teachinglearning process

8/7/2019 teachinglearning process

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TEACHING LEARNING

Tennyson & Cocchiarella (1986) suggest a model for concept teaching that has three

stages: (1) establishing a connection in memory between the concept to be learned and

existing knowledge, (2) improving the formation of concepts in terms of relations, and(3) facilitating the development of classification rules. This model acknowledges the

declarative and procedural aspects of cognition (c.f.,ACT ). Klausmeier (1974) suggests

four levels of concept learning: (1) concrete - recall of critical attributes, (2) identity -recall of examples, (3) classification - generalizing to new examples, and (4)

formalization - discriminating new instances.

Takeaway: Investing a little time in helping your users understand database fundamentals

will make them more productive and self-reliant. Their understanding and insights may

even help you improve your applications.

If youre managing or developing custom applications, chances are you have a few users

updating at least one database. These users need to know how to interact with thedatabase, but they dont need to understand whats going on behind all those forms,right? Actually, a little knowledge in concepts could lead to improvements in

performance, efficiency, and even value-added features that often, only the users down in

the trenches can fully appreciate. A basic understanding of database concepts can helpotherwise-clueless users offer innovative suggestions and even point out potential

hotspots before they turn into real problems.

1: Hire someone with an expertise in teaching beginners

You might have been the professors favorite student, but that doesnt mean youre a

good teacher. Teaching database concepts to most users isnt for the faint of heart. Usersarent stupid. In fact, many are not only able but also quite eager to learn. You just need

easy-to-understand examples and scenarios. And for better or worse, most developers and

managers just dont think that way. Your would-be scholars dont care about Codd orcubes one will bore them, the other will totally undermine their confidence! If you

really think you can do it, go ahead and try, but be mindful of that deer-caught-in-

headlights stare. It means they dont understand you, not that theyre stupid.

2: Work with associations

Its okay to acknowledge E.F. Codd, but your goal is to introduce users to relational

database theory and possibly even the SQL language. You could easily provide slides ofbulleted rules and guidelines, but dont. Information provided that way wont mean muchto most users. Instead, take advantage of their familiarity with other common tools, such

as spreadsheets and file cabinets. You know that a spreadsheet is nota database, but a

sheet is a good way to introduce rows as records, columns as fields, and sheets as tables.Compare what they already know to what they have to learn. You might think this

method is old and worn out, but dont push it aside just because its old. Its old because

it works.
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3: Avoid development tools while learning

Youll probably want to use an actual database while teaching concepts to run simple

examples. Although you could supply a set of client management tools, dont. All youll

do is teach your students bad habits habits that rely on a specific set of management

tools rather than concepts. Its important that your students understand the basics beforethey learn to interact with the data via visual tools. If you want to apply examples to data,

use a command-line interface. In the long run, learning how to type query requests

directly will benefit them far more than learning how to use a specific set of tools. Onceyour students understand the concepts, then introduce them to the visual interface tools.

4: Use familiar data

Your users are already working with data that in some way relates to your business. If

possible, work with simple examples that rely on that familiar data. It may not seem likemuch to you, but youll eliminate time needed to introduce example data and give users a

boost up the learning curve.

5: Set aside enough time for implementation and study

Your users wont retain much if they dont have an opportunity to put what theyvelearned into action. Assign additional time outside of classroom training for individual

experimentation and further learning. Assign homework by presenting a real-world

problem and give students a little lab time to find a workable solution. I realize that itmight be difficult to get upper management to agree to this request, but nothing can

replace hands-on experience.

A TRANSACTIONAL MODELOF THE TEACHING/LEARNING PROCESS

A Transactional Model of the

Teaching/Learning Process

ContextAll those factors outside of the classroom

that might influence teaching and learning

Input

Those qualities or characteristics ofteachers and students that they bring with

them to the classroom experience

Classroom Processes Teacher and student behaviors in theclassroom as well as some other variables

such as classroom climate and


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teacher/student relationships

OutputMeasures of student learning taken apart

from the normal instructional process.

OUTPUT

The most important of these categories is theOutput category because the variables in the

rest of the categories are used to predict or relate to the variables measured in this one.

