Team GB', 'Team England' or 'Team Scotland'? Media Representations of 'Britishness', 'Englishness' and 'Scottishness' in London 2012 and Glasgow 2014

'Team GB', 'Team England' or 'Team Scotland'?

Media Representations of 'Britishness', 'Englishness' and

'Scottishness' in London 2012 and Glasgow 2014

Stuart Whigham

University of Worcester& Loughborough

University

Dr Jack Black

Sheffield Hallam University

& Loughborough University

Aims

• Critically reflect upon print media representations of ‘Britishness’, ‘Englishness’ and ‘Scottishness’ at London 2012 and Glasgow 2014

• Consider the symbolic differences between a unitary ‘Team GB’ at London 2012 and separated representative teams at Glasgow 2014

• Situate these phenomena, and the wider relationship between sport and national identity, within the current political context of the UK

• Reflect upon media discourse from London 2012 and Glasgow 2014 from contrasting theoretical and conceptual frameworks

Small ‘n’ and Large ‘N’ Nationalism(Leith and Soule, 2011)

“all political parties in Scotland operate within a nationalist framework and all employ nationalist language to a greater or lesser degree; therefore, nationalist and nationalism with a small ‘n’ refers to the political behaviour of all major parties in Scotland, whilst Nationalists with a capital ‘N’ refers only to parties who seek a fully independent Scotland, i.e. the SNP…

…being pro-union does not make a party anti-Scotland. Far from it: unionist arguments for Scotland’s continued incorporation within the UK state are made in the ‘interest’ of Scotland and as such are nationalist with a small ‘n’.” (Leith and Soule, 2011: 13)

• ‘Large ‘N’ ‘Nationalist’ parties such as SNP, Greens & SSP support full independence

• ‘small ‘n’’ political nationalism gradually accepted by Labour, Liberal Democrats and Conservatives in Scotland (Devine, 1999; Leith and Soule, 2011) – however, constitutional stance of each party contrasts

Unionist Nationalism(Ichijo, 2012)

• Ichijo (2012) suggests growth of ‘small ‘n’ nationalism’ marks entrenchment of 'unionist nationalism' in post-devolution Scottish politics - unionist parties present alternative visions of the role of devolution in securing the future status of the Union:

“By presenting a discursive frame that connects three narrative strands, (a) the Union is where Scots can grow and prosper, (b) devolution is an embodiment of democratic principles and (c) devolution is the only way of maintaining the Union, the unionist politicians have bundled the Union, devolution and Scottish identity together and wrapped it with democratic legitimacy, the trump card in a modern liberal democracy” (ibid: 28)

‘Inherent Tensions’

‘the Olympics is bringing out a few of the inherent tensions in that curious balance between the overwhelming size of England and the three far smaller Celtic countries.’

Morgan, Western Mail, 28/07/12


‘the Olympics is bringing out a few of the inherent tensions in that curious balance between the overwhelming size of England and the three far smaller Celtic countries.’

Morgan, Western Mail, 28/07/12


‘inherent tensions’

‘curious balance’

‘overwhelming size of England’

‘smaller Celtic countries’

Morgan’s (2012) remarks highlighted the tensions between an ‘established’

England, dominant in size, and a smaller ‘outsider’ Celtic periphery.

• Studied two working class groups:

A dominant ‘established’ group and a subordinate ‘outsider’ group.

‘The Established and the Outsiders’, Norbert Elias and

John Scotson



However…

when considered in relation to wealth, income, occupation and education the groups were the same.


John Scotson



However…

when considered in relation to wealth, income, occupation and education the groups were the same.

Yet…

forms of ‘class exploitation’ and ‘social oppression’ were evident in the relations between each group.


John Scotson

‘the power-superiority of the old-established group was ... based on the high degree of cohesion of families who had known each other for two or three generations, in contrast to the newcomers [the ‘outsiders’] who were strangers in relation not only to the old residents but also to each other.’

‘Exclusion and stigmatisation of the outsiders by the established group ... were two powerful weapons used by the latter to maintain their identity, to assert their superiority, keeping the others firmly in their place.’

Elias and Scotson 2008: 4


John Scotson

‘the power-superiority of the old-established group was ... based on the high degree of cohesion of families who had known each other for two or three generations, in contrast to the newcomers [the ‘outsiders’] who were strangers in relation not only to the old residents but also to each other.’

‘Exclusion and stigmatisation of the outsiders by the established group ... were two powerful weapons used by the latter to maintain their identity, to assert their superiority, keeping the others firmly in their place.’

