel fuel (EN

14214) and as heating fuel (EN 14213). There is also the European

diesel fuel specification, EN 590, which is applicable to biodiesel

blends up to 5% of FAME. EN 14214 includes specifications for fatty

acid methyl ester (FAME) fuel for diesel engines. B100 that meets

this standard can be used unblended in a diesel engine (if adapted

to B100) or blended with petroleum diesel fuel.

In Germany there is a DIN standard specifying requirements for

three varieties of FAME made of different oils: RME (rapeseed

methyl ester), PME (vegetable methyl ester, purely vegetable

products) and FME (fat methyl ester, vegetable and animal

products).

The standard EN 14214 thus specifies the requirements and test

methods for marketed and delivered fatty acid methyl esters,

FAME, to be used either as a sole automotive fuel for diesel engines

or as an extender for automotive fuel for diesel engines in

accordance with the requirements of EN 590.

56 Stombaugh, T., et al, 2006, Biodiesel FAQ, Issued 4-2206, Dep. of Biosystems & Agricultural Engineering, University of Kentucky, U.S.A. 57 2008-08-08, Fuel regulations, www.dieselnet.com

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52 3. Biodiesel

The European Commission intends to launch a wide debate in order

to modify the EN 14214 standard. Their aim is to enlarge the

number of raw materials that can be used to manufacture FAME,

making it possible to employ also soybean, sun, palm oil and other

fats such as UFO (used frying oil) and animal fats58.

Some national standards in EU countries allow FAME to be

distributed as a stand-alone fuel. The CEN is presently studying a

revised EN 590 specification for diesel fuel that will permit up to

and including 7% of biodiesel blend, instead of the present limit of

5%. There is also a proposal from the European Commission,

presented in January 2008 to introduce a binding 10% target for

biofuels in transport fuel by 2020. This is part of a long term

energy package which includes an overall binding 20% renewable

energy target, a 10% binding minimum target for transport fuels,

and a pathway to bring renewable energies in the fields of

electricity heating and cooling and transport to the economic and

political mainstream59.

3.7 Production

The feedstock for FAME can be vegetable oil, such as that derived

from oil-seed crops, used frying oil or animal fat. Soy is used in US

and mainly rapeseed and sunflower in Europe. Other feedstocks

include coconut and palm oils60.

The figure below illustrates the conversion of an oil-containing

feedstock into FAME. Prior to transesterification, the seed from

which the oil is extracted must be cleaned, dried, and hulled. The

oil can then be extracted by pressing or through solvent extraction.

The triglycerides in the extracted oil are transesterified in a reactor

with methanol and a base catalyst. Methanol and the base form an

alkoxide which then reacts with the triglycerides to produce an

58 Garofalo, R, 2006, Biodiesel Chains: Promoting favourable conditions to establish biodiesel market actions, EBB, European Biodiesel Board, EU-27 Biodiesel Report, Deliverable 7, Brussels, Belgium

59 2007, EU-27, Bio-fuels, Annual 2007, GAIN Report E47051, Washington, U.S.A. 60 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commissions Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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533. Biodiesel

intermediate, which then decomposes into the desired alkyl ester

(FAME).

In the subsequent steps, the products from the reactor, FAME and

glycerine, are neutralised, and the crude FAME phase can easily be

separated from the glycerine phase due to their large difference in

density. After separation, the excess alcohol is removed from both

the FAME and the glycerine via flash evaporation or distillation. The

methanol is then recycled to the beginning of the process, and the

glycerine can be further purified and sold as a by-product for other

industrial purposes.

Figure 10 Process flow diagram for FAME production61.

Second generation biodiesel fuels are based on biomass-to-liquid

technologies. The development of BTL-fuels is a relatively new

trend. BTL stands for Biomass-to-Liquid and like GTL (Gas-to-

Liquid) and CTL (Coal-to-Liquid) BTL-fuels belong to the group of

synthetic fuels.

Generally, the great advantage of second generation biodiesel is

that they can be produced from many different raw materials.

All three fuels, BTL, GTL and CTL, are characterised by similar

process steps, but only BTL is renewable. The transformation-

process of BTL-fuels has three main steps: gasification, gas

cleaning and synthesis62.

61 Schwietzke, S., et al, 2008, Gaps in the Research of 2nd Generation Transportation Biofuels, IEA Bioenergy T41(2): 2008:01 62 Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008, Biofuel Technology Handbook, WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany

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54 3. Biodiesel

3.8 Sustainability issues Biodiesel fuels can be manufactured from different sources and

with different processes. Depending on circumstances in the life

cycle of a particular biodiesel fuel, from initial source to use in a

vehicle, the environmental impact will be different.

In the following sections, the important issues greenhouse gas

(GHG) balance and energy balance for different biodiesel fuels are

explained and presented. Some other sustainability issues are

highlighted, albeit in more general terms.

3.8.1 GHG balance

Greenhouse gases are gases causing the greenhouse effect. The

greenhouse gases taken into account in this presentation are

carbon dioxide, CO2, nitrous oxide, N2O and methane, CH4.

The GHG balance for any biofuel is influenced by details like growth

location, use of fertilizers, use of agricultural machinery, production

processes, energy use, use of by products, transports etc. The GHG

balance will be different for different biofuels.

Greenhouse gas emission savings from biofuels are calculated as

the reduction of total emissions from the biofuel compared to the

total emissions from the fossil fuel comparator. These values in

Table 10 originate from the Directive of the European Parliament

and of the Council on the promotion of the use of energy from

renewable sources, 2008/0016. How greenhouse gas emission

savings from biofuels are calculated is presented in Appendix I.

Typical values for different biodiesels, if produced with no net

carbon emissions from land use change are shown in table 10

below. The emissions represent all emissions from well-to-wheel

(WTW), i.e. from extraction of raw material till use of the fuel in the

vehicle.

CO2 emissions from land use change: emissions of carbon

dioxide due to changes in land use mainly come from the cutting

down of forests and subsequent use of land for agriculture or built-

up areas, etc. When areas of forests are cut down, the land often

Want to know more? Sustainability issues are not the focus in this report. Further information can be found at the website http://www.biofuel-cities.eu/index.php?id=6780.

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553. Biodiesel

turns into less productive lands with considerably less capacity to

store CO2. This effect is not taken into account.

Biodiesels used today

Biodiesel production pathway typical greenhouse

gas emission saving

rape seed biodiesel 44%

sunflower biodiesel 58%

palm oil biodiesel (process not specified) 32%

palm oil biodiesel (process with no methane

emissions to air at oil mill)

57%

waste vegetable or animal oil biodiesel 83%

Hydrotreated vegetable oil from rape seed 49%

Hydrotreated vegetable oil from sunflower 65%

Hydrotreated vegetable oil from palm oil

(process not specified)

38%

Hydrotreated vegetable oil from palm oil

(process with no methane emissions to air at oil

mill)

63%

Table 10 Typical greenhouse gas emission savings for different biodiesel fuels63.

Future biodiesels

The table below shows estimated typical values for future biodiesels

that appear in negligible quantities or are not present on the

market in January 2008, assuming production with no net carbon

emissions from land use change.

These fuels are typically produced from waste from agricultural or

forestry activities and have higher GHG saving potential than the

FAME-based biodiesels produced today.

biofuel production pathway typical greenhouse

gas emission saving

waste wood Fischer-Tropsch diesel 95%

farmed wood Fischer-Tropsch diesel 93%

63 23.1.2008, Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, Commission of the European Communities, 2008/0016, Brussels, Belgium

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56 3. Biodiesel

Table 11 Typical greenhouse gas emission savings for different future biodiesel64.

3.8.2 Energy balance

The fossil (non renewable) energy use for a biofuel over its life

cycle is an important sustainability factor.

The use of biofuels reduces the use of fossil energy. The energy

balance presented below includes both fossil and renewable (bio)

energy. Fossil energy savings do not automatically mean that

biofuel pathways are entirely energy (fossil and renewable)

efficient.

As in the case with the greenhouse gas balance, the fossil energy

savings of biofuels are critically dependent on details like growth

location, use of fertilisers, use of agricultural machinery, production

processes, energy use, use of by products, transports etc. The

energy use will be different for different biofuels.

Taking into account the energy contained in the biomass resource

one can calculate the total energy involved. The figure below shows

energy figures for different biodiesel fuels. Figures for fossil and

total (fossil and renewable bioenergy) well-to-wheel (WTW) energy

are presented. This represents the energy from well or source of

the biofuel to use of the fuel in the vehicle.

64 23.1.2008, Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, Commission of the European Communities, 2008/0016, Brussels, Belgium

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573. Biodiesel

Figure 11 WTW total versus fossil energy: SME, sunflower methyl ester, REE, rapeseed ethyl ester, RME, rape methyl ester. For diesel the total energy is equal to fossil energy65.

3.8.3 Other sustainability issues

Soil quality/erosion

Soil erosion by water, wind and agricultural growth affects both

agricultural conditions and the natural environment66.

One FAME source with a potential for expansion are soybeans in

Brazil. These are typically grown close to the rainforest and the

existing high demand for soybeans is already suspected to

accelerate the destruction of the rainforest. Another major source

is palm oils from Malaysia and Indonesia: a rapid increase in

demand could be met by unsustainable production on rainforest

land. Sustainable certification could be considered as a solution.

65 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commissions Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu) 66 2008, Sustainable Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info

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58 3. Biodiesel

Acidification and Eutrophication

Acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems are two

environmental problems that to a great extent are caused by the

same pollutants.

The main cause of acidification is the airborne deposition of

sulphur. Nitrogen compounds (nitrogen oxides and ammonia) are

the dominant cause of eutrophication of many ecosystems, but also

contribute increasingly to acidification.

Acidification causes soil depletion, disappearance of plants and

animals as well as forest damage. The deposition of nitrogen

compounds favours forest growth, but at the same time leads to

the chemical disruption of a long list of ecosystems, and results in

decrease of biodiversity.

Because intensive agriculture using fertilisers tends to cause

eutrophication and acidification, increased crop production for

biofuels would tend to accelerate the problem. The driving force for

intensification is crop price: hence meeting biofuels targets will

probably cause more intensification of oilseed (FAME) production

than of cereals (bioethanol) production.

Sunflower, short rotation forest and other “advanced FAME fuels”

crops generally use less fertiliser than the other crops67.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variety of life: the different plants, animals and

micro-organisms, their genes and the ecosystems of which they are

a part.

Growing energy crops instead of permanent crops and on “natural”

land in voluntary set-aside areas would decrease biodiversity.

A European study concluded that the negative biodiversity impacts

are high for rape and low to medium for short rotation forestry.68

67 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commissions Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

Sunflower (Photo www.greenfleet.info)

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593. Biodiesel

The use of wood residues is considered to have no impact. Pesticide

use affects biodiversity negatively.

Increases of pesticide applications are needed if the frequency of

oilseed rape crops in a rotation is increased beyond about one year

in four.

Impact on ground water table

The increased growth of crops requiring extensive irrigation in arid

areas will put pressure on water resources.

Increased cultivation of trees can also lead to a lowering of the

ground water table. Lowering of the water table can have

significant impact on the natural environment in the area

concerned.

Introduction of non-native species and GMOs

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose

genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering

techniques.

There is a risk that non-native energy crops could spread in the

wild, because they lack natural predators. Using sterile varieties

(including GMOs) greatly reduce this risk. However, many groups

and individuals remain concerned about the potential impacts of

GMOs.

Social impact, working conditions

In general, working conditions in relation to farm and agricultural

labour are regulated, particularly in EU-27 and the US. In other

parts of the world, working conditions could be questioned.

However similar problems exist both for biofuel production and for

food and feed production.

68 2006, How much bioenergy can Europe produce without harming the environment?, EEA Report No 7/2006, ISBN 93-9167-849-X, ISSN 1725-9177, Copenhagen, Denmark

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60 3. Biodiesel

Working conditions at palm oil farms in Asia are sometimes argued

to be hard and to involve child workers.

Competition with food production

Biomass for energy needs land and is therefore in competition with

other crops. A criticism raised against biomass, particularly against

large-scale fuel production, is that it could divert agricultural

production away from food crops, especially in developing

countries69.

The topic is complex and there are different opinions, pro and con,

from various stake holders.

69 Peña, N., 2008, Biofuels for transportation: A climate perspective, Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Arlington, U.S.A.

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613. Biodiesel

Literature Biodiesel A Comprehensive Analysis of Biodiesel Impacts on Exhaust

Emissions, 2002

Draft Technical Report EPA420-P-02-001, Assessment and

Standards Division, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, U.S.A.

Biodiesel FAQ, Stombaugh, T., et al, 2006

Issued 4-2206, Dep. of Biosystems & Agricultural Engineering,

University of Kentucky, U.S.A.

