TEACHINGTHEAUTHENTICPERFORMANCEOF

BRAZILIANPOPULARMUSICSTYLES

TONON-NATIVEMUSICIANS:

THEDEVELOPMENTOFAPEDAGOGICALAPPROACH

ADISSERTATIONSUBMITTEDTOTHEGRADUATESCHOOL

INPARTIALFULFILLMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENTS

FORTHEDEGREE

DOCTOROFARTS

BY

BRUNOMODOLOCABRERA

DISSERTATIONADVISOR:DR.DONP.ESTER

BALLSTATEUNIVERSITY

MUNCIE,INDIANA

MAY2018

ii

ABSTRACT

DISSERTATION:TeachingtheAuthenticPerformanceofBrazilianPopularMusicStylesto

Non-NativeMusicians:TheDevelopmentofaPedagogicalApproach

STUDENT:BrunoModoloCabrera

DEGREE:DoctorofArts

COLLEGE:FineArts

DATE:May2018

PAGES:129

ThelackofstylisticauthenticityinperformancesofBrazilianpopularmusicbynon-

nativemusiciansisasignificantandoften-citedissueamongnativeBrazilianswholiveand

performoutsidethecountry.Basedonresearchintheareasofmusicperception,music

cognition,andpsychomotorlearningtheories,acompletepedagogicalapproachwas

createdthatdevelopsculturalbackground,context,patternvocabulary,andtechnicalskills

andguidesnon-nativemusicianstoauthenticperformancesofBrazilianpopularmusic

stylessuchassamba,bossanova,choro,baião,andmaracatu.Abriefsurveyoffour

Brazilianpopularmusicexpertsobtainedanecdotalresultssuggestingthatstudent

ensemblespreparedusingthepedagogicalapproachwereperceivedasrelativelymore

authenticascomparedtoprofessionalnon-nativeensembles.Futurestudiescanprovide

moreinformationabouttheapproach’seffectivenessandapplicationstoculturalmusic

stylesfromdifferentcountriesaroundtheworld.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Therearenowordsthatcanexpressmydeepestgratitudetoallthepeoplewho

helped,encouraged,andsupportedme!Firstofall,Iwouldliketothankallfaculty

membersfromBallStateUniversitywhocontributedtomyeducationandcompletionof

thisdissertation.Specialthanksformycommitteememberswhoprovidedguidanceand

supportduringtheexaminationprocess,thedevelopmentofthisresearch,andfinallythe

defense.IappreciatealltheinsightandguidancereceivedfromDr.ScottRoutenbergand

Dr.AllenTruell.ThanksareduetoprofessorBrahamDembar,whowasmypercussion

mentorduringthepastthreeyearsandhelpedmeimprovetremendouslyasaperformer.

ThankyoutoDr.RobertWilleyforthesupportwithrecordingsandmeetingsrelatedtothis

andotherprojects,hisinputandfeedbackweredeeplyappreciated.ThankyoutoDr.Don

P.Ester,mydissertationadvisor,towhomIowemygreatestgratitudeandappreciation.

Withouthisunconditionalhelp,support,anddedicationthisprojectwouldnothavebeen

possible.Dr.EsterwasmyPsychologyofMusicprofessoranditwasduringhisclassthat

theinspirationandworkforthisresearchstartedtwoyearsago.Besidespushingmetothe

limitandgettingthebestoutofme,hespenthoursandhoursprovidingguidanceduring

meetingsandevenmorehourshelpingreviseandshapethisdocument.Ihavetearsinmy

eyesandnomorewordsinmymouthtoexpresshowgratefulIamforallhissupportand

wisdom.ThankyouDon!

Iwouldliketothankmanyfriendsandcolleagueswhoprovidedsupportandwere

patientduringmanystressfulmomentsduringthisprocess.Thankstoallmyfriendsfrom

manydifferentplacesintheUS,othercountries,andespeciallyfriendsfromBrazil,who

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supportedmefromallthewayoverthere.ThankyouLeonardoBertoliniLabrada,Helvio

Mendes,NeltonEssi,PauloDias,HeriveltoBrandino,andprofessorDinhoGebaraforbeing

alwaysreadytohelpwheneverIneeded!