Elias and Scotson 2008: 4


John Scotson

‘power-superiority’

‘high degree of cohesion’

‘maintain their identity’

‘to assert their superiority’


John Scotson‘inherent tensions’

‘curious balance’

‘overwhelming size of England’

‘smaller Celtic countries’

• Differences between established and outsider groups is due to differences in social organisation and power differentials (‘balances of power’)

• This had an important effect upon the identity (‘we-image’) of both the established and outsider group.

How were these ‘power differentials’ represented within the press’ discourse?

‘Britain offered a display of humour and humbleness that can only stem from a deep-rooted sense of superiority’

The New York Times cited in The Independent on Sunday, 29/07/12

Established Britain



‘We dislike being instructed on how to behave by people wholly unqualified to offer such instruction. It is one of our oldest and most endearing traits. … our history has earned us the right to exercise our own choice on these matters. Again, it is central to who we are.’

Collins, The Mail on Sunday, 29/07/12

Established Britain





‘We recognised our history with pride and unashamed acceptance that it has made us the country we are today, a country still able to put on such an extraordinary event with style and to welcome visitors from around the world with open arms and with open minds.’

Phillips, Daily Mirror, 28/07/12

Established Britain







‘We have no need to assert ourselves. These small islands have influenced the world in countless ways for centuries. No other capital has hosted the Games three times, or is likely to do so.’

The Mail on Sunday, 29/07/12

Established Britain







‘We have no need to assert ourselves. These small islands have influenced the world in countless ways for centuries. No other capital has hosted the Games three times, or is likely to do so.’

The Mail on Sunday, 29/07/12

Established Britain

‘The stadium show opened to a quintessential rural idyll of happy yokels set in a non-specific sepiatinted yesteryear. Boyle called this his ‘Green and Pleasant Land’ section and a choir duly sang Jerusalem over the top of it all. A waterwheel spun round above a babbling brook while young maidens danced around maypoles, plodding farmhands tended real sheep and cows and young blades enjoyed a game of cricket.’

Hardman, Daily Mail, 28/07/12

‘The bucolic scenes on the stadium’s infield were pleasingly evocative of Olde England and happily quirky. The ‘Pandemonium’ of the transformation wrought by the Industrial Revolution and the turning of the nation into a land of dark satanic mills was a darkly magnificent sequence.’

Holt, Daily Mirror, 28/07/12

Established ‘England’ Britain

‘The stadium show opened to a quintessential rural idyll of happy yokels set in a non-specific sepiatinted yesteryear. Boyle called this his ‘Green and Pleasant Land’ section and a choir duly sang Jerusalem over the top of it all. A waterwheel spun round above a babbling brook while young maidens danced around maypoles, plodding farmhands tended real sheep and cows and young blades enjoyed a game of cricket.’


‘The bucolic scenes on the stadium’s infield were pleasingly evocative of Olde England and happily quirky. The ‘Pandemonium’ of the transformation wrought by the Industrial Revolution and the turning of the nation into a land of dark satanic mills was a darkly magnificent sequence.’



‘quintessential rural idyll’

‘sepiatinted yesteryear’

‘Boyle called this his ‘Green and Pleasant Land’ section’

‘Jerusalem’

‘young maidens danced around maypoles’

‘young blades enjoyed a game of cricket’


‘pleasingly evocative of Olde England’



• The Opening Ceremony presented a dramatic representation of an ‘immutable pastoral England’.

• Evidently, ‘evocative’ recreations of ‘Olde England’ and its ‘Green and Pleasant Land’, served to recreate an idealized portrayal of ‘Britain’.

• Accordingly, Reicher and Hopkins (2001: 65) have argued that the rural depiction of England suggests a form of...

‘metonymic stereotyping [that] is partial and involves exclusion’

• In doing so, such constructions…

‘[become] a mode of domination rather than a possible form of identification’


‘quintessential rural idyll’

‘sepiatinted yesteryear’

‘Boyle called this his ‘Green and Pleasant Land’ section’

‘Jerusalem’

‘young maidens danced around maypoles’

‘young blades enjoyed a game of cricket’


‘pleasingly evocative of Olde England’


While the games represented…

‘an astounding success story for Scottish and British sport ... there is currently a complex cultural and political game being played out between these Olympics, Scotland’s First Minister Alex Salmond, and the theme of 2014 and Scottish independence’

Spiers, Sunday Herald, 12/08/12

The Challenging Outsider




‘The sense of cohesion and co-operation which ‘Team GB’ exudes is all about parity of esteem and harnessing individual ambition towards a common goal. I can’t thinks of a better description of precisely what an independent Scotland would be seeking to achieve.’