For example, when we ask "Why do some students learn more than other students?" wemust first be clear about what we mean by "learning." We must also be clear about how

we measure learning. Hummel and Huitt (1993) use the term W.Y.M.I.W.Y.G.to

emphasize the importance of outcome measures.

At the present time in this country, when we say "How well or how much has the student

learned" we mean "How well has the student done on a standardized measure of student

achievement in the basic skills of Reading, Language Arts, and Mathematics?" If we

change what we mean by learning (we want to know how much Science or Social Studiesstudents have learned or we want to know if they have developed appropriate social

skills) or if we change the particular measure of learning (use the Metropolitan

Achievement Test instead of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills), then we may change theimportant variables that relate to student learning. As we will see, there are a variety of

outcomes that are important in today's world (such as cognitive development and

character) that are not presently discussed when we talk about student learning. I believethe most important category is Output because once that has been defined it impacts the

importance of the variables in the other categories.

CLASSROOM PROCESSES
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The second most important category, at least from the perspective of the

educational institution and educational psychology, is theClassroom Processes

category. This includes all the variables that would occur in the classroom. Thereare three subcategories: Teacher Behavior, Student Behavior,

Other/Miscellaneous.

The category of Teacher Behavior consists of all the actions a teacher would

make in the classroom and incudes three additional subcategories: Planning,

Management, and Instruction.

Planning refers to all of those activities a teacher might do to get ready to interactwith students in the classroom. Management refers to controlling student

behavior, while instruction refers to actually guiding student learning. There are avariety of specific teacher classroom variables that have been related to student

learning. For example, Walberg (1986), in a meta-analysis of teachereffectiveness research found support for the following individual variables:

Use of positive reinforcement

Cues and corrective feedback
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Cooperative learning activities

Higher order questioning

Use of advance organizers

However, Rosenshine (1995) showed that the approach to instruction labeleddirect or explicit instruction was most likely to positively impact on learning as

measured by scores on standardized tests of basic skills. Alternatively, changingthe desired outcome measure puts the focus on different instructional methods.

For example, if the desired outcome is creativity and independence, then may be

a better alternative (Giaconia & Hedges, 1982). Alternately, if better relationshipsamong diverse students is the goal, the would appear to be the better instructional

method (Slavin, 1995). Therefore, it is important to specify desired outcomes and

their measures before decisions are made as to the implementation of specificinstructional methods.

Given the moderate correlations between teacher behavior and student learning asmeasured outside the classroom, however, it seems prudent to focus on studentbehavior within the classroom and the impact that teacher behavior has on that set

of variables. Student Behavior includes all of the actions a student would make in

the classroom and includes one very important variable (at least in relationship topredicting student achievement on standardized tests) and that is Academic

Learning Time (ALT). ALT is defined as "the amount of time students are

successfully covering content that will be tested" (Squires, Huitt, Segars, 1983).ALT is a combination of three separate variables: Content Overlap, Involvement,

and Success. Content Overlap is defined as "the percentage of the content covered

on the test actually covered by students in the classroom" and is sometimes

referred to as "Time on Target." Involvement is the "amount of time students areactively involved in the learning process" and is often referred to as "Time on

Task." Success is defined as the "extent to which students accurately complete the

assignments they have been given."

A high level of Academic Learning Time means that 1) students are covering

important (tested/evaluated) content; 2) students are "on-task" most of the classperiod; and 3) students are successful on most the assignments they complete.

These three variables can be relatively easily measured and can be considered the

vital signs of a classroom. If all of these are appropriate, there is a highprobability that the classroom is functioning well. However, if any one of these

variables is lower than expected, further inspection of classroom processes should

be undertaken.

There are a variety of other classroom factors which have been related to student

achievement such as the classroom climate and the opportunity for students to

engage in leadership roles.

One of the most important concepts that has been developed in educational

psychology during the past 30 years is that classroom process variables are the
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most direct link to student achievement (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). More

specifically, the teacher's classroom behavior (incorporated in the categories of

planning, management and instruction) has a direct influence on student behavior(most importantly, Academic Learning Time) which, in turn, is most directly

linked to measures of student achievement.