Lastly,Iwouldliketothankmyfamilythatevenfromfarsupportedme.Thanksto

mylittlebrother,FelipeModoloCabrera–missyoubro!Specialthankstomyparents,José

GeraldoCabreraandLucilaModoloCabrera,whoalwayssupportedandprovidedmewith

thebesttheycould.Theyareexcellentparentswho,eventhoughheart-broken,accepted

mychoiceofmovingsofarawaytopursuemydream.Theyhavealwaysbeensupportive.

MymomiscallinginthisverymomentasIwritethis;thatwasweird!Thankstomy

fiancée,MarinaStojanovska,whoIloveverymuchandhavetreasuredbeingbymysidefor

manyyearsalready.Shehasbeenmywonderfulcompanionand,eventhoughsheisgoing

throughadoctorateherself,foundthetimeandstrengthtohelp,support,andbepatient

withmewheneverIneededherbymyside.Iloveyou,babe!

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………………………..………iii

TABLEOFCONTENTS...……………..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..………………………………………………v

LISTOFTABLES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………ix

LISTOFFIGURES……………..…………………………………………………………………………………………ix

CHAPTER1INTRODUCTION………..………………………………………………………………………1

PurposeoftheProject………………………………………………...……………………………………3

LimitationsoftheProject…………………………………………...………………………………….…4

DefinitionofTerms………………..…………………………………...………………………………….…4

SignificanceoftheProject…………………………………………...……………………………………5

CHAPTER2REVIEWOFLITERATURE………………………………………………...…………….….6

TheRootsofBrazilianPopularMusicStyles………………………………………………………6

PerformanceAuthenticity………………………………………………...…………………………......10

MusicCognition,Perception,andLearningTheory…………………………………….……...14

CHAPTER3DESIGNANDMETHOD……………………………………...…………………...…………20

InceptionandBackgroundoftheProject…………………………………………...……………..20

OverviewoftheInitialPedagogicalFoundation………………………………………………..21

InitialValidationofthePedagogicalApproach……………………………………………..…..24

ChapterSummary…………………………….………………………...…………………………………...24

CHAPTER4THEPEDAGOGICALAPPROACH………………………………...…………...….……..26

Introduction……………………………………….…………………………………………...……………..26

OverviewofthePedagogicalApproach…………..………………………….…………..28

vi

TheVirtualLearningSequence…………………….……………………………………………..…..31

Listening……………………………….………………………...…………………………………...32

PassiveListening………………………………………………………………………..35

PatternListening………………………………………………………………………..36

RecognitionListening…..……………………………………………………………..36

Audiating………………………………………………………………………………….…………..37

DevelopmentofMeaning………………………………………………….…….…..38

SolidifyingrhythmicPatterns…………………………………………….……….39

Vocalizing………………………………….…………………………………………………...….…..39

VocalizingwithaSyllableSystem………………………………..………..….…..40

Observing.………………………………….…………………………………………………..….…..46

Imitating………………………………………………………………………………...…..46

Motor-mimesis……..………….…………………………………………………………..47

CognitiveMotor-Imaging………………………………………………………………….…....48

TheLevelsofCMI………………………………….…….………………………….…...48

CMILevel1…………………………………..…………………………….….....49

CMILevel2…………………………………..…………………………….….....52

CMILevel3…………………………………..…………………………….….…54

CMILevel4…………………………………..…………………………….….....57

UsingCognitiveMotor-ImagingwithDifferentInstrumentalists…....59

Samba…………………………………………..……………………………...…..60

Bossanova…………………………………………..……….……………....…..63

Choro…………………………………………………..……….……………...…..65

Baião………………………………….………………..……….……………...…..67

Maracatu……………………………………………..……….……………....…..69

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MentalPractice…………….………………………………………………………………………..71