Hamilton, The Scotsman, 05/08/12





‘The sense of cohesion and co-operation which ‘Team GB’ exudes is all about parity of esteem and harnessing individual ambition towards a common goal. I can’t thinks of a better description of precisely what an independent Scotland would be seeking to achieve.’


Despite the Opening Ceremony’s rather positive portrayal of Britain, it was clear that the Britain being performed...

‘bore little relation to the social reality of the UK under the Coalition ... And though Danny Boyle’s Britain is a myth, it remains a potent one. It was what persuaded Scots to meekly hand over Scotland’s oil to the British state, in a gesture of almost wilful altruism, in the 1960s and 1970s.’

Macwhirter, Sunday Herald, 12/08/12





‘The sense of cohesion and co-operation which ‘Team GB’ exudes is all about parity of esteem and harnessing individual ambition towards a common goal. I can’t think of a better description of precisely what an independent Scotland would be seeking to achieve.’


Despite the Opening Ceremony’s rather positive portrayal of Britain, it was clear that the Britain being performed...

‘bore little relation to the social reality of the UK under the Coalition ... And though Danny Boyle’s Britain is a myth, it remains a potent one. It was what persuaded Scots to meekly hand over Scotland’s oil to the British state, in a gesture of almost wilful altruism, in the 1960s and 1970s.’



‘Becoming independent requires immense self-confidence and a willingness to draw attention to yourself – qualities that timid and self-doubting Scots lack. You have to stand alone, exposed in the world, for what you really are.’

MacDonald, Sunday Herald, 29/07/12

The Ambivalent Outsider



‘Who are the Scots? Would independence weaken our sense of Britishness – and does that matter anyway? Do we risk alienating our neighbours by going it alone, or would our relationships with England, Europe and the rest of the world actually be enhanced? Do non-native Scots care whether a 300-year-old wrong is righted … and what role should history play in a decision that affects our future?’

Sunday Herald, 05/08/12






‘I’m not saying sport will determine, or even greatly influence, the outcome of the independence referendum in 2014. However, it would be foolish to dismiss the Olympic effect. Even I felt a sense of emotional solidarity with the multi-talented and multicultural UK team.’







‘I’m not saying sport will determine, or even greatly influence, the outcome of the independence referendum in 2014. However, it would be foolish to dismiss the Olympic effect. Even I felt a sense of emotional solidarity with the multi-talented and multicultural UK team.’



‘there may be just some genuine concern for Alex Salmond. The biggest political theme for the Caledonian observer was not the promotion of healthcare for all or inclusion for everyone. It was the idea that Britain is an entity and one that is bigger and better when all its parts are joined together. This, of course, is not the script for Salmond’s blockbuster that is due to premiere in the autumn of 2014. Before that, Glasgow hosts the Commonwealth Games and it will be intriguing to see how political parties use that event to further arguments.’


2014



‘it is wholly possible to be a passionate Scottish Nationalist supporting ‘Team GB’ … just as avowed Scottish Unionists will doubtless be right behind ‘Team Scotland’ in the Commonwealth Games in 2014.’


2014



‘it is wholly possible to be a passionate Scottish Nationalist supporting ‘Team GB’ … just as avowed Scottish Unionists will doubtless be right behind ‘Team Scotland’ in the Commonwealth Games in 2014.’


‘The London Games have also shown what we are capable of in terms of staging, organisation and logistics – all the more creditable given the real doubts that surrounded this event. This has set a high bar for the Commonwealth Games in Glasgow in 2014. But it has also shown what, with foresight and dedication, our public authorities and services can do.’

The Scotsman, 13/08/12

2014

Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games

‘Team Scotland’ v ‘Team England’?