INPUT

The third major category of variables, Input, refers to descriptions of teachers andstudents prior to their coming into the classroom. There are again two important

subcategories: Teacher Characteristics and Student Characteristics. Some

important subcategories ofteacher characteristicsincludes the teacher's values

and beliefs, knowledge, thinking and communication skills, performance skills,and personality. Of course, there are many more possible subcategories, but these

seem to be the most important.
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The most important teacher characteristic (in terms of predicting how well

teachers will perform in the classroom as well as student achievement) seems to

be the teacher's values and belief or more particularly Teacher Efficacy (Ashton,1984). This variable is a measure of the teacher's belief that students can learn and

that he/she can teach. Another important set of teacher characteristics includes the

teacher's knowledge with respect to the content domain (knowledge of subjectmatter to be taught), human growth and development (theories, topics, and

stages), learning theory (behavioristic,cognitive, constructivistic,humanistic,social cognition), and the teaching/learning process (concepts and principles as

well as their application in formal and informal environments). This course isdesigned to address three of these important areas: human growth and

development, learning theory, and the teaching/learning process.

In the state of Georgia, a teacher's knowledge is evaluated through the completion

of college-level courses and passing the Teacher Certification Test (TCT). At

VSU, one requirement related to a teacher's thinking and communication skills issuccessful completion of a speech course at the undergraduate level. Performance

skills are measured through a requirement of student teaching and an annual

evaluation using the Georgia Teacher Observation Instrument (GTOI). Finally,while there is no single personality that seems to make the "best" teacher, it is

certainly a variable that has attracted a lot of interest. One measure of personality

that has become popular in education circles is the Keirsey Temperament Scale (a

version of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator).

There are a wide variety of Student Characteristics that have been related to

classroom behavior and student achievement. Bloom and other researchers (e.g,Anderson & Block, 1977; Bloom, 1971) engaged in the development ofmastery
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learninghave shown that when time to learn is allowed to vary, a student's prior

knowledge is most important. Other researchers have shown that when time to

learn is held constant, as it is in most learning envrionments in the United States,then a student's intelligence or academic ability is most important. This issue of

"time to learn" is very important. If we truly believe that everyone can learn and

that it is important to learn, then it would seem we would make a greater effort toprovide the appropriate time to learn. However, if we believe that ability is more

important and that only the most capable individuals can learn all we want them

to learn, then the present system will continue to produce a result that verifies thatexpectation. Other student characteristics that have been found to be important

include study habits, Age, Sex/Gender,Motivation, Learning Style, Cognitive

development, Socioemotional development,Moral and character development,

andRace/Ethnicity. In fact, the list of important student characteristics is so longentire books have been written on them.

The most important teacher characteristic (in terms of predicting how wellteachers will perform in the classroom as well as student achievement) seems to

be the teacher's values and belief or more particularly Teacher Efficacy (Ashton,

1984). This variable is a measure of the teacher's belief that students can learn andthat he/she can teach. Another important set of teacher characteristics includes the

teacher's knowledge with respect to the content domain (knowledge of subject

matter to be taught), human growth and development (theories, topics, and

stages), learning theory (behavioristic,cognitive, constructivistic,humanistic,social cognition), and the teaching/learning process (concepts and principles as

well as their application in formal and informal environments). This course is

designed to address three of these important areas: human growth anddevelopment, learning theory, and the teaching/learning process.

In the state of Georgia, a teacher's knowledge is evaluated through the completionof college-level courses and passing the Teacher Certification Test (TCT). At

VSU, one requirement related to a teacher's thinking and communication skills is

successful completion of a speech course at the undergraduate level. Performanceskills are measured through a requirement of student teaching and an annual

evaluation using the Georgia Teacher Observation Instrument (GTOI). Finally,

while there is no single personality that seems to make the "best" teacher, it is

certainly a variable that has attracted a lot of interest. One measure of personalitythat has become popular in education circles is the Keirsey Temperament Scale (a

version of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator).