Biodiesel Chains: Promoting favourable conditions to

establish biodiesel market actions, Garofalo, R., 2006

EBB, European Biodiesel Board, EU-27 Biodiesel Report, Deliverable

7, Brussels, Belgium

Biofuels for Transportation: A Climate Perspective

Peña, N., 2008

Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Arlington, U.S.A.

Biofuel Technology Handbook, Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008

WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany

Effect of biodiesel and bioethanol on

exhaust emissions, Kousoulidou, M., 2008

Laboratory of applied thermodynamics, Mechanical engineering

department, Report No.: 08.RE.0006.V1, Aristotle University

Thessaloniki, Greece

EU-27, Bio-fuels, Annual 2007

GAIN Report E47051, Washington, U.S.A

Fuel regulations, 2008-08-08

www.dieselnet.com

Gaps in the Research of 2nd Generation Transportation

Biofuels, Schwietzke, S., et al, 2008

IEA Bioenergy T41(2): 2008:01

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62 3. Biodiesel

How much bioenergy can Europe produce without harming

the environment? 2006

EEA Report No 7/2006, ISBN 92–9167–849-X, ISSN 1725-9177,

Copenhagen, Denmark

Sustainable Green Fleets website, 2008

www.sugre.info

Impact of biofuels on air pollutant emissions from road

vehicles, Verbeek, R. et al, 2008

TNO Science and Industrie Report MON-RPT-033-DTS-2008-01737,

Delft, Netherlands

Our experiences with biodiesel – “From frying pan into the

tank, Amtmann, G., 2008

Presentation Presentation by Amtmann at Grazer Stadtwerke AG

Properties of biodiesel, 2008-08-20

http://www.inforse.org/europe/dieret/altfuels/biodiesel.htm

Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT

AND OF THE COUNCIL on the promotion of the use of energy

from renewable sources 23.1.2008

Commission of the European Communities, 2008/0016, Brussels,

Belgium

Status report regarding the granting of approval for

operation with biodiesel as a fuel, 2006

UFOP, Berlin, Germany

User manual for fleet owners concerning AFVs, Moura, L.,

2007

PROCURA Deliverable D2.4, Lisbon, Portugal

Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and

powertrains in the European context, 2007

JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Institute for

Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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634. Pure Plant Oil, PPO

4 Pure Plant Oil, PPO

4.1 Summary PPO

At present, PPO is produced mainly from plant sources which are

exclusively harvested for biofuel production. Typical dedicated

oilseed crops are sunflower, rapeseed and soybean. PPO from

rapeseed is by far the most-used crop for PPO initiatives in the

Netherlands and Germany70.

Pure Plant Oil can be used in modified diesel engines. This is due to

the higher viscosity and molecule weight, lower cetane number and

the higher flashpoint of the fuel, whereby ignition is more difficult.

These are also the most important differences with fossil diesel.

The viscosity of PPO (particularly at low temperatures) is much

higher than that of fossil diesel fuel. The fuel has to be heated to ca

60ºC before PPO can combust properly in a diesel engine. The

engines make less noise (due to the better lubrication of PPO), via

the glycerol present in the fuel. This better lubrication has a

positive effect on the lifespan of the engine caused by the presence

of glycerol in PPO. Glycerol, as a natural product, substitutes the

chemical and hazardous sulphur as found in diesel oil.

PPO Petrol engines Diesel engines

No changes x x

Modified engines x 100%

Table 12 PPO can be used in modified diesel engines.

In theory, PPO can be mixed at stations with fossil diesel – in any

ratio. However, a mixture of PPO and diesel is not desired by the

market because it can cause problems in vehicles that have not

been modified.

PPO can be manufactured from different sources and with different

processes. Depending on circumstances in the life cycle of a

particular PPO from initial source to use in a vehicle, the

environmental impact will be different. Particularly important issues

70 Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008, Biofuel Technology Handbook, WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany

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64 4. Pure Plant Oil, PPO

to consider are the greenhouse gas (GHG) balance and energy

balance for the life cycle of the fuel.

4.2 General fuel properties

Pure Plant Oil (PPO) is entirely made from plant materials and in

contrast to biodiesel it contains no methanol or other chemical

composites. Unlike biodiesel it is not allowed to use PPO for

blending in standardised fuels as an extender for automotive fuel

for diesel engines.

PPO can be referred to in several abbreviations. There are some

differences between the terms, although they are sometimes

slightly carelessly used and can refer to the same fuel. SVO

(straight vegetable oil) is usually new oil, fresh, uncooked and used

as diesel fuel. PPO (pure plant oils) is the same as SVO – PPO is the

term most often used in Europe. Other abbreviations are

occasionally used instead of PPO and can be misleading and

sometimes inaccurate. Such acronyms include WVO (waste

vegetable oil) which is used cooking oil, "grease", fryer oil,

probably including animal fats or fish oils from the cooking; and

another is UCO (used cooking oil) the same as WVO, but not

necessary vegetable.

The molecules of pure plant oil (just as animal fat and biodiesel)

vary, depending on the origin of the feedstock type, meaning the

characteristics of PPO are more variable than, for example, the

properties of bioethanol.

Compared to conventional fossil diesel the viscosity of PPO is up to

ten times higher, especially at cooler temperatures. This property

leads to technical challenges during winter operation and when cold

starting in conventional engines. PPO has a tendency to gum up at

colder temperatures and it has been difficult to blend it with fossil

diesel fuel. However, different types of plant oil have different

properties which affect engine performance. Some tropical oils with

more saturated, shorter-chained fatty acids, such as coconut oil,

can be blended directly with diesel fuel, offering the potential for

Want to know more? Information about laws, examples of publications and practical examples of PPO usage can be found at: http://www.ufop.de/english_news.php.

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654 Pure Plant Oil, PPO

the use of PPO-diesel blends in unmodified engines in tropical

locations71.

4.3 Availability

Vegetable oils, in general can be used as an alternative to diesel

oil. Depending on the molecular composition, the majority of

vegetable oils are known to be suitable for this purpose in their

‘pure origin”. Currently rapeseed, soy bean, sunflower, palm oil,

and jatropha, are well-known species.

Worldwide, some 450 cultivations of oil-containing plants are

available. However, more research is necessary to determine

ecological and economic benefits of these species.

PPO from rapeseed is by far the most-used crop for PPO initiatives

in the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Belgium, France, Ireland,

United Kingdom and Denmark72.

4.3.1 Sources of PPO

Pure Plant Oil is a biofuel made of oil-based crops like rapeseed,

sunflower, soybean, jatropha or palm. Production is done by warm

– and cold pressing (crushing).

In terms of energy saving, cold pressing is the preferred method.

4.3.2 Future availability

Biomass for energy needs land and could therefore be in

competition with crops for food or feed. The additional sources of

agricultural capacity for growing energy crops are described

below73:

• A steady improvement of agricultural yields has been

achieved over the last decades and this trend is expected to

continue.

71 Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008, Biofuel Technology Handbook, WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany 72 2005, The road to pure plant oil?, SenterNovem, Report 2GAVE-05.05, Netherlands 73 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

Want to know more? More information about jatropha can be found at the Centre for Jatropha Promotion http://www.jatrophabiodiesel.org.

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66 4. Pure Plant Oil, PPO

• Set-aside areas can in principle be used for non-food

production although it is difficult to make an accurate

estimate of land quality and therefore of yields.

4.4 Use in vehicles Pure Plant Oil can only be used in modified diesel engines. This is

due to its higher viscosity and molecule weight, lower cetane

number and the higher flashpoint of the fuel, whereby ignition is

more difficult. These are also the most important differences with

fossil diesel. The viscosity of PPO (particularly at low temperatures)

is much higher than that of fossil diesel fuel. The fuel has to be

heated to approximately 60ºC before PPO can combust properly in

a diesel engine. The engines make less noise (due to the better

lubrication of PPO), via the glycerol present in the fuel. This better

lubrication has a positive effect on the lifespan of the engine and is

caused by the presence of glycerol in PPO. Glycerol, as a natural

product, substitutes the chemical and hazardous sulphur as found

in diesel oil.

Sulphur in diesel oil also has a lubricating function. At the same

time sulphur is an environmentally dangerous product, as it binds

soot and particulate matter.

PPO Petrol engines Diesel engines

No changes x x

Modified engines x 100%

Table 13 PPO can be used in modified diesel engines.

4.4.1 Vehicle technology Availability - Retrofitting

All PPO driven vehicles are retrofitted. There are conversion

technologies available on the market. New, more advanced

systems are also being developed. The important modifications of a

standard vehicle are the following: modified atomisers are

generally used; a heat exchanger, thicker fuel lines and a fuel filter

(1 µm) are added. A number of electronic adjustments are also

made. Since PPO is pH-neutral, pipes and gaskets do not need to

be replaced.

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674 Pure Plant Oil, PPO

There are two modification systems available, a single-tank system

and a dual-fuel system74:

� Single-tank system

With a single-tank system, both PPO and diesel can be used in

the tank. A vehicle with a single-tank system has been fitted

with a pre-heating system, to improve the viscosity of the fuel

in cold weather. The engine management system also has to be

modified in a single-tank system. These are generally only

known to the car manufacturer, so this system is only used to a

limited extent.

� Dual-fuel system

With a dual-fuel system, the vehicle starts up using fossil

diesel, and the PPO is heated to around 60°C via a separate

fuel flow system. Once the PPO is up to temperature, after

around 15 minutes, a small onboard computer switches the

engine over to PPO. This system is fully automatic, with a small

display on the dashboard. Towards the end of the journey the

driver switches back to diesel, to ensure that there is no PPO

left in the fuel lines and to prevent startup problems and

blockages in the pipes and filters. This system uses ordinary

fossil diesel when starting and stopping the vehicle.

The dual-fuel system is the most common system. The engine

warranty is given by the conversion companies. The conversion kit

for a two tank system costs around €1 00075.

PPO fuels produce about the same power and torque as petroleum

diesel. Variations in power and emissions results may differ

according to engine technology, fuel quality and conversion kit

operating parameters76.

Maintenance

The quality of PPO is very important. The PPO has to comply with

the standard DIN 51605 in order to ensure vehicle functionality. It

has been shown that with insufficient refining of PPO there can be

74 2005, The road to pure plant oil?, SenterNovem, Report 2GAVE-05.05, Netherlands

75 2008, Elsbett OnlineShop, www.elsbett.com/gb/online-shop.html 76 2005, Pure Plant Oil Fuels: An Overview, Crude Country Biofuels Inc. May 20, 2005, Canada

Brökelmann PPO fuelled truck(Photo Brökelmann + co)

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68 4. Pure Plant Oil, PPO

problems with particles and carbon flakes that build up in the

combustion chamber and can damage the engine. It is also very

important to strictly follow the guidelines in the maintenance

manual, in order to avoid polymerisation (motor oil mixing with

PPO which causes disintegration of motor oil).

Driving range

The energy content in PPO is about 10% lower compared to diesel

which shortens the driving range by 10%.

Cold start properties

The viscosity of PPO is low which means that a supporting system

to heat the fuel is required even at normal temperatures and is

essential at low temperatures. It is always important to stop using

PPO (using diesel) before the trip ends, in order to clean the

system from PPO.

4.4.2 Exhaust gas emissions

Few studies on emissions from PPO use have been undertaken.

However, preliminary results show that PPO fuels have effect on

engine emissions. With an appropriate conversion kit and suitable

oils, airborne emissions from compression ignition engines using

PPO fuels are reduced in several key areas. Unburned hydrocarbons

(HC) are reduced by up to 60% or more. Volatile organics and

polycyclic aromatics (VOCs and PAH, respectively) are also

drastically reduced. At the tailpipe, particulate matter (PM), or

“black soot”, is reduced by 40% or more compared to petroleum77.

At the same time the emissions of NOX increases which is a result

of the low cetane number78.

4.4.3 User experience

In order to gather information about real operational experiences,

several interviews with users of biofuels have been performed. The

complete questions and answers can be found in Appendix IV.

77 2008, Emissions from combustion of Pure Plant Oil, PPO, http://www.folkecenter.dk/plant-oil/publications/PPO-emissions.htm

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694 Pure Plant Oil, PPO

Brökelmann & Co is an oil mill company which crushes and refines

oils for the food industry. They have nine trucks which use PPO as

a fuel. All trucks but one are converted with the 2-tank system. The

ninth truck uses a blend of 70% PPO and 30% diesel. They have

been using PPO since 2001. The main reasons for this are economic

and environmental. An exchange strategy for fossil fuelled vehicles

must be based on economic rationality. Brökelmann has not faced

any problems in vehicle acquisition or in delivery time. Additional

insurance has been given for the 2-tank system by the provider

Bioltec.

The operation of the vehicles – driving experiences and driving

characteristics – is not noticeably different from fossil fuelled

vehicles although the drivers feel good to drive biofuelled vehicles.