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/commonwealthgames/10991322/Nations-brought-together-by-a-common-bond.html

http://www.heraldscotland.com/comment/columnists/no-celebration-in-events-that-commemorate-the-great-war.24924666

http://www.irishtimes.com/sport/attempting-to-drum-up-interest-in-a-weird-colonial-hangover-1.1878286

Daily Telegraph Editorial – 2014 Games & The Commonwealth

“No other post-imperial power has played such a positive role in the life of its former colonies as Britain has done. While France, Belgium and Portugal disentangled themselves from empire in an often violent manner that left behind decades of resentment and tension, Britain has successfully positioned itself as a friend and partner in progress. Within the Commonwealth, all nations are equal, and its egalitarian promise is so attractive that even countries that were never part of the British Empire have joined it…

It is also a marvellous antidote to separatism. Alex Salmond hoped to turn the Games into a giant PR campaign for Scottish independence. But the moment that the Red Arrows flew past or the Queen delivered her address, it was immediately apparent that Britishness does not reduce Scottishness, but complements and deepens it.

The opening parade of nations – from giant India to tiny Norfolk Island – invited the question of separatists: what value really is there in going it alone? The Commonwealth is a product of the British experiment in multicultural democracy, and stands as a glowing example of the benefits of co-operation.”

(Daily Telegraph, 27/07/14)

Daily Telegraph Editorial – 2014 Games & The Commonwealth

“No other post-imperial power has played such a positive role in the life of its former colonies as Britain has done. While France, Belgium and Portugal disentangled themselves from empire in an often violent manner that left behind decades of resentment and tension, Britain has successfully positioned itself as a friend and partner in progress. Within the Commonwealth, all nations are equal, and its egalitarian promise is so attractive that even countries that were never part of the British Empire have joined it…

It is also a marvellous antidote to separatism. Alex Salmond hoped to turn the Games into a giant PR campaign for Scottish independence. But the moment that the Red Arrows flew past or the Queen delivered her address, it was immediately apparent that Britishness does not reduce Scottishness, but complements and deepens it.

The opening parade of nations – from giant India to tiny Norfolk Island – invited the question of separatists: what value really is there in going it alone? The Commonwealth is a product of the British experiment in multicultural democracy, and stands as a glowing example of the benefits of co-operation.”

(Daily Telegraph, 27/07/14)

The Irish Times – 2014 Games & The Commonwealth

“Different versions of Ireland attended early “Empire Games” before the nation excused its way politely towards a formal republic. The jamboree was left to those nations that felt an irrational urge to celebrate historic conquest (or, let’s be charitable, hit back at the old oppressors by defeating them at water polo)…

It’s not just the absence of so many first-rate sporting nations that repels those who long ago banished the queen from their shillings, dollars and ringgits. It’s the Commonwealth’s strange, antiquated definition of what constitutes nationhood.

Let us leave the Welsh, the Scottish and the Northern Irish to their continuing constitutional convolutions and ponder Jersey, Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands. These are, I am certain, all fine places whose cafes serve decent cups of tea accompanied by good biscuits, but none troubles the United Nations with membership…

Yet the oddity is that, rather than regarding itself as a continuation of empire, the Commonwealth sees itself as an attempted corrective. True, the “realms” still honour Queen Elizabeth as their head of state. But when it comes to games, conferences and debates about sanctions, former colony deals with former coloniser as an equal.”

(Clarke, 26/07/14)

The Irish Times – 2014 Games & The Commonwealth

“Different versions of Ireland attended early “Empire Games” before the nation excused its way politely towards a formal republic. The jamboree was left to those nations that felt an irrational urge to celebrate historic conquest (or, let’s be charitable, hit back at the old oppressors by defeating them at water polo)…

It’s not just the absence of so many first-rate sporting nations that repels those who long ago banished the queen from their shillings, dollars and ringgits. It’s the Commonwealth’s strange, antiquated definition of what constitutes nationhood.

Let us leave the Welsh, the Scottish and the Northern Irish to their continuing constitutional convolutions and ponder Jersey, Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands. These are, I am certain, all fine places whose cafes serve decent cups of tea accompanied by good biscuits, but none troubles the United Nations with membership…

Yet the oddity is that, rather than regarding itself as a continuation of empire, the Commonwealth sees itself as an attempted corrective. True, the “realms” still honour Queen Elizabeth as their head of state. But when it comes to games, conferences and debates about sanctions, former colony deals with former coloniser as an equal.”

(Clarke, 26/07/14)

Internal Colonialism?