Step1:MentalPracticeoftheCM-Image…………….…………….…….….....73

Step2:MentalPracticeofCM-ImagePlusPhysicalAction….….….…...74

SummaryoftheVLS…………………………………………..…………………………….….…74

TheMotorLearningSequence………….…………………….……………………………………………..….....76

MotorSkillDevelopment………………………………...…………………………………......76

RhythmicGroupings….….….………………………………………………………....77

PsychomotorFoundations………………………………………………………......79

ApplicationstoMotorSkillDevelopment…..………………………………....80

RhythmicInstruments…………………………………………..…..….…..82

DrumSetandPercussionSetUps..….….…..……….…….….….…....89

MelodicInstruments………………………………….………………..…....93

PracticeStrategies………………………………….….….……………………………………..100

DurationofPracticeSessions………..……………………………………….…..100

TheImportanceofAccuratePractice……………….….……………………..101

TheRoleofSleep………………………...……………………………..………….…..103

SummaryofPracticeStrategies………………………….………………………105

Conclusion.……….……………………….…………………………………………………….…..107

CHAPTER5SUMMARYANDRECOMMENDATIONS………………………………...........……..108

InitialEffectivenessandOtherApplicationsoftheApproach……..…..…..…..…..…….109

RecommendationsforFurtherResearch…………………..………………………….………….111

Conclusion.……….……………………….………………………….…………………………..……….…..113

REFERENCES…………………………….…………………………………………...…………..…………………..…114

APPENDICES……………………………….……..…………………………………………………...…………..…….116

AListeningGuide.…….…………….…..………………………….…………………………………….,...116

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BBasicVocabulary.…………………….………………………….…………………………………..……121

CQuestionnaire.……….……………………….………………….….………………………………….....126

DSummaryofQuestionnaireData.……….…………………………….….………………………..129

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LISTOFTABLES

4.1RhythmVocalizationSyllables……………………………………………………………………………..…41

LISTOFFIGURES

3.1ProposedOutlineofAPedagogicalApproachtoTeachingBrazilianPopularMusicStyles

toNon-NativeMusicians…..………………………………………………………………………..………………..22

4.1Generalsummaryofthepedagogicalapproach……………………………………...........................29

4.2TheVirtualLearningSequence……………………………………………………………………………….32

4.3One-measurejazzexerciseondrumset…………………………………………………………………..38

4.4Telecotecopattern…………………………………………………………………………………………………40

4.53rdsurdopattern……………………………………………………………………………………………………42

4.6Sambabasicpatterns……………………………………………………………………………………………..44

4.7Maracatubasicpatterns…………………………………………………………………………………………44

4.8Baiãobasicpatterns……………………………………………………………………………………………….45

4.91stsurdopattern……………………………………………………………………………………………………50

4.101stand2ndsurdopatterns…………………………………………………………………………………….52

4.11Pianoandguitarbossanovagroove……………………………………………………………………...54

4.12Vocalizationoptionsforbossanovagrooveonpianoandguitar…………………………….55

4.13Bossanovaonthedrumset………………………………………………………………………………….56

4.14Vocalizationofdrumsetbossanovagroove………………………………………………………….56

4.15Bossanovawithbrushesonthedrumset……………………………………………………………..57

4.16Vocalizationofdrumsetbossanovagroovewithfourpatterns……………………………..58

4.17Sambamainpatternswithsyllables……………………………………………………………………..60

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4.18Vocalizationofchocalhoand1stsurdopattern………………………………………………………61

4.19Vocalizationofchocalho,1stand2ndsurdopatterns………………………………………………62

4.20Vocalizationofchocalho,1st,2ndsurdos,andtelecotecopatterns…………………………...63

4.21PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinbossanova……………………………………………………..64

4.22CMIvocalizationforbossanova……………………………………………………………………………65

4.23PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinchoro……………………………………………………………..66

4.24VocalizationofCMILevel3forchoro……………………………………………………………………67

4.25VocalizationofCMILevel4forchoro……………………………………………………………….…...67

4.26PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinbaião……………………………………………………………..67