There is an additional maintenance cost due to tighter intervals for

exchanging engine oil (once every 50 000 km instead of once every

100 000 km). When it comes to oil supply in refuelling stations

Brökelmann comments that “Not all stations offer refined oils, some

have got cold pressed oils with high phosphorus content only.” The

overall difference in cost is to the advantage of PPO.

4.5 Infrastructure requirements

It is important that proper fuel handling techniques are being

practiced to prevent fuel contamination. Also choosing the right

materials for fuel storage and dispensing systems is crucial. Local

and national regulations and legislation applicable for fuel

infrastructure must be followed. These requirements can be

different in individual regions and countries.

4.5.1 Technical aspects of filling stations

Like any other 100% biofuel, public access to PPO at filling stations

is still in progress. In Germany and in the Netherlands there are

(independent) filling stations making PPO available. Most of these

filling stations are still owned by private and/or cooperative

organisations. Generally users of PPO have the PPO storage at their

own property or elsewhere in combination with other users of PPO.

78 Verbeek, R., et al, 2008, Impact of biofuels on air pollutant emissions from road vehicles, TNO Science and Industrie Report MON-RPT-033-DTS-2008-

Want to know more? More information about biodiesel fuelling stations can be found at www.procura-fleets.eu.

Brökelmann PPO fuelled trucks

(Photo Brökelmann + co)

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70 4. Pure Plant Oil, PPO

A special filling nozzle has been developed for filling points to

facilitate PPO to flow without spilling.

4.5.2 Technical aspects of storage and

transportation

Transport and storage of PPO should take place in accordance with

the regulations for edible oils. PPO is organic and should be treated

in accordance with “Material Safety Datasheet“ (EU-directive

91/155). Since PPO is a “non-hazardous” product, local and

national regulations do not form an objection or barrier for storage.

PPO should be stored in an oxygen-free, clean, dry, cool and dark

environment, and well protected against water leakage.

The transport equipment and storage tanks used for storage and

distribution should be made of stainless steel or any other material

suitable for storage of edible oils. For large-scale distribution

systems, the stocking of distribution locations will generally occur

in the same way as for fossil diesel. This means that the

distribution occurs from a central point and that refuelling stations

are regularly restocked from tanker lorries.

In theory, PPO can be mixed at refuelling stations with fossil diesel,

in any ratio. However, a mixture of PPO and diesel is not desired by

the market because it can cause problems in vehicles that have not

been modified79.

A quality reduction can occur through bacteriological deterioration

(PPO is actually a liquid that deteriorates easily), water intake and

oxidation. The last two mechanisms produce free fatty acids, which

can cause corrosion of the injector pumps and injectors during

direct injection into diesel engines.

PPO is a relatively unstable plant oil, but it is more stable than

biodiesel. PPO is less stable than fossil diesel. Adding an

antioxidant may help prevent the oil being degraded through

oxidation. When taking the regulations for storage into account,

01737, Delft, Netherlands

Want to know more? More information about transport and handling of biodiesel at refuelling stations can be found at www.agqm-biodiesel.de.

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714 Pure Plant Oil, PPO

PPO can be stored for at least 6-12 months, or even up to 5 years,

without the oil deteriorating. Practical experiences have however

indicated that there can be a considerable degradation of PPO when

stored for a long time80.

4.6 Fuel quality standards

There is a quality standard for PPO for the German market DIN V

51605 Fuels for vegetable oil compatible combustion engines - Fuel

from rapeseed oil - Requirements and test methods. The quality

demands are attainable for pure cold pressed rape seed oil, but

harder for some oils available on the market pressed at higher

temperatures. A larger scale adoption would require a market

separation of the different oils, to ensure a consistent quality81.

Practical tests in Germany show that in many cases PPO does not

meet the standard, particularly the variable characteristics are in

excess of the maximum value. The reasons for this are the low

seed quality, lack of refining steps and quality assurance

throughout the chain82.

4.7 Production

Plant oils are a fuel made by crushing and filtering oil-based crops

such as rapeseed, palm or nuts. The neat oil is then ready to be

used in some diesel engines. Pure plant oil was originally used by

Rudolf Diesel, back in 1912, in his first successful ignition engine,

which ran on peanut oil83.

Within European latitudes rape seed and sunflower seed are the

preferred agricultural products for the production of PPO. Most of

the oil containing seeds is pressed to cakes (feedstock) and oil.

79 2005, The road to pure plant oil?, SenterNovem, Report 2GAVE-05.05, Netherlands 80 2005, The road to pure plant oil?, SenterNovem, Report 2GAVE-05.05, Netherlands 81 Jensen, P., 27.01.2003, Short note on Pure Plant Oil (PPO) as fuel for modified internal combustion engines, European Commission, DG JRC/IPTS, The Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, Seville, Spain

82 2005, The road to pure plant oil?, SenterNovem, Report 2GAVE-05.05, Netherlands 83 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commissions Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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72 4. Pure Plant Oil, PPO

An estimated 600 rural oil mills located close to the fields are

providing PPO to their customers. Some larger centrally located oil

mills tend to import seeds from abroad, and whilst the smaller oil

mills are using the so called “cold press” (crushing) method, the

larger mills generally use “hot press techniques”.

In terms of energy use, and the absence of any chemical aspect in

the processing, the cold process mills are favoured. As to output

and product consistency the larger mills prevail.

4.8 Sustainability issues

Biofuels can be manufactured from different sources and with

different processes. Depending on circumstances in the life cycle of

a particular biofuel, from initial source to use in a vehicle, the

environmental impact will be different.

4.8.1 GHG balance

Greenhouse gases are gases causing the greenhouse effect. The

greenhouse gases taken into account in this presentation are

carbon dioxide, CO2, nitrous oxide, N2O and methane, CH4.

The GHG balance for any biofuel is influenced by details like growth

location, use of fertilisers, use of agricultural machinery, production

processes, energy use, use of by products, transports etc. The GHG

balance will vary for different biofuels.

Greenhouse gas emission savings from biofuels are calculated as

the reduction of total emissions from the biofuel compared to the

total emissions from the fossil fuel comparator. These values in

Table 14 originate from the Directive of the European Parliament

and of the Council on the promotion of the use of energy from

renewable sources, 2008/0016. How greenhouse gas emission

savings from biofuels are calculated is presented in Appendix I.

Typical values for pure plant oil (PPO), if produced with no net

carbon emissions from land use change, are shown in Table 14.

Want to know more? Sustainability issues are not the focus in this report. Further information can be found at the website http://www.biofuel-cities.eu/index.php?id=6780.

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734 Pure Plant Oil, PPO

The emissions represent all emissions from well-to-wheel (WTW),

i.e. from extraction of raw material to use of the fuel in the vehicle.

CO2 emissions from land use change: emissions of carbon

dioxide due to changes in land use mainly come from the cutting

down of forests and subsequent use of this land for agriculture or

built-up areas, etc. When areas of forests are cut down, the land

often becomes less productive and has considerably less capacity

to store CO2. This effect is not taken into account.

Pure plant oil production pathway Typical

greenhouse gas

emission saving

pure vegetable oil from rape seed 57%

Table 14 Typical greenhouse gas emission savings for pure plant oil84.

4.8.2 Energy balance

The fossil (non renewable) energy use for a biofuel over its life

cycle is an important sustainability factor.

As in the case with the greenhouse gas balance, the fossil energy

savings of biofuels are critically dependent on details like growth

location, use of fertilisers, use of agricultural machinery, production

processes, energy use, use of bi products, transports etc. The

energy use will be different for different biofuels.

For rapeseed the following parameters have been published. From

field to tank: i.e. fossil fuel/electricity including agro activities as

well as processing - crushing /filtering, and distribution.

In an assessment to establish the energy input/output ratio for PPO

derived from rapeseed an average ratio is fixed to 1:6, i.e. 1 litre

diesel oil input generates 6 litre PPO output85.

Based on the assumption that fuel consumption for diesel and PPO

is similar in a vehicle energy use for transport, for processing

84 21.1.2008, Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, Commission of the European Communities, 2008/0016, Brussels, Belgium 85 2007, Ufop-Unilever report, Sustainable Rapeseed cultivation, Germany

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74 4. Pure Plant Oil, PPO

rapeseed and producing fertilisers the PPO-production related

consumption of fossil fuel can be estimated to approximately 35

MJ/100 km86.

4.8.3 Other sustainability issues

Soil quality/erosion

Soil erosion by water, wind and agricultural growth affects both

agricultural conditions and the natural environment.

One PPO source with a potential for expansion are soybeans in

Brazil. These are typically grown close to the rainforest and the

existing high demand for soybeans is already suspected of

accelerating the destruction of the rainforest.

Another major source is palm oils from Malaysia and Indonesia: a

rapid increase in demand could be met by unsustainable production

on rainforest land.

Sustainable certification could be considered as a solution87.

Acidification and Eutrophication

Acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems are two

environmental problems that to a great extent are caused by the

same pollutants.

The main cause of acidification is the airborne deposition of

sulphur. Nitrogen compounds (nitrogen oxides and ammonia) are

the dominant cause of eutrophication of many ecosystems, but also

contribute increasingly to acidification.

Acidification causes soil depletion, disappearance of plants and

animals as well as forest damage. The deposition of nitrogen

compounds favours forest growth, but at the same time leads to

the chemical disruption of a long list of ecosystems, and results in

decrease of biodiversity.

86 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commissions Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu) 87 2008, Sustainable Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info

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754 Pure Plant Oil, PPO

Because intensive agriculture using fertilisers tends to cause

eutrophication and acidification, increased crop production for

biofuels would tend to accelerate the problem. The driving force for

intensification is crop price: hence meeting biofuels targets will

probably cause more intensification of oilseed production (PPO)

than of cereals (bioethanol) production88.

Sunflower and rape crops generally use less fertiliser than the other

crops.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variety of life: the different plants, animals and

micro-organisms, their genes and the ecosystems of which they are

a part.

Growing energy crops instead of permanent crops and on “natural”

land now in voluntary set-aside areas would decrease biodiversity.

A European study concluded that the negative biodiversity impacts

are high for rape.89

Large increases of pesticide applications are needed if the

frequency of sugar beet and to some extent oilseed rape crops in a

rotation is increased beyond about one year in four.

Impact on ground water table

The increased growth of crops requiring extensive irrigation in arid

areas will put pressure on water resources.

Introduction of non-native species and GMOs

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose

genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering

techniques.

88 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu) 89 2006, How much bioenergy can Europe produce without harming the environment?, EEA Report No 7/2006, ISBN 92-9167-849-X, ISSN 1725-9177, Copenhagen, Denmark

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76 4. Pure Plant Oil, PPO

There is some risk that non-native energy crops could spread in the

wild, because they lack natural predators. Using sterile varieties

(including GMOs) greatly reduce this risk. However, some groups

and individuals are concerned about the overall impacts of GMOs.

Social impact, working conditions

In general working conditions in relation to farm and agricultural

labour are regulated, particularly in EU-27 and the US. In other

parts of the world, the working conditions could be questioned.

However similar problems exist both for biofuel production and for

food and feed production.

Working conditions at soy plantations in Brazil and palm oil farms

in Asia may involve child workers.

Competition with food production

Biomass for energy needs land and is therefore in competition with

other crops. A criticism raised against biomass, particularly against

large-scale fuel production, is that it could divert agricultural

production away from food crops, especially in developing

countries90.

The topic is complex and there are different opinions, pro and con,

from various stake holders.

90 Peña, N., 2008, Biofuels for transportation: A climate perspective, Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Arlington, U.S.A.

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774 Pure Plant Oil, PPO

Literature Pure Plant Oil, PPO Biofuel Technology Handbook, Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008

WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany

Biofuels for Transportation: A Climate Perspective, Peña, N.,

2008

Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Arlington, U.S.A.

Elsbett OnlineShop, 2008

www.elsbett.com/gb/online-shop.html

Emissions from combustion of Pure Plant Oil, PPO, 2008

www.folkecenter.dk/plant-oil/publications/PPO-emissions.htm

How much bioenergy can Europe produce without harming

the environment?, 2006

EEA Report No 7/2006, ISBN 92–9167–849-X, ISSN 1725-9177,

Copenhagen, Denmark

Pure Plant Oil Fuels: An Overview, 2005

Crude Country Biofuels Inc. May 20, 2005, Canada

Short note on Pure Plant Oil (PPO) as fuel for modified

internal combustion engines, Jensen, P., 27.01.2003

European Commission, DG JRC/IPTS, The Institute for Prospective

Technological Studies, Seville, Spain

The road to pure plant oil? 2005

SenterNovem, Report 2GAVE-05.05, Netherlands

Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and

powertrains in the European context, 2007

JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Institute for

Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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78 5. Biomethane

5 Biomethane

5.1 Summary biomethane

Methane mainly consists of methane with the molecule formula

CH4. The molecule is identical for both natural gas and biomethane

only with the difference that the atoms originates from a bio source

or a fossil source. The name biogas is commonly used to indicate

biomethane. One should keep in mind that ‘biogas’ is also used for

low(er) quality gasses, e.g. direct products of a fermentation

process. Therefore the term biomethane is used in this report to

indicate the upgraded vehicle fuel.