• Hechter (1975) argues Scotland’s status in UK is result of ‘internal colonialism’ - peripheral regions assimilated into political & economic system of unified state, before next phase of imperialism and colonialism on global scale

• Mycock (2012: 60) uses concept to identify 'post-colonial narrative' of Scottish independence promoted by SNP -“idea that the UK remains a product of English 'internal colonialism' persists, thus conveniently overlooking the support for the union in other parts of the UK”

• However… acceptance of mutually beneficial nature of the Union for Scotland and England undermines the strength of ‘colonial’ representation of Scotland (Evans, 1991)

• Shifts from ‘British Empire’, ‘British Empire and Commonwealth Games’ and ‘British Commonwealth Games’ – links to ‘post-imperial’ and ‘post-colonial’ theories? (Houlihan, 1994; Whannel, 2008)

http://www.heraldscotland.com/arts-ents/tv-radio/tv-review-commonwealth-games-opening-ceremony.1406154484

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2703216/Tunnocks-Tea-Cakes-Irn-Bru-Forth-Bridge-Gretna-Green-Glasgow-opens-Commonwealth-Games-world-Scottish-flavour.html

http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2014/jul/23/commonwealth-games-2014-opening-night

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/scotland/10989902/The-symbols-of-a-united-nation-take-centre-stage.html

Daily Mail - 2014 Opening Ceremony

“After the fractious introspection and months of angry debate about what it means to be Scottish, the people of Scotland enjoyed a well-deserved break from it all last night – as they welcomed the world.

And by the end of an exuberant, good-humoured, periodically chaotic evening – starring everyone (and everything) from a giant haggis, cabers, golf clubs, a gay wedding, 41 Scottish terriers, Rod Stewart, rousing cheers for the Queen and lashings of self-deprecation – Scotland seemed to have answered her own question.

All of the above, we can safely say, encompass what it means to be Scottish. Quite what last night’s opening of the 20th Commonwealth Games in Glasgow means for that referendum campaign, on the other hand, is anyone’s guess.

As the fireworks lit up the night sky above a tearful Celtic Park, every Scot – from frothing separatist to sepia-tinted defender of the Union – could go home feeling proud and emboldened.”

(Hardman, 23/07/14)

Daily Mail - 2014 Opening Ceremony

“After the fractious introspection and months of angry debate about what it means to be Scottish, the people of Scotland enjoyed a well-deserved break from it all last night – as they welcomed the world.

And by the end of an exuberant, good-humoured, periodically chaotic evening – starring everyone (and everything) from a giant haggis, cabers, golf clubs, a gay wedding, 41 Scottish terriers, Rod Stewart, rousing cheers for the Queen and lashings of self-deprecation – Scotland seemed to have answered her own question.

All of the above, we can safely say, encompass what it means to be Scottish. Quite what last night’s opening of the 20th Commonwealth Games in Glasgow means for that referendum campaign, on the other hand, is anyone’s guess.

As the fireworks lit up the night sky above a tearful Celtic Park, every Scot – from frothing separatist to sepia-tinted defender of the Union – could go home feeling proud and emboldened.”

(Hardman, 23/07/14)

Herald - 2014 Opening Ceremony

“The big boys from the BBC began by lowering our expectations: Huw Edwards warned us not to expect anything as grand as London 2012, saying Glasgow's little effort will instead be 'playful'.

So bravo to the organisers! Well done! You proved them wrong, because this wasn't 'playful'. It was a hideous embarrassment…

Then embarrassment dissolved and I began to feel anger. There was real anger that this incredible opportunity to show Glasgow off to one billion people had been trashed by this kitsch display. Someone joked on Twitter that the ceremony must have been created by those opposed to independence as it ignored everything great about Scotland, portraying us instead as stunted Brigadoon yokels. We must cling close to the UK because look how daft we are when we're allowed to do something alone!

So where did all the money go? Despite the millions spent on this ceremony I saw something resembling a school play - but a school where each pupil suffers from appallingly low self-esteem and their teachers urge them to surmount it by singing, jumping and wheeling about in a frenzy of tartan and Tunnock's teacakes.”

(McDowall, 23/07/14)

Herald - 2014 Opening Ceremony

“The big boys from the BBC began by lowering our expectations: Huw Edwards warned us not to expect anything as grand as London 2012, saying Glasgow's little effort will instead be 'playful'.

So bravo to the organisers! Well done! You proved them wrong, because this wasn't 'playful'. It was a hideous embarrassment…

Then embarrassment dissolved and I began to feel anger. There was real anger that this incredible opportunity to show Glasgow off to one billion people had been trashed by this kitsch display. Someone joked on Twitter that the ceremony must have been created by those opposed to independence as it ignored everything great about Scotland, portraying us instead as stunted Brigadoon yokels. We must cling close to the UK because look how daft we are when we're allowed to do something alone!