There are a wide variety of Student Characteristics that have been related toclassroom behavior and student achievement. Bloom and other researchers (e.g,

Anderson & Block, 1977; Bloom, 1971) engaged in the development ofmasterylearninghave shown that when time to learn is allowed to vary, a student's prior

knowledge is most important. Other researchers have shown that when time to

learn is held constant, as it is in most learning envrionments in the United States,

then a student's intelligence or academic ability is most important. This issue of"time to learn" is very important. If we truly believe that everyone can learn and
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that it is important to learn, then it would seem we would make a greater effort to

provide the appropriate time to learn. However, if we believe that ability is more

important and that only the most capable individuals can learn all we want themto learn, then the present system will continue to produce a result that verifies that

expectation. Other student characteristics that have been found to be important

include study habits, Age, Sex/Gender,Motivation, Learning Style, Cognitivedevelopment, Socioemotional development,Moral and character development,

andRace/Ethnicity. In fact, the list of important student characteristics is so long

entire books have been written on them.

CONTEXT

The category of context includes all of those variables outside of the classroom

that have an impact on teacher and student characteristic, classroom processes,and output. The most immediate subcategories of context variables include school

characteristics and school processes.

School characteristics includes variables such as organizational structure and

school size, School processes include factors related to activities such asleadership, supervisory practices, and school climate.
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There are a wide variety of other context variables that influence the

teaching/learning process. Some of the subcategories of these variables include

Home,Peer Groups, Community,Religious Institutions,Society,Culture, andInternational Conditions. Variables related to the home environment seem

especially important and include such variables as the education levels of parents,

family income/socioeconomic status (SES), other parental characteristics (such asage or marital status), and a group of miscellaneous variables which includes the

amount of technology in the home, the number of books and magazines in the

home, and so forth. One of the variables that best predicts student achievementseems to be the level of mother's education--especially if she did not graduate

from high school (e.g., Campbell, 1991; Voelkl, 1993; Zill, 1992). This may be

because the mother is the first educator of the child and the level of language

usage she uses with the child is an important predictor of the child's languageusage and school achievement. A second important factor is the amount of

technology in the home (Perelman, 1992). This may be because technology is

such an important factor in today's society and the more familiar the child is with

technology, the more likely the child will feel comfortable in the modernclassroom.
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Other important context subcategories include the community (Location, Emphasis on

education). peer groups, the society (including TV/Movies, social institutions, etc.), stateand national policies (including laws, programs, and funding, the culture (including

values, language, art, music, etc.), and international/global conditions. A very important

aspect of the latter is the movement to the information age which is in turn influencing allother aspects of living (Huitt, 1995). This is especially important because it is redefining

the knowledge and skills that students need if they are to be successful in society. As

shown in the graph below, the number of people employed in the service and information

sectors today is over 75% or approximately the same percentage as that accounted for byagriculture and industry in the 1870s.
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It is also having an impact on the practice of education in that alternative forms ofschooling are increasingly being advocated.

The following is a simple example of how some of these variables might interact.Context variables such as the size and region of the community impact teacher and

student characteristics while the context variables associated with the family impactstudent characteristics. Of course, there are other important context variables that could

also be considered as described above. Additional context variables associated withschool and state policies combine with teacher and student characteristics to impact

teacher behavior. Teacher behavior along with student characteristics influence student

behavior, especially those variables associated with Academic Learning Time. Studentclassroom behavior then influences teacher classroom behavior in an interactive pattern.

Student classroom behavior, therefore, is the most direct influence on student

achievement as measured by instruments influenced by state policies. Studentachievement at the end of one school year then becomes a student characteristic at the

beginning of the next. Additional outcome variables that are important for success in the

information age can be considered in the same manner.
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This model has been developed from the perspective ofsystems theory. It will be one of

the main organizing features of this course. There are a variety of other models that havebeen developed to organize the variables of interest in educational psychology. McIlrathand Huitt (1995) provide a review of previous models of the teaching/learning process

and compare it to this proposed model. If you prefer another model, it is certainly

appropriate to use it during any discussions we have about how knowledge related toeducational psychology might be organized. Be sure to cite the author(s) of your model

whenever you refer to it. If you have developed your own model (which I encourage you

to do), you might want to have it drawn out so we can view it during our discussions.
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