Biomethane is a renewable alternative fuel, which is produced by

breaking down organic matter by a process of microbiological

activity. The origin of biomethane can vary, ranging from livestock

waste, manure, harvest surplus, to vegetable oil residues.

Dedicated energy crops are becoming more and more common as a

feedstock source for biomethane production.

Another feedstock source is the collection of biomethane from

landfill sites. In Germany biomethane is produced in agricultural

facilities, mainly by the fermentation of manure and maize silage.

Recently, wastewater sludge, municipal solid wastes and organic

wastes from households have been introduced as a source for

biomethane91.

Biomethane is used in petrol engines, with bi-fuel technology

meaning that the vehicle can run on both biomethane and petrol,

or as dedicated biomethane vehicles. The bi-fuel vehicles have two

different tank systems and the driver can chose when to drive on

biomethane or petrol. The vehicles are of the same type as vehicles

used for natural gas, which means that there is a large range of

light and heavy duty biomethane vehicles available.

91 Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008, Biofuel Technology Handbook, WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany

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795. Biomethane

It is also possible to use biomethane in diesel engines, using dual-

fuel technology. This is relatively new and is done by retrofitting of

diesel vehicles (mainly heavy duty).

Biomethane Petrol engines Diesel engines

No changes x x

Dual fuel 100%

100% (diesel

ignition)

Table 15 Biomethane use in different engines

Gaseous energy sources are far more difficult to store and

transport than liquid fuels and require more storage space due to

their substantially lower energy density. For storage and transport

purposes biomethane must be stored in specially installed high

pressure tanks.

Biomethane can be manufactured from different sources and with

different processes. Depending on circumstances in the life cycle of

a particular biomethane from initial source to use in a vehicle, the

environmental impact will be different. Particularly important issues

to consider are the greenhouse gas (GHG) balance and energy

balance for the life cycle of the fuel.

5.2 General fuel properties

Biomethane and natural gas mainly consists of methane with the

molecule formula CH4. The molecule is identical for both gases only

with the difference that the atoms originate from a bio source or a

fossil source.

There are different names used for biomethane, e.g. renewable

methane, methane gas, Compressed Methane Gas, CMG, Green

Gas, biogas. The term biogas is also used for other products with

lower quality which often is burned to produce heat and electricity.

These different products do not necessarily have the same quality

(e.g. purity of the gas; methane content).

When biomethane is used as vehicle fuel the raw gas must be

upgraded and thus receive a higher caloric value and a more

constant gas quality. By purifying the gas from substances like

The simple structure of a methane molecule, CH4

Picture from www.wikipedia.se

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80 5. Biomethane

hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and water it does not enhance

corrosion. Mechanically damaging particles are removed and by

holding the water content at a low level, the biomethane does not

freeze. Afterwards the biomethane has a methane content above

95vol%92. As a comparison it can be mentioned that, before

upgrading, natural gas from e.g. the North sea has a methane

content of approximately 87% and Dutch natural gas has a

methane content of approximately 81%93, although methane gas

(whether natural gas or biomethane) upgraded to vehicle fuel

always have a higher methane content.

If biomethane quality varies too much it can be detrimental to the

vehicle engine performance. One of the major concerns in

reciprocating engines is engine knock. The anti-knock property can

be expressed as methane number and is analogous to octane rating

of petrol. Low methane number is usually the result of the presence

of heavy hydrocarbons in the fuel. In addition to the methane

number, the Wobbe index is also an important parameter for gas

engines as it determines both the power and equivalence ratio and

changes that might result in poor operational and environmental

performance94.

Biomethane has clean burning qualities. Because of the gaseous

nature of the fuel, it must be stored onboard a vehicle in either a

compressed form like compressed methane gas (CMG) at 200-240

atmospheres or as liquefied form such as liquefied methane gas

(LMG) at typically 1,4 - 10 atmospheres.

Biomethane is combustible in mixture with air. The flammability

limits of biomethane in air depend on the methane content in the

gas.95

92 2008, Biogas as a vehicle fuel, http://engva.eu/Content.aspx?PageID=190

93 Persson, M., 2006, Biogas Upgrading to Vehicle Fuel Standards and Grid Injection, IEA Bioenergy Task 37, Aadorf, Switzerland 94 2006, Biogas as a transport fuel, NSCA, the National Society for Clean Air and Environmental Protection, ISBN 978 0 903 47461 1, England

95 2007, Basic data on biogas – Sweden, Swedish Gas Centre, Malmö, Sweden

Want to know more? Interesting information can be found at www.biogasmax.eu

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815. Biomethane

5.3 Availability Biomethane is a renewable alternative fuel, which is produced by

breaking down organic matter by a process of microbiological

activity.

The origin of biomethane can vary, ranging from livestock waste,

manure, harvest surplus, to vegetable oil residues. Dedicated

energy crops are becoming more and more common as feedstock

source for biomethane production.

Another feedstock source is the collection of biomethane from

landfill sites. In Germany biomethane is produced in agricultural

facilities, mainly by the fermentation of manure and maize silage.

Recently, wastewater sludge, municipal solid wastes and organic

wastes from households have been introduced as a source for

biomethane8.

5.3.1 Sources of biomethane

Rotting municipal waste, food waste or sewage (both human and

animal) is turned into gas by means of "anaerobic conversion" in a

digester. Farmed organic crops like switch grass can also

potentially be used to produce biomethane96.

5.3.2 Future availability

Biomass for biomethane needs land and could therefore be in

competition with crops for food or feed. The additional sources of

agricultural capacity for growing energy crops are described

below97:

• A steady improvement of agricultural yields has been

achieved over the last decades and this trend is expected to

continue.

• Set-aside areas can in principle be used for non-food

production although it is difficult to make an accurate

estimate of land quality and therefore of yields.

96 2008, Sustainable Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info97 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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82 5. Biomethane

• Finally some additional organic waste (domestic waste,

manure, dairies, fish farms, slaughterhouses etc) is

available for the production of biomethane. In order to

arrive at a realistic potential for biomethane many factors

must be considered.

Although there is a lot of suitable biomass feed around, the first

option is not to turn it into biomethane. For example farmed crops

can potentially be used to produce biomethane. However the high

cost of such feedstocks is likely to make this option uneconomic

compared to other alternatives, unless the price on crops as wheat

decrease. Municipal waste or sewage can play some role in

biomethane production, but the main future potential feedstock is

manure.

5.4 Use in vehicles

Biomethane is used in petrol engines, with bi-fuel technology

meaning that the vehicle can run on both biomethane and petrol,

or as dedicated biomethane vehicles. The bi-fuel vehicles have two

different tank systems and the driver can chose when to drive on

biomethane or petrol. The vehicles are the same type as vehicles

used for natural gas which means that there is a large range of

light and heavy duty biomethane vehicles available.

It is also possible to use biomethane in diesel engines with dual-

fuel technology. This is relatively new and is done by retrofitting of

diesel vehicles (mainly heavy duty).

Biomethane Petrol engines Diesel engines

No changes x x

Dual fuel 100%

100% (diesel

ignition)

Table 16 Biomethane use in different engines

5.4.1 Vehicle technology

There is a wide variety of available vehicles. Over 40 manufacturers

worldwide provide methane vehicles, which can run on either

Want to know more? Overviews of available

vehicles can be found at:

www.miljofordon.se

http://www.e-mobile.ch/

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835. Biomethane

biomethane or natural gas, including Citroën, Fiat, Mercedes, Opel,

Ford and Volkswagen. In a number of countries customers are also

offered retrofitted vehicles. The light-duty vehicles are mostly bi-

fuel but the heavy duty vehicles as buses and trucks are generally

dedicated to biomethane. The heavy duty vehicles have a spark-

ignition engine. Examples of manufacturers which offer heavy duty

biomethane vehicles are MAN, Volvo, Iveco and Mercedes.

Dual-fuel (biomethane/diesel) vehicles are retrofitted. The diesel is

used for the first ignition then the biomethane ignites.

Heavy duty biomethane vehicles often reduce noise levels, as the

spark-ignition engine is less noisy compared to the diesel engine.

The drawback of this technology is that the engine’s energy

efficiency and torque are substantially lower than a comparable

diesel engine.

If the car runs out of biomethane it automatically changes fuel. In

some models the driver needs to push a button to change to petrol.

The vehicles do not need to stop and the change of fuel does not

affect the driving98

Maintenance

The biomethane vehicles are very sensitive to the quality of the

fuel and the biomethane has to be kept at the same quality as

natural gas.

Biomethane vehicles are maintained with the same frequency as

petrol cars. The fuel tanks have to be inspected regularly in order

to check that it doesn’t leak. The fuel tank does not have to be

emptied for regular service but for certain repairs in the fuel

system the tank has to be emptied for safety reasons.

The heavy duty vehicles running on biomethane have the same

service intervals as diesel engines. The experience from

biomethane buses is that it is important to follow the scheduled

maintenance. The spark plugs have to be changed, otherwise the

catalytic converter can be affected.

Want to know more? Interesting information about methane gas fuelled vehicles can be found at http://engva.eu/

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84 5. Biomethane

Driving range

Biomethane is sold in normal cubic meters, Nm3, and one Nm3 is

about 1 litre of petrol, the energy content of 1 Nm3 biomethane is

7% higher than 1 litre of petrol. A full tank of biomethane equals

about 200-400 km in a light vehicle, then the driver can switch to

the petrol.

Today the heavy duty biomethane vehicles have a spark ignition

engine which means that the consumption of biomethane increases

by about 20% in a biomethane bus compared to a diesel bus. The

reason is mainly the change from a diesel engine to a less energy

efficient petrol engine and does not depend on the biomethane

fuel.

Cost

The cost for biomethane passenger vehicles is between 5–20%

higher than conventional petrol cars.

The heavy vehicles producers add about €40 000-50 000 to the

price of a conventional truck or bus for the biomethane version.

Safety issues

The biomethane fuel tanks are placed in well protected locations in

the car. They are made of very durable materials and the cars are

tested as other cars in the EuroNCAP tests. Biomethane is lighter

than air and if there is a leakage of biomethane it dissipates quickly

in well-ventilated areas. There are also safety valves that can be

released if it is needed. The situation is the same for heavy duty

vehicles.

Natural gas

Natural gas is the same molecule as biomethane but has a fossil

origin. All information concerning natural gas is the same as for

biomethane. The difference is the result on emissions of CO2. A

change from diesel to natural gas increases the emissions of CO2 by

up to about 20%. The reason is the change from diesel engine to

the less efficient petrol engine.

98 2008, www.miljofordon.se

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855. Biomethane

Retrofitting

Petrol and diesel vehicles can be converted to biomethane. It is a

two tank system. A fuel tank system for biomethane is installed in

the vehicle. The electronic system in the engine has to be adapted

to biomethane and petrol/diesel99. The dual-fuel

(diesel/biomethane) engines are not available on the market so the

vehicles have to be retrofitted. The cost is around €10 000100.

5.4.2 Exhaust gas emissions

Biomethane use has a positive effect on regulated emissions.

Biomethane and natural gas have the same properties so the data

can be used for both fuels.

Emission petrol diesel

NOx 55% 80%

CO 55% 50%

PM x 98%

HC 80% 80%

Ozone formation 65% 85%

Table 17 Reductions of toxic emissions (in %) from biomethane combustion in comparison with petrol and diesel101

5.4.3 User experience

Stockholm Public Transport Authority, SL, introduced biomethane in

the end of the 1990s. The buses in the fleet are from Volvo as well

as MAN. The biomethane bus fleet is about 51 buses and will

increase to about 120 in the coming years.

The main lesson learned is that the quality of the biomethane is

vital to the function of the buses, together with a well kept

maintenance schedule. Because the buses have a petrol-engine

(spark ignition) they lose some torque compared to the diesel

buses. This has led to higher noise compared to diesel buses, as

well as higher fuel consumption, but on the whole the biomethane

buses work well. The main price difference compared to diesel

99 2008, Konvertering till gasdrift, Brochure from Tekniska Verken and Svensk Biogas, Linköping, Sweden 100 Tekniska verken, Linköping, Sweden as above

101 Rutz D., Janssen R., Biofuel Technology handbook, WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany

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86 5. Biomethane

buses is the additional cost for the bus and also the fuel station,

which is much more expensive compared to diesel. Training of the

personnel that will drive, maintain and refuel the buses has been

important to ease introduction of the vehicles.