So where did all the money go? Despite the millions spent on this ceremony I saw something resembling a school play - but a school where each pupil suffers from appallingly low self-esteem and their teachers urge them to surmount it by singing, jumping and wheeling about in a frenzy of tartan and Tunnock's teacakes.”

(McDowall, 23/07/14)

Invented Traditions or ‘Caledonian Antisyzgy’?

• Invented traditions (Hobsbawm, 1983):

• Hobsbawm (1983) argues that shared ideas of the nation are cemented through reference to traditions of culture, dress, and language

• Reference points of 2014 Opening Ceremony redolent with symbols of Scottishness as tartanry and kitsch stereotypes – resonance with ‘small ‘n’’ unionist nationalism?

• The ‘Caledonian Antisyzgy’ (Smith, 1919):

• Nairn (1977) on the ‘Caledonian Antisyzgy’ - many Scots have romantic and cultural identification with distinct Scottish nation, but reject pro-independence political nationalism

• ‘Cultural cringe’ and 2014 Opening Ceremony (Nairn, 1977; McCrone, 1992) – self-parody, self-deprecation, or self-defecation!?!

'Team GB', 'Team England' or 'Team Scotland'?

Media Representations of 'Britishness', 'Englishness' and

'Scottishness' in London 2012 and Glasgow 2014

Stuart Whigham

University of Worcester& Loughborough

University

Dr Jack Black

Sheffield Hallam University

& Loughborough University

References

• Clarke, D. (2014) Attempting to drum up interest in a weird colonial hangover, The Irish Times [online] 26 July 2014. Available at: <http://www.irishtimes.com/sport/attempting-to-drum-up-interest-in-a-weird-colonial-hangover-1.1878286> (Accessed 8 April 2015)

• Daily Telegraph (2014) Nations brought together by a common bond, The Daily Telegraph [online] 27 July 2014. Available at:<http://www.telegraph.co.uk/

sport/othersports/commonwealthgames/10991322/Nations-brought-together-

by-a-common-bond.html> (Accessed 8 April 2015)• Devine, T.M. (1999) The Scottish nation: 1700-2000. London: Penguin.• Evans, N. (1991) ‘Internal colonialism? Colonisation, Economic Development

and Political Mobilisation in Wales, Scotland and Ireland'. In G. Day, and G. Rees (eds) Regions, nations and European integration: remaking the Celtic periphery. Cardiff: University of Wales Press

• Hardman, R. (2014) A giant haggis, cabers, golf clubs, 41 Scottish terriers, Rod Stewart, Billy Connolly, the Queen, lashings of self-deprecation and even a gay kiss - Glasgow's Commonwealth Games begin in style, The Daily Mail [online] 23 July 2014. Available at: <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2703216/Tunnocks-Tea-Cakes-Irn-Bru-Forth-Bridge-Gretna-Green-Glasgow-opens-Commonwealth-Games-world-Scottish-flavour.html> (Accessed 8 April 2015)

• Hechter, M. (1975) Internal colonialism: the Celtic fringe in British national development, 1536-1966. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul

References

• Hobsbawm, E. (1983) Introduction: Inventing tradition. In Hobsbawm, E., and Ranger, T. (eds.) The Invention of Tradition (pp1-14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

• Houlihan, B. (1994) Sport and international politics. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf

• Ichijo, A. (2012) Entrenchment of unionist nationalism: devolution and the discourse of national identity in Scotland, National Identities, 14 (1): 23-37.

• Leith, M.S., and Soule, D.P.J. (2011) Political discourse and national identity in Scotland, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

• McCrone, D. (1992) Understanding Scotland: The sociology of a stateless nation, London: Routledge

• McDowall, J. (2014) TV review – The Games opening ceremony, The Herald [online] 23 July 2014. Available at: <http://www.heraldscotland.com/arts-ents/tv-radio/tv-review-commonwealth-games-opening-ceremony.1406154484> (Accessed 8 April 2015)

• Mycock, A. (2012) SNP, identity and citizenship: re-imagining state and nation, National Identities, 14 (1): 53-69.

• Nairn, T. (1977) The break-up of Britain. London: Verso• Smith, G. G. (1919) Scottish literature: character and influence, London:

Macmillan and Co• Whannel, G. (2008) Culture, politics and sport: ‘Blowing the whistle’

revisited. London: Routledge.

Documents

Team GB', 'Team England' or 'Team Scotland'? Media Representations of 'Britishness', 'Englishness' and 'Scottishness' in London 2012 and Glasgow 2014