Taxi Stockholm has many affiliated driving companies that use

biofuels for their vehicles. One reflection made by the companies is

that it is hard to get gas vehicles. Without special connections in

the business it is mostly used cars that are available. The number

of, and distance to, refuelling stations in Stockholm is acceptable as

long as they are not out of order. In the past there have been

problems with fuel supply to the stations, but these have mostly

been solved. The main reason for using biofuels is the economic

advantages – to shorten the waiting time for the taxis and to be

prioritised by customers demanding environmental adapted cars.

The downside with biomethane vehicles is the very increased

refuelling interval – instead of once every other day its four times a

day.

5.5 Infrastructure requirements It is important that proper fuel handling techniques are being

practiced to prevent fuel contamination. Also choosing the right

materials for fuel storage and dispensing systems is crucial. Local

and national regulations and legislation applicable for fuel

infrastructure must be followed. These requirements can be

different in individual regions and countries.

The use of gaseous fuels needs new infrastructure in the form of

filling stations adapted for gaseous fuels instead of liquid fuels. The

construction of a biomethane pump costs much more than the

construction of a conventional pump for liquid fuels.

5.5.1 Technical aspects of filling stations

Fuelling a methane vehicle is, from the consumer’s perspective, a

procedure not much more complicated than fuelling liquid petrol or

diesel. Fast-fill dispensing takes only slightly longer than fuelling

petrol. Slow fill systems, normally associated with fleet

applications, are used when a fleet is parked in a depot overnight.

Several varieties of slow-fill home compressors (vehicle refuelling

Taxi queue at Arlanda airport Biofuelled cars, and cars that fulfil the requirements of the eco taxi definition set up by Stockholm City, are prioritised in the queue at Arlanda airport, and thus have shorter waits.

Photo Kristina Birath

Want to know more? Information regarding gas filling stations in Europe: www.erdgasfahrzeuge.de (Germany) www.guidametano.com (Italy) www.erdgastanken.ch (Switzerland) www.erdgasautos.at (Austria) www.gazdefrance.fr (France) www.ngva.co.uk (Great Britain) www.dutchfour.com (the Netherlands)www.cng.cz (the Czech Republic)

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875. Biomethane

appliances –VRAs) are available so that individual commuter cars

can be refuelled at home102.

5.5.2 Technical aspects of storage and

transportation

There are several ways of distributing natural gas or biomethane to

the customer, either to fuelling stations or to a fleet depot. The gas

can be compressed and piped through a pipeline that was designed

specifically for this purpose or it can be introduced into the existing

natural gas grid. Alternatively it can be liquefied or compressed

and, afterwards, trucked to a fuelling station.103

Biomethane can be injected and distributed through the natural gas

grid since biomethane - like natural gas - mainly consists of

methane104. Sweden, Switzerland, Germany and France have a

standard for injecting biomethane into the natural gas grid. The

standards have been set to avoid contamination of the gas grid or

end use. In the standards there are limits on certain components

for instance sulphur, oxygen, particles and water dew point. These

demands are in most cases possible to achieve with existing

upgrading processes. In some cases landfill gas can be difficult to

upgrade to sufficient quality due to large content of nitrogen.

Introduction of biomethane into the natural gas grid is subject to

some restrictions:

� The biomethane has to be compressed to a pressure equal to

that of the natural gas in the grid

� The biomethane should be odorised with the same substance as

the natural gas

� In places where the natural gas has a high energy content, e.g. in

Sweden, a small amount of propane needs to be mixed into the

biomethane to achieve the same energy content as the natural gas.

Where this is not the case, e.g. in the Netherlands or France, such

measures are not needed. If no pipeline network exists, the gas

102 2008, Decision Makers’ Guide - how to implement a biomethane project, Biogasmax, www.bigasmax.eu

103 2008, Decision Makers’ Guide - how to implement a biomethane project, Biogasmax, www.biogasmax.eu104 Persson, M., 2006, Biogas Upgrading to Vehicle Fuel Standards and Grid Injection, IEA Bioenergy Task 37, Aadorf, Switzerland

Want to know more? Interesting information about technical aspects of biomethane fuelling stations can be found at www.procura-fleets.eu

Refuelling station for biogas, Söderhallen Bus Depot, Stockholm

Photo Kristina Birath

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88 5. Biomethane

can be compressed into CNG storage tanks on-board specially

designed trucks and brought to a fuelling station where it can be

distributed into vehicles.

Methane that is not immediately dispensed into a vehicle needs to

be stored on site. Gas that is transported by truck, grid or pipeline

will be compressed and stored in high-pressure (250 bar) cylinders

at the fuelling station e.g. in the case of large bus fleets or public

fuelling stations. Liquid natural gas (LNG) is stored in bulk-storage

cryogenic tanks and then vaporised prior to dispensing into

vehicles.

Biomethane is lighter than air, so that any gas leaking will rise

upwards. Biomethane also has a higher temperature of ignition

than either petrol or diesel. This means that the risk of fire or

explosion in traffic accidents is smaller for biomethane than for

petrol or diesel.

5.6 Fuel quality standards

Within the framwork of IEA Bioenergy, Task 37 - Energy from

Biogas and Landfill Gas, a report on standards for biomethane has

been produced105. It states that there are no European standard

for biomethane for fuel but national standards for biomethane in

all countries where biomethane is used. In Switzerland where

biomethane is injected into the natural gas grid at several

places in there are two different quality standards. The Swiss

regulation (G13) is gas for limited injection and gas for unlimited

injection. There are more restrictions for unlimited injection are

higher than for limited.

Germany has a standard for biomethane injection (G262),

developed in cooperation between German Water and Gas

Association and the German Biogas Association. The standard is

based on the German standard for natural gas, DVGW G260. The

105 Biogas Upgrading to Vehicle Fuel Standards and Grid Injection, Persson, M.,

2006 IEA Bioenergy Task 37, Aadorf, Switzerland

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895. Biomethane

standard allows injection of two types of gas: for limited injection

and unlimited injection. The German standard also requires the

biomethane producer to present at safety data sheet that describes

any health hazards in connection to the handling of the

biomethane.

In France, Gaz de France has produced a standard for biomethane

injected in the natural gas grid. This standard has more restricted

limits for oxygen content and for heavy metals and halogens than

other standards In Sweden, all biomethane used as vehicle fuel

follows the Swedish standard, SS 15 54 38, Motor fuels – biogas as

a fuel for high-speed Otto engines). In Appendix II some details of

this standard are shown106.

5.7 Production

Biogas production starts from a fossil-carbon-free biomass waste

product and uses part of the biogas to fuel the process. The

production occurs through a fermentation process without oxygen

present (anaerobic). The result is low graded biogas which can be

burned to create electricity and heat. Cleaning and upgrading of

the gas is required, to remove various impurities and the bulk of

the CO2 is needed o reach fuel quality. Such plants already exist in

Scandinavia107.

Most biogas production installations have so far have geared to

production of heat and power, concepts for fuel production plants

have been developing with a view to produce a gas that can be

used in combination with, or as an alternative to, natural gas as

automotive fuel (Compressed Biogas or CBG).

In the newest bio-ethanol production plant concepts, biogas is an

important by-product108, produced through fermentation of the rest

product. The biogas can also be used, if really necessary, for the

plant’s own energy needs or sold as an “extra” commodity.

106 Basic data on biogas, Svenska gasföreningen, Swedish Gas Association, 2007 107 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu) 108 2008, www.ber-rotterdam.com

Want to know more? IEA Bioenergy Task 37 focus on Energy from Biogas and Landfill gas. Read more at: http://www.iea-biogas.net/

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90 5. Biomethane

5.8 Sustainability issues Biomethane can be manufactured from different sources and with

different processes. Depending on circumstances in the life cycle of

a particular biomethane from initial source to use in a vehicle, the

environmental impact will be different.

Below the important issues of greenhouse gas (GHG) balance and

energy balance for different biomethanes are explained and

presented. Also some other sustainability issues are highlighted,

however in more general terms.

5.8.1 GHG balance

Greenhouse gases are gases causing the greenhouse effect. The

greenhouse gases taken into account in this presentation are

carbon dioxide, CO2, nitrous oxide, N2O and methane, CH4.

The GHG balance for any biofuel is influenced by details like growth

location, use of fertilisers, use of agricultural machinery, production

processes, energy use, use of by products, transports etc. The GHG

balance will be different for different biofuels.

Greenhouse gas emission savings from biofuels are calculated as

the reduction of total emissions from the biofuel compared to the

total emissions from the fossil fuel comparator. These values in

table 18 originate from the Directive of the European Parliament

and of the Council on the promotion of the use of energy from

renewable sources, 2008/0016. How greenhouse gas emission

savings from biofuels is calculated is presented in Appendix I.

Typical values for different biomethane, if produced with no net

carbon emissions from land use change are shown in table 18

below. The emissions represent all emissions from well-to-wheel

(WTW), i.e. from extraction of raw material till use of the fuel in the

vehicle.

CO2 emissions from land use change: emissions of carbon

dioxide due to changes in land use mainly come from the cutting

down of forests and subsequent use of land for agriculture or built-

up areas, etc. When areas of forests are cut down, the land often

Want to know more? Sustainability issues are not the focus in this report. Further information can be found at the website http://www.biofuel-cities.eu/index.php?id=6780

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915. Biomethane

becomes less productive and has less capacity to store CO2. This

effect is not taken into account.

Biomethane production pathway Typical greenhouse

gas emission saving

biomethane from municipal organic waste as

compressed natural gas 81%

biomethane from wet manure as compressed

natural gas 86%

biomethane from dry manure as compressed

natural gas 88%

Table 18 Typical greenhouse gas emission savings for different biomethane

fuels109.

5.8.2 Energy balance

The fossil (non renewable) energy use for a biofuel over its life

cycle is an important sustainability factor.

The use of biofuels reduces the use of fossil energy. The energy

balance presented below includes both fossil and renewable (bio)

energy. Fossil energy savings do not automatically mean that

biofuel pathways are total energy (fossil and renewable) efficient.

As in the case of greenhouse gas balance, the fossil energy savings

of biofuels are critically dependent on details like growth location,

use of fertilisers, use of agricultural machinery, production

processes, energy use, use of by products, transports etc. The

energy use will be different for different biofuels.

Taking into account the energy contained in the biomass resource

one can calculate the total energy involved. The figure below shows

energy figures for different biomethane fuels. Figures for fossil and

total (fossil and renewable bio energy) well-to-wheel (WTW) energy

are presented. This represents the energy from well or source of

the biofuel to use of the fuel in the vehicle.

109 23.1.2008, Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, Commission of the European Communities, 2008/0016, Brussels, Belgium

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92 5. Biomethane

Figure 12 WTW (WTT and TTW) energy requirement for compressed biomethane (CBG). The black bars indicate the span of uncertainties in the values110.

5.8.3 Other sustainability issues

Biogas is mainly produced when rotting municipal waste, food

waste or sewage (both human and animal) is turned into gas by

means of "anaerobic conversion" in a digester. Farmed organic

crops can also be used. For farmed organic matter the following

sustainability issues should be observed.

Soil quality/erosion

Soil erosion by water, wind and agricultural growth affects both

agricultural conditions and the natural environment.

Continually removing waste straw instead of incorporating it in the

soil will decrease the soil organic content and may lead to poorer

moisture retention111.

110 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu) 111 2008, Sustainable Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info

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935. Biomethane

Acidification and Eutrophication

Acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems are two

environmental problems that to a great extent are caused by the

same pollutants.

The main cause of acidification is the airborne deposition of

sulphur. Nitrogen compounds (nitrogen oxides and ammonia) are

the dominant cause of eutrophication of many ecosystems, but also

contribute increasingly to acidification.

Acidification causes soil depletion, disappearance of plants and

animals as well as forest damage. The deposition of nitrogen

compounds favours forest growth, but at the same time leads to

the chemical disruption of a long list of ecosystems, and results in

decrease of biodiversity.

Because intensive agriculture using fertilisers tends to cause

eutrophication and acidification, increased crop production for

biofuels would tend to accelerate the problem112.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variety of life: the different plants, animals and

micro-organisms, their genes and the ecosystems of which they are

a part.

Growing energy crops instead of permanent crops and on “natural”

land now in voluntary set-aside areas would decrease biodiversity.

Impact on ground water table

The increased growth of crops requiring extensive irrigation in arid

areas will put pressure on water resources.

Introduction of non-native species and GMOs

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose

genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering

techniques.

112 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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94 5. Biomethane

There is some risk that non-native energy crops could spread in the

wild, because they lack natural predators. Using sterile varieties

(including GMOs) greatly reduce this risk. However, some

stakeholders are concerned about the wider impacts of GMOs.

Social impact, working conditions

In general, working conditions in relation to farm and agricultural

labour are regulated, particularly in EU-27 and the US. In other

parts of the world, the working conditions could be questioned.

However similar problems exist both for biofuel production and for

food and feed production113.

The topic is complex and there are different opinions, pro and con,

from various stake holders.

113 Peña, N., 2008, Biofuels for transportation: A climate perspective, Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Arlington, U.S.A.

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955. Biomethane

Literature Biomethane

Basic data on biogas – Sweden, 2007

Swedish Gas Centre, Malmö, Sweden

Biofuel Technology Handbook, Rutz D., Janssen R., 2008

WIP Renewable Energies, München, Germany

Biofuels for Transportation: A Climate Perspective, Peña, N.,

2008

Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Arlington, U.S.A.

Biogas as a vehicle fuel, 2008

http://engva.eu/Content.aspx?PageID=190

Biogas as a road transport fuel, 2006

NSCA, the National Society for Clean Air and Environmental

Protection, ISBN 0 903 47461 1, ISBN 978 0 903 47461 1, England

Biogas Upgrading to Vehicle Fuel Standards

and Grid Injection, Persson, M., 2006

IEA Bioenergy Task 37, Aadorf, Switzerland

Decision Makers’ Guide – how to implement a biomethane

project, 2008

Biogasmax, www.biogasmax.eu

DIRECTIVE 2003/30/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT

AND OF THE COUNCIL of 8 May 2003, on the promotion of

the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for transport,

2003

European Union, Brussels, Belgium

Konvertering till gasdrift, 2008

Brochure from Tekniska Verken and Svensk Biogas, Linköping,

Sweden

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96 5. Biomethane

Kvalitetskrav på biogas som fordonsbränsle, 2001

Swedish Gas Centre, Demosheet 29, Malmö, Sweden

Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and

powertrains in the European context, 2007

JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Institute for

Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

www.miljofordon.se, 2008

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976 Other biofuels

6 Other biofuels

In this chapter, a range of other biofuels – Hydrogen, electricity

and DME - are briefly described. These fuels are relevant to

mention but outside the scope of this guide.

6.1 General fuel properties

Hydrogen

Hydrogen fuel, H2, consists of two hydrogen atoms in one molecule.

Hydrogen is an energy carrier. Hydrogen can be burned in a

combustion engine or be chemically converted to electricity and

water in a fuel cell. The energy content of hydrogen is low on a

volume basis. Hydrogen is a gas at ambient temperature and

pressure and needs to be liquefied to be stored in a vehicle.

Electricity

Electricity is an energy carrier. Conventional electricity, 220 V, can

be used to charge batteries in electric vehicles or plug-in hybrids.

The electric engine is more efficient compared to the combustion

engine, reaching about 80 % efficiency compared to the

combustion engine’s 25-30 percent. The diesel engine reaches

about 43 % efficiency.

DME

DME (dimethyleter) has a boiling point of -25°C114, It can be

liquefied at a pressure of 0.6 MPa at normal temperatures. DME

can be used as fuel for diesel engines as the cetane rating is 55-60.

It has a low heat value of approximately 29 MJ/kg. The fuel is more

corrosive, flammable, and volatile than fossil diesel. Using pure

DME in vehicles requires pressurisation to several atmospheres,

similar to LPG. The energy content of DME is half that of diesel,

which means that motorist needs to refuel more often, or install a

larger fuel tank.

114 2008-09-02, Japan DME Forum – about DME, www.dmeforum.jp/about/index_e.html

Want to know more? There is interesting information at www.dmevehicle.eu

Want to know more? There is interesting information at www.h2moves.eu and www.hfpeurope.org

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98 6 Other biofuels

6.2 Availability

Hydrogen

In principle, hydrogen can be produced from virtually any primary

energy source. Although it is the most widespread element in the

universe, free hydrogen does not occur in nature. It needs to be

“extracted” from compounds such as hydrocarbons and of course

water, by using energy.

This can be done via gasification of a hydrocarbon or organic

feedstock and via splitting of water or through electricity via

electrolysis of water115. However, the use of electricity for

production of hydrogen is less efficient compared to the use of

electricity in battery or plug in vehicles.

A lot of hydrogen can theoretically be produced both from fossil

sources (natural gas and coal) and renewable sources (biomass).

The gasification route produces syngas from which other fuels as

DME, methane, ethanol, methanol and synthetic diesel can be

produced. For example, both coal and natural gas based production

plants are being built in China and South Africa. Production

methods for hydrogen from syngas based on biomass are being

developed in Europe by Choren.

Electricity

Electricity is not a fuel as such, but an energy carrier. Electricity

can be produced in a number of different ways and using different

sources: nuclear, wind, water, coal, biomass etc116. The emissions

from an electric vehicle depend entirely on how the electricity is

produced.

Electricity is widely available in society and is easy to access.

Electric vehicles can be charged at home, during the night or during

the day at recharging sites. There are both fast charging and

normal charging techiques. The available electric vehicles, such as

115 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu).

116 Birath, K., Sjölin, L., 2007. Clean vehicles and alternative fuels - Trends and visions, NICHES Consortium, Stockholm, Sweden

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996 Other biofuels

the two-seater car produced by Norwegian manufacturer Think,

have a range of 180 km in one charge117.

DME

DME has been used for decades in the personal care industry

(aerosol propellant), and for the production of ultra-pure glass

(because DME burns without soot formation), and is now

increasingly being exploited for use as a clean burning alternative

to LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), diesel and petrol118. However, at

present there are only a few test vehicles running on DME.

The most likely feedstock in the short term is natural gas and coal.

Wood can also be envisaged. The black liquor (biomass produced

within the chemical pulp industry) production route is also suitable

for DME (or methanol)119.

6.3 Use in vehicles

Hydrogen

Hydrogen can be used as a fuel in spark ignition engines and in fuel

cells. Almost all vehicle manufacturers are involved in fuel cell

research but most believe fuel cell technology will not become

widely available before 2020.

Fuel cell and hydrogen adapted vehicles are being produced but

mainly for demonstration projects. One example is the 27 fuel cell

buses that run within the EU-demonstration project CUTE120 .

Electricity

In the 1990s many manufacturers such as Citroen, Ford, Honda,

GM, Peugeot and Toyota had electric vehicle programmes and a

number of models were introduced on the market. Despite the

large research effort, the driving range of available cars remained

too short, up to 100 km at the most. Many of the manufacturers

117 2008, www.think.no 118 2008, International DME Association, www.aboutdme.org119 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu) 120 2008, The Fuel Cell Bus Club, www.fuel-cell-bus-club.com

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100 6 Other biofuels

began to focus on hybrid technology, where the efficient electricity

engine can be used within the conventional system. However, a

number of car manufacturers have now developed a renewed

interest in electric vehicles, due to the development of better and

more promising battery technologies (Li-ion) and super capacitors.

As large efforts are invested in climate efficient technology, many

manufacturers are interested in electric drives. The electric engine

is much more energy efficient compared to the combustion engine

and needs about 1.5-2 kWh to run 10 km. If 1 million electric

vehicles ran 10000 km per year on electricity, 1.5 TWh electricity

would be needed121. The combination of batteries and combustion

engine, plug-in technology, is very promising. Most large vehicle

manufacturers are currently involved in projects to develop plug-in

vehicles. Pure electric vehicles are sold by Think. Nissan and

Renault are involved in an electric vehicle project in Israel.

DME

DME (di-methyl ether) is mainly suitable as a diesel fuel and can be

one of the fuels that replace fossil diesel in the future. At the

moment the focus is to develop an efficient production of the fuel.

There are no vehicles commercially available and there is very little

experience from use so far.

6.4 Infrastructure requirements

Hydrogen

Hydrogen fuelling stations can provide hydrogen fuel for vehicles in

different ways. Stations can be designed to produce hydrogen on-

site, or to have hydrogen fuel delivered from centralised production

plants in liquid or gaseous form.

Hydrogen can be stored as a gas, a cryogenic liquid, using a solid,

or with a carbon-based medium, such as methanol or hydrocarbon

fuels. Boil-off is a specific problem with liquid hydrogen122. Storage

121 Plugged in . the end of the oil age, Gary Kendall, WWF 080403 122 Nylun, N-O., et al, 2008, Status and outlook for biofuels, other alternative fuels and new vehicles, VTT RESEARCH NOTES 2426, ISBN 978-951-38-7196-3, ISSN 1455-0865, Espoo, Finland

Electric hybrid bus in London

Photo Kristina Birath

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1016 Other biofuels

of hydrogen (on board) is still one of the mayor research topics

within the field of hydrogen vehicles.

Electricity

Electricity is supplied by the electric mains. For the normal charging

one needs an ordinary outlet. Connecting an electric vehicle to a

charging post necessitates the use of a cable and plug.123 With

normal charge, one hour of charge corresponds to 15-20 km of

driving. Full charge depends on the size of the battery and can take

between 8-12 hours. Fast charge is 2-3 times faster than normal

charging. The

The big plus for electricity is of course that it can be transported on

long distances in a relative cheap and simple way. It is also widely

available but an infrastructure easily accessible for cars is needed.

Recharge points are often available at home or the office but not

always available at public parking facilities and fuel stations.

DME

Transport, storage and distribution of DME is the same as for LPG.

DME is stored under 9 bar pressure. At the moment the focus is to

develop an efficient production of the DME fuel. There is very little

experience from use so far.

6.5 Fuel quality standards

Hydrogen

For hydrogen there is an ISO standard ISO/TS 14687-2:2008,

Hydrogen fuel - Product specification - Part 2: Proton exchange

membrane (PEM) fuel cell applications for road vehicles, which

specifies the quality characteristics of hydrogen fuel when used as

a fuel for road vehicles.

Electricity

The electricity has to be standard European 230 V/16 Ampere.

123 2008, The European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles, www.avere.org/what_are_evs.htm#how

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102 6 Other biofuels

DME

For DME there is not yet an international standard for the fuel.

6.6 Production

Hydrogen

Hydrogen is already produced in significant quantities, mostly for

industrial applications. Oil refineries, in particular, are large

hydrogen consumers.

The most widespread hydrogen production process is steam

reforming of natural gas (essentially methane). The catalysed

combination of methane and water at high temperature produces a

mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (known as “syngas”).

The “CO-shift” reaction then combines CO with water to form CO2

and hydrogen. The process is technically and commercially well-

established and natural gas is a widely available and relatively

cheap feedstock124. Coal based production is also common but

needs to be combined with carbon capture and sequestration, in

order not to increase the emissions of CO2 more than conventional

fossil fuels. Carbon sequestration concepts and technologies are

relatively new and there is no long-term test evidence that these

technologies will be successful.

Steam reforming of heavier hydrocarbons is also possible but rarely

applied in practice, because the process equipment is more

complex and the potential feedstocks such as LPG or naphtha have

a higher alternative value. Electrolysis uses electricity to split the

water molecule. This is a well established technology both at large

and small scale.

Direct solar energy can also be used to produce hydrogen either by

thermal splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen or electrolysis

through photovoltaic electricity125. Biomass can be converted in a

controlled atmosphere to methane, which is then steam reformed

to separate the Hydrogen for use. Both the raw methane and

124 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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1036 Other biofuels

cleaned hydrogen can be used to fuel a generator which can supply

the power to run the system. The cleaned hydrogen can be used

for hydrogen vehicles.

Electricity

Electricity is not a fuel per se, but an energy carrier. Electricity can

be produced in a number of different ways: nuclear, wind, water,

coal, biomass etc126. In recent years the use of “internal power

plants” in conventional petrol vehicles has become more and more

common, utilising energy that would otherwise go to waste as heat.

This principle is more commonly known as electric hybrid or hybrid

electric.

Biomass is used to generate electricity. Both dedicated biomass

and biomass co-firing are used in the electricity generation sector.

Biomass co-firing involves combining biomass material with coal in

existing coal-fired boilers. Biomass is supplied from various sources

like: agricultural residues, energy crops, forestry residues and

urban wood waste/mill residues.

DME

DME can be produced from a variety of sources, including natural

gas, coal, waste from pulp and paper mills, forest products,

agricultural by-products, municipal waste and dedicated fuel crops

such as switch grass127.

World production today is primarily by means of methanol

dehydration, but DME can also be manufactured directly from

synthesis gas produced by the gasification of coal or biomass, or

through natural gas reforming128.

Among the various processes for chemical conversion of natural

gas, direct synthesis of DME is the most efficient.

125 2008, Sustainable Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info126 Birath, K., Sjölin, L., 2007. Clean vehicles and alternative fuels - Trends and visions, NICHES Consortium, Stockholm, Sweden 127 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu) 128 2008, International DME Association, www.aboutdme.org

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104 6 Other biofuels

6.7 Sustainability issues Sustainability issues are not the focus in this report. Further

information can be found at the website: http://www.biofuel-

cities.eu/index.php?id=6780.

Hydrogen

Some obvious advantages for hydrogen are near-zero well-to-

wheel emissions when using wind or solar generated electricity to

produce hydrogen and zero-emission driving, for a hydrogen

vehicle equipped with a fuel cell (FC) as it only emits water

vapour129. When other feedstocks are used for generating

electricity, this means emissions of CO2, NOx, PM, see Electricity

below.

Hydrogen can be produced from a number of primary energy

sources. As there are many possible routes to a “hydrogen

alternative” there are also a wide range of energy usage and

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions alternatives.

Using the WTW (well-to-wheel) approach for hydrogen it is clear

that a large part of the energy usage and all of the GHG emissions

occur at the production stage130.

Electricity

Electric vehicles (EVs) produce zero tailpipe emissions, which

makes them a particularly attractive for busy urban areas where

poor air quality often leads to health problems. Although using

electricity results in no air pollution, its production process often

results in substantial emissions131. On the other hand however, it is

also possible to produce electricity from very clean and sustainable

sources.

A full WTW analysis of EVs’ environmental benefit must consider

the emissions associated with the production and supply of the

129 2008, Sustainable Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info130 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu) 131 Birath, K., Sjölin, L., 2007. Clean vehicles and alternative fuels - Trends and visions, NICHES Consortium, Stockholm, Sweden

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1056 Other biofuels

electricity used to recharge vehicles as well as the potential

environmental burden due to battery production and recycling. In

many countries it is easy to calculate for GWP (Greenhouse

Warming Potential) since figures are available for the average GWP

produced per kWh of electricity delivered132.

Batteries can have a high environmental impact due to the energy

required to produce them and because of the potential for

contamination of land or groundwater upon their disposal.

However, the most popular EV batteries until now (lead-acid and

Ni-MH) are both readily recyclable, so is the most promising

alternative from now on, the Li-ion battery. Moreover, the EC End

of Life Vehicle Directive (2000/53/EC) dictates that these batteries

must be recycled.

DME

DME can be produced from biomass as well as second generation

biodiesel fuels, BTL (biomass to liquid).

The higher efficiency of the synthesis process gives DME a slight

advantage over the synthetic diesel fuel from the same bio source.

As a result of this DME has a better energy and GHG result than

other BTL fuels133.

132 2008, Sustainable Green Fleets website, www.sugre.info133 2007, Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

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106 6 Other biofuels

Literature Other biofuels Clean vehicles and alternative fuels - Trends and visions,

Birath, K., Sjölin, L., 2007

NICHES consortium, www.niches.org

International DME Association, 2008

www.aboutdme.org

Japan DME Forum – about DME, 2008-09-02

www.dmeforum.jp/about/index_e.html

Plugged in. the end of the oil age, Gary Kendall, 2008.

WWF

Status and outlook for biofuels, other alternative fuels and

new vehicles. Nylund, N-O., et al, 2008

VTT RESEARCH NOTES 2426, ISBN 978-951-38-7196-3, ISSN

1455-0865, Espoo, Finland

Sustainable Green Fleets website, 2008

www.sugre.info

The Fuel Cell Bus Club, 2008

www.fuel-cell-bus-club.com/

The European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell

Electric Vehicles 2008

www.avere.org/what_are_evs.htm#how

Well - to - Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and

powertrains in the European context, 2007

JRC/IES, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Institute for

Environment and Sustainability, Italy (ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu)

www.think.no

2008

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107Glossary

Glossary Anhydrous alcohol

Alcohol that is free of water and at least 99% pure

CHP

Expression for the Combined Heat and Power process.

CEN

The European Committee for Standardizsation.

CO2

Carbon dioxide. CO2 can be of fossil origin, and thus have a

negative effect on global warming, or of renewable origin and not

have an effect on global warming.

CWA

A CEN Workshop Agreement.

DDGS

Distiller’s Dried Grain with Solubles: the residue left after

production of ethanol from wheat grain.

Denaturisation

To prevent oral consumption and thereby differentiating ethanol as

vehicle fuel from potable beverage alcohol for taxation purposes,

by adding of small amounts of unpleasant or poisonous substances

- denaturants.

First generation biofuels

These fuels are characterised by the fact that only parts of the

source plant are used for biofuel production. The next-generation

(or second generation) biofuels use nearly the whole plant,

including waste, for biofuel production. The process technology for

second generation fuels is generally more complex.

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108 Glossary

Fischer-Tropsch process (or Fischer-Tropsch

Synthesis)

A catalysed chemical reaction in which synthesis gas (syngas), a

mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, is converted into liquid

hydrocarbons of various forms. Biodiesel is one example.

GHG balance

Green house gases are gases causing the greenhouse effect. The

greenhouse gases taken into account in this report are carbon

dioxide, CO2, nitrous oxide, N2O and methane, CH4.

GMO

A genetically modified organism

Hydrophilic

The chemical property to attract water. The opposite, to reject

water, is called hydrophobic.

Hydrous alcohol

Alcohol that contains some water and usually has a purity of 96%

PM

Particulate Matter, which has a negative effect on health when

inhaled into the body.

Syngas (from synthesis gas) The name given to a gas mixture that contains varying amounts of

carbon monoxide and hydrogen generated by the gasification of a

carbon-containing fuel to a gaseous product with a heating value.

WTW

Abbreviation for well-to-wheel, i.e. the life cycle of a fuel. WTW is

equal can be expressed as WTT plus TTW (well-to-tank and tank-

to-wheel).

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109Glossary

SME

Sunflower methyl ester

REE

Rape seed ethyl ester

RME

Rape seed methyl ester

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110 Appendix I

Appendix I

Methodology to calculate

greenhouse gas, GHG,

reductions 1. 1. Greenhouse gas emissions from the production and

use of transport fuels, biofuels and other bioliquids shall

be calculated as134:

E = eec + el + ep + etd + eu – eccs - eccr – eee,

where

E = total emissions from the use of the fuel;

eec = emissions from the extraction or cultivation

of raw materials;

el = annualised emissions from carbon stock

changes caused by land use change;

ep = emissions from processing;

etd = emissions from transport and distribution;

eu = emissions from the fuel in use;

eccs = emission savings from carbon capture and

sequestration;

eccr = emission savings from carbon capture and

replacement; and

eee = emission savings from excess electricity

from cogeneration.

Emissions from the manufacture of machinery and

equipment shall not be taken into account.

2. Greenhouse gas emissions from fuels, E, shall be

expressed in terms of grams of CO2 equivalent per MJ of

fuel, gCO2eq/MJ.

3. In exception to paragraph 2, for transport fuels, values

calculated in terms of gCO2eq/MJ may be adjusted to

134 21.1.2008, Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, Commission of the European Communities, 2008/0016, Brussels, Belgium

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111Appendix I

take into account differences between fuels in useful

work done, expressed in terms of km/MJ. Such

adjustments shall only be made where evidence of the

differences in useful work done is provided.

4. Greenhouse gas emission savings from biofuels and

other bioliquids shall be calculated as:

SAVING = (EF – EB)/EF,

where

EB = total emissions from the biofuel or other

bioliquid

EF = total emissions from the fossil fuel

comparator.

5. The greenhouse gases taken into account for the

purposes of paragraph 1 shall be CO2, N2O and CH4. For

the purpose of calculating CO2 equivalence, these gases

shall be valued as follows:

CO2: 1

N2O: 296

CH4: 23

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112 Appendix II

Appendix II

Standard for biofuels – standard and properties for Pure Plant Oil, PPO

The flashpoint of PPO is significantly higher than that of fossil

diesel. It lies at around 240 °C and is therefore particularly safe in

storage and transport and easy to handle. Consequently, in

Germany for example, PPO is not included in any hazard classes

according to the “Ordinance for Flammable Liquids”. PPO is

biodegradable in a short time in soil and waters and e.g. in

Germany, it is not classified in any water hazard class. Parameters

of PPO in comparison with fossil diesel are shown in Table 19,

below.

Source:

Rutz D., Janssen R., January 2008,

Biofuel Technology Handbook, 2nd Version,

WIP Renewable Energies, Germany

Density

[kg/l]

Viscosity

[mm²/s]

Flashpoi

nt [°C]

Caloric

value [at

20°C

MJ/kg]

Caloric

value

[MJ/l]

Cetane-

number

Fuel-[l]

Diesel 0.84 5 80 42.7 35.87 50 1

PPO -

Rapeseed

oil

0.92 74 317 37.6 34.59 40 0.96

Table 19 Parameters of PPO in comparison with fossil diesel

Standard for PPO from rapeseed oil, DIN 51 605 - German

Rapeseed Oil Fuel Quality Standard is shown in Table 20.

Source:

2008-08-28,

Biodiesel standards,

http://www.biofuelsb2b.com/useful_info.php?page=Biofuels_Stand

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113Appendix II

Limiting Value Testing Method Properties /Contents Unit min. max.

Density (15ºC) kg/m3 900 930 DIN EN ISO 3675 DIN EN ISO 12185

Flash Point by P.-M.

ºC 220 - DIN EN 22719

Calorific Value kJ/kg 35000 - DIN 51900-3

Kinematic Viscosity (40ºC)

mm2/S - 38 DIN EN ISO 3104

Low Temperature Behaviour - - -

Rotational Viscometer (testing conditions will be developed)

Cetane Number - - - Testing method will be reviewed

Carbon Residue Mass-% - 0.40 DIN EN ISO 10370

Iodine Number g/100 g 100 120 DIN 53241-1

Sulphur Content mg/kg - 20 ASTM D5453-93

Variable properties

Contamination mg/kg - 25 DIN EN 12662

Acid Value mg KOH/g - 2.0 DIN EN ISO 660

Oxidation Stability (110ºC)

h 5.0 - IS0 6886

Phosphorus Content

mg/kg - 15 ASTM D3231-99

Ash Content Mass-% - 0.01 DIN EN ISO 6245

Water Content Mass-% - 0.075 pr EN ISO 12937

Table 20 DIN 51 605 - German Rapeseed Oil Fuel Quality Standard

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114 Appendix II

Standards for biofuels –standard for biomethane

Biogas type A concerns biogas for engines without lambda

regulation, that is ’lean-burn’ engines used in heavy vehicles such

as trucks and buses. Type B concerns biogas for engines with

lambda regulation used in stochiometric combustion, for example in

private cars, although most heavy vehicles also have lambda

regulation today. Details from the Swedish standard for biogas for

vehicle fuel use, SS 15 54 38, is shown in Table 21. Other standards

around Europe can be found at http://www.iea-biogas.net/.

Source:

2007,

Basic data on biogas,

Svenska gasföreningen, Swedish Gas Association, Sweden

Property Unit Biogas, type

A

Biogas, type

B

Wobbe index MJ/Nm3 44.7 – 46.4 43.9 – 47.3

Methane content vol-% * 97±1 97±2

Water dew point at the highest

storage pressure (t = lowest

average daily temperature on a

monthly basis)

°C t - 5 t - 5

Water content, maximum Mg/ Nm3 32 32

Maximum carbon dioxide +

oxygen + nitrogen gas content, of

which oxygen, maximum

vol-% vol-

%4.0 1.0 5.0 1.0

Total sulphur content, maximum mg/ Nm3 23 23

Total content of nitrogen

compounds (excluding N2)

counted as NH3, max.

mg/ Nm3 20 20

Maximum size of particles µm 1 1

* at 273.15 K and 101.325 kPa

Table 21 Details of the Swedish standard for biogas as vehicle fuel, SS 15 54 38

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115Appendix II

Regulations for biomethane

injection Source for following information and quotes:

Polman, E.A., 21st September 2007,

Quality Aspects of Green Gas,

SenterNovem, Netherlands,

www.senternovem.nl/duurzameenergie/publicaties/publicaties_bio-

energie/kwaliteitsaspecten_groen_gas.asp

In 2003 an EU directive regarding biofuels (2003/55/EC) was

drawn up. In article 24 the following is noted:

“Member States should ensure that, taking into

account the necessary quality requirements, biogas

and gas from biomass or other types of gas are

granted non-discriminatory access to the gas

system, provided such access is permanently

compatible with the relevant technical rules and

safety standards. These rules and standards should

ensure, that these gases can technically and safely

be injected into, and transported through the

natural gas system and should also address the

chemical characteristics of these gases.”

Thus, there must be regulations drawn up in order to enable biogas

injection into the existing gas network. And several countries have

directives for biogas quality when blending it into the natural gas

network. The limit values for the contaminants are for the most

part comparable, but for some components e.g. CO2 and halogen

hydrocarbons there are significant differences in the limit values.

The injection of biogas derived from landfill gas is prohibited in

Switzerland, Austria and Germany. In Switzerland the addition of

LPG to biogas is also forbidden. In France, a special regulation is in

force through which an investigation into the health risks can be

requested by the authorities before biogas is allowed to be

injected. The limit of 6% for CO2 in the Dutch legislation is higher

than in the other countries. Outside the limits set by the Wobbe

index, it appears that there is absolutely no restriction to raising

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116 Appendix II

the level of 6%. This would give the biogas injectors more

possibilities in the separation of methane/ CO2 mixtures.

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

117Appendix III

Appendix III

Comparison of standards –

comparison of bioethanol

standards Source for following information and tables:

December 31, 2007,

White paper on internationally compatible biofuels

standards,

Tripartite task force Brazil, European Union & United States of

America,

http://ec.europa.eu/energy/res/biofuels_standards/international_bi

ofuels_ standards.htm

During 2007 a tripartite task force consisting of representatives

from Brazil, EU and U.S. worked together and compared standards

for biofuels in order to reduce the potential handicap that lack of or

to differing standards for biofuels would be. Existing documentary

standards for biofuels would be reviewed and identification of areas

where greater compatibility could be achieved in the short and long

term would be made. The standards to be considered were those

produced by ABNT (Associação Brasilieira de Normas Téchicas),

ANP (Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis),

CEN and ASTM International and in effect before the end of 2007.

The Biodiesel Tripartite Task Force and the Bioethanol Tripartite

Task Force both comprised of representatives from the private and

public sectors. Below the U.S. and Brazilian standards are only

briefly described as a comparison to the EU documents.

U.S. The U.S. industry standard for bioethanol is “ASTM D 4806

Standard Specification for Denatured Fuel Ethanol for Blending with

Petrol for Use as Automotive Spark Ignition Engine Fuel.” The ASTM

has followed the premise that the only bioethanol to be used in the

marketplace as a petrol extender will be denatured, and hence the

specification D 4806 is for denatured fuel bioethanol. A separate

ASTM specification “ASTM D 5798 Specification for Fuel Ethanol

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118 Appendix III

(Ed75-Ed85) for Automotive Spark-Ignition Engine Fuel” is for fuel

bioethanol to be used in specially designated vehicles as a petrol

substitute. This Ed75-Ed85 fuel bioethanol is produced from

denatured bioethanol complying with the ASTM D 4806 standard,

and contains additional specifications for parameters applicable to

vehicles designed to operate with high percentages of bioethanol in

their fuel.

Brazil The most recent Brazilian standard for hydrous and anhydrous

bioethanol is Resolução ANP no. 36/2005. The use of bioethanol as

a blending component with petrol at high levels (20-25 vol %) or

as pure fuel (E100) in the domestic market for more than thirty

years has led to the development of materials compatible with their

characteristics, but has also determined the need for additional

controls in the specification, particularly on pH, ions and metals

which are reflected in the current specifications.

PROPERTY US Brazil EU

D 4806 D 4806 Undenatured Anhydrous Hydrous prEN 15376

Color

Dye Allowed, but not mandated

Dye Allowed, but not mandated

Dye mandated for in country, but not for export.

Dye prohibited for in country

Dye Allowed, but not mandated

Ethanol Content, vol %, min. 92.1 93.9 99.6(3) -- [96.8]

Ethanol + C3-C5 sat. alcohols, vol %, min -- [98.4](2) -- -- 98.8

Total Alcohol, vol %, min. -- [98.95] 99.6 95.1 [99.76]

C3-C5 sat. alcohols, vol %, max -- (1) [4.5] -- -- 2.0

Water content, vol %, max 1.0 1.05 [0.4] [4.9] 0.24

Density at 20C, kg/m3, max -- -- 791.5 807.6 --

Methanol, vol %, max 0.5 0.53 -- -- 1.0

Denaturant, vol %, min/max

1.96 / 5.0 No Denaturant

No Denaturant

No Denaturant

Set By Country 0/1.3

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119Appendix III

Hydrocarbons, vol %, max -- -- 3(4) 3(4) --

Solvent-washed gum, mg/100 mL, max 5.0 5.3 -- -- --

Gum or Resid by Evap, mg/100ml, max

5(washed gum) 5.3 (washed gum) --

5(unwashed)(5)

10 (unwashed)(5)

Electrical Conductivity, uS/m, max -- -- 500 500 --

Sulfate, mg/kg, max* 4 4.2 -- 4 Working

Inorganic Chloride, mg/kg, max 40. 42.1 -- 1 25

Copper, mg/kg, max 0.1 0.105 0.07 -- 0.1

Sodium, mg/kg, max -- -- -- 2 --

Iron, mg/kg, max -- -- -- 5 --

Acidity, mass % (mg/L), max

0.007 (56) 0.0074 (58.9)

0.0038 (30) 0.0038 (30) 0.007

pHe 6.5 – 9.0 6.5 – 9.0 -- 6.0 – 8.0 Dropped

Phosphorus, mg/L, max -- -- -- -- 0.5

Sulfur, mg/kg, max. 30. 5 -- -- 10

Appearance Clear & Bright Clear & Bright

Clear & No Impurities

Clear & No Impurities

Clear & Bright

(1) Not specified by can be calculated for US. (Heavy alcohol content = 100 - bioethanol content - methanol content - water content)

(2) Numbers in [ ] are calculated estimates and not specified limits

(3) Limit only applies to bioethanol not produced by fermentation from sugarcane or bioethanol contaminated by other types of alcohol

(4) Applies only to imported bioethanol

(5) Procedures are likely different.

Table 22 Bioethanol Specifications for U.S., Brazil and EU

The Bioethanol Tripartite Task Force considered relevant standards

and specifications, documents on the parameters and methods, and

commentaries on the similarities or differences of the

specifications. The U.S. denatured bioethanol standard was

converted to an undenatured basis so comparison could be made

with the undenatured standards of the EU and Brazil.

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120 Appendix III

Since bioethanol is a pure substance, the specifications are largely

about controlling the contaminants. There are some variations

among the specifications on the contaminants due to the differing

bioethanol levels in blended petrol. The three current specifications

have many similarities. A significant difference among the three

sets of standards is water content, which is set at different levels

primarily due to the varying bioethanol concentrations permitted in

petrol and the petrol distribution differences. For bioethanol, the

Task Force concluded that there is no technical specification that

constitutes an impediment to trade given the current situation. It is

recognised that additional drying and testing will be required by

Brazil and U.S. exporters wishing to supply the EU-market.

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121Appendix III

Comparison of standards –

comparison of biodiesel

standards Source for following information and tables:

December 31, 2007,

White paper on internationally compatible biofuels

standards,

Tripartite task force Brazil, European Union & United States of

America,

http://ec.europa.eu/energy/res/biofuels_standards/international_bi

ofuels_ standards.htm

During 2007 a tripartite task force consisting of representatives

from Brazil, EU and U.S. worked together and compared standards

for biofuels in order to reduce the potential handicap that lack of or

to differing standards for biofuels would be. Existing documentary

standards for biofuels would be reviewed and identification of areas

where greater compatibility could be achieved in the short and long

term would be made. The standards to be considered were those

produced by ABNT (Associação Brasilieira de Normas Téchicas),

ANP (Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis),

CEN and ASTM International and in effect before the end of 2007.

The Biodiesel Tripartite Task Force and the Bioethanol Tripartite

Task Force both comprised of representatives from the private and

public sectors. Below the U.S. and Brazilian standards are only

briefly described as a comparison to the EU documents.

Major differences between the standards are that the biodiesel

standards in Brazil and the U.S. are applicable for both fatty acid

methyl esters (FAME) and fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) and the

current European biodiesel standard is only applicable for fatty acid

methyl esters (FAME). The standards for biodiesel in Brazil and the

U.S. are used to describe a product that represents a blending

component in conventional hydrocarbon based diesel fuel, but the

European biodiesel standard describes a product that can be used

either as a sole diesel fuel or as a blending component.

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122 Appendix III

The present Brazilian biodiesel specification (Resolution ANP n°

42/04), released to support the preliminary activities of the

National Biodiesel Programme, was elaborated taking into account

the wide variety of feedstocks expected to be used in Brazil, as well

as the existing international experience and specifications (ASTM

D6751 and EN 14214). Several properties listed in the provisional

Brazilian specification still do not have established limits, but must

have values reported. Others have more flexible limits, to

accommodate feedstock diversity.

The first national biodiesel specification in the U.S. has been the

ASTM standard D 6751, “Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel

(B100) Blend Stock for Distillate Fuels, adopted in 2002, according

to www.dieselnet.com (2008-08-08). The D 6751 standard covers

biodiesel (B100) used as a blending component with petroleum

diesel fuels. No standards currently exist in the USA that would

cover neat biodiesel (B100) or biodiesel blends for use as

automotive fuels.

The tripartite task force found several parameters which differed so

much between the standards that they were categorised as

fundamental differences and was presumed not to be possible to

achieve a technical alignment of. Examples of those parameters are

sulphur content, cetane number, density and mono, di-, tri-

acylglycerides.

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123Appendix III

Comparison of standards –

comparison of biogas standards

Quality Requirements for Biogas in France, Austria, Switzerland,

Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands as presented in:

Polman, E.A., 21st September 2007,

Quality Aspects of Green Gas,

SenterNovem, Netherlands,

www.senternovem.nl/duurzameenergie/publicaties/publicaties_bio-

energie/kwaliteitsaspecten_groen_gas.asp

Physical Properties F A CH S D NL Unit

Calorific Upper Value 38.5 –

46.1

(H)

34.2 –

47.8

(L)

38.5 –

46.1

38.5 –

47.2

39.6 –

43.2

30.2 –

47.2

31.6 –

38.7

MJ/

m3n

Wobbe-index 49.1 –

56.5

(H)

43.2 –

46.8

(L)

47.9 –

56.5

47.9 –

56.5

45.4 –

48.6

37.8-

46.8

(L)

46.1-

56.5

(H)

43.46

44.41

MJ/

m3n

Qualities

Water dew point < -5 < -8

(40

bar)

60%

humidi

ty

< -60 Ground

temp.

< -10

(8 bar)

ºC

Water <32

mg/(n)

m3

Temperature (in the

injection gas)

-20 -

+20

0 – 40 ºC

Sulphur (in total) 30 10 30 23 30 45 mg/

m3n

Anorganically bonded

sulphur (H2S)

5 5 5 10 5 5 mg/

m3n

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124 Appendix III

Mercaptans 6 6 15 10 mg/

m3n

Odorant level (THT) 15-40 15-25 good > 10.

nomin

al 18

mg/

m3n

Ammonia none 20 3 mg/

m3n

Chlorine containing

Compounds

1 none none 50 mg/

m3n

Fluorine containing

compounds

10 none geen 25 mg/

m3n

Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) none 1 ppm

Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) none 10 ppm

Mercury 1 µg/ m3

Carbon monoxide (CO) 2 1 mol%

CO2 in dry gas networks

(max)

2.5 3 6 3 6 6 mol%

CO2 in wet gas networks n.a. Mol%

BTX (Benzene. Toluene.

Xylene)

500 ppm

Aromatic hydrocarbons 1 mol%

oxygen in dry gas

networks

0.01 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 mol%

oxygen in wet gas

networks

n.a.

Hydrogen 6 4 5 0.5 5 12 mol%

Methane number > 80

Methane >96 >96 >97 - mol%

Dust Techn.

free

< 1µm Techn.

free

Techn.

free

Siloxans < 10

(mg/m

3)

5 ppm

Table 23 Quality Requirements for Biogas in France, Austria, Switzerland,

Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands

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125Appendix IV

Appendix IV

Interviews Notes from interviews with users of biofuelled vehicles

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126 Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

127Appendix IV

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128 Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

129Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

130 Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

131Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

132 Appendix IV

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133Appendix IV

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134 Appendix IV

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135Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

136 Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

137Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

138 Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

139Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

140 Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

141Appendix IV

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142 Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

143Appendix IV

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144 Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

145Appendix IV

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146 Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

147Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

148 Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

149Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

150 Appendix IV

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Biofuel Cities – Technical guidance for biofuels

151Appendix IV

Technical guidance for biofuels Many demonstration projects with biofuels, both small and large

scale, have been performed in the EU in the last 15 years. Biofuels

have been introduced by fleet owners as municipalities, private

companies and public transport companies. This has lead to

increased knowledge about the use of biofuels. The aim of this

guide is to gather the knowledge about fuels that are used today.

The target group for the technical guide is interested fleet

managers and actors purchasing vehicles. The guide gives practical

and straight forward information on availability of fuels and

vehicles and knowledge on handling and distribution of the fuels. It

also includes user experiences, information on fuel standards and

sustainability issues.

The focus is on the biofuels available on a relatively large scale

today: bioethanol, biodiesel, Pure Plant Oil and biogas. Future

solutions as electricity, hydrogen and DME are covered briefly.

The Biofuel Cities European

Partnership is a forum for

the application of biofuels.

Open to all stakeholders in

the area of biofuels for

vehicles, it offers:

• www.biofuel-cities.eu -

your one-stop shop for

information on biofuels

application;

• online facilities, workshops

and study tours to

exchange and network with

your peers and learn from

experts;

• news, publications and

tools to provide

information, guidance and

support.

European Partnership

participants have full access to

all features. Participation is free

Join Biofuel Cities!

To join, register at

www.biofuel-cities.eu

or write to

[email protected]

for more information.