4.27VocalizationofCMIlevels2,3,and4ofbaião………………………………………………………..68

4.28PatternsfordevelopmentofCMIinmaracatu…………………………………………………..…...69

4.29MaracatuvocalizationforCMIlevels2and3………………………………………………………...69

4.30PotentialmaracatuvocalizationforCMILevel4…………………………………………………....70

4.31Rhythmicskeletonofmaracatu………………………………………………………………………….....70

4.32VocalizationofCMILevel4ofMaracatu…………………………………………………………....…..71

4.33VLSstep-by-step………………………………………………………………………………...........................75

4.34ExamplesofGordon’sdefinitionsoftypesofbeats………………………………………………..78

4.35ComplexpatternsofMaracatu………………………………………………………………………….......80

4.36Bossanovagrooveonguitarandpiano…………………………………………………………......….82

4.37Patterndevelopmentcycle…………………………………………………………………………..............83

4.38Combinationcycles……………………………………………………………………………….....................84

4.39Sambagrooveondrumset………………………………………………………………………………......89

4.40Condensedapproachforpatterncombinations………………………………………………….….92

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4.41Condensedapproachfor3patterncombinations………………………………………………….92

4.42Condensedapproachfor4patterncombinations……………………………………………….…93

4.43ExcerptofTicoticonofubá……………………………………………………………………………….....94

4.44Mainpatternsofchoro………………………………………………………………………………...............94

4.45Ticoticonofubáexcerptwithhighlightedmotivesandvariations………………………....96

4.46Clarinetaccompanimentlineforbaiãocomposedbytwodifferentpatterns…………..98

4.47Clarinetaccompanimentdividedin2patterns………………………………………………………98

4.48Zabumbalowtonepatterns………………………………………………………………………………..106

CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTION The20thcenturywasaperiodofgreatdevelopmentofpopularandfolkmusicin

manydifferentcountriesintheworld.Agreatpartofthisdevelopmenthappenedlocally,

buttheawarenessofthesevariouspopularandfolkstylesgrewsignificantlywhen

nationalistcomposersusedthemintheirclassicalworks.Cross-culturalgerminationwas

importantaswell.IntheUnitedStates,forexample,thedevelopmentofjazzwasinfluenced

byAfro-CubanandBrazilianstyles,resultinginmanycollaborativeworksbetweenartists–

notablyDizzyGillespiewithMarioBauzá,andFrankSinatrawithTomJobim.Currently,a

varietyofAfro-CubanandBrazilianmusicstylesarebeingtaughtinschoolsettingsand

universitiesthroughouttheworld.Teachingsuchstylescanbeachallengingtask,

especiallytostudentswhoarenotnativetothespecificculturefromwhicheachmusical

styleemerges.Suchstudentsmayfindthemselvesstrugglingtolearnforeignmusical

styles,mostlybecausetheavailablemethodbooksfocusonteachingpatterns,whilethe

culturalcontextandthesubtletiesofstyleareignoredornotapproachedwithenough

depthtodevelopanauthenticperformance.AsaBrazilianpopularmusicteacherlivingand

teachingintheUnitedStates,Ihavehadsuccessinstructingstudentsbyhavingthemplaya

seriesofpatternsrelatedtoeachstyleandthenapplythistoconcertliterature.Withoutthe

culturalbackgroundandpropertechnicalguidance,however,theywerenotdevelopingthe

skillstofullyunderstandhowthosepatternsandmusicalelementssynthesizetobecomea

style.Properinflections,feels,andapproachestobasicpatternswereoftenmissing,

resultinginperformancesthatdonotsoundasauthenticaswhenperformedbynative

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BrazilianmusicianswhogrewupinBrazilandweresteepedinitsmusicandculture.I

personallywitnessedaparallelexperiencestudyingjazzinBrazil:MostBrazilianstudents

learningjazzhavedifficultyunderstandingitsswingandtheproperfeel,regardlessoftheir

levelofproficiency.

Certainly,thereisnoshortageofmethodbooksaboutBrazilianpopularmusicstyles

inPortugueseandEnglish.Theseresourcesaremostlypercussion-relatedmaterialsthat

provideexcellentinformationandclearusageofallmusicalelementsandpatterns.Itis

alsocommontofindresourcesforpiano,guitar,andbassguitar–instrumentsthatfunction

asrhythmic/harmonicsupportinBrazilianpopularmusicstyles.InMarcoPereira:

BrazilianGuitarVirtuoso,Swanson(2004)statesthatmuchofPereira’seducationin

Brazilianstyles“camefromtherhythmicexamplesinthebookEssentialStyles:Forthe

DrummerandBassist(BookI)”(p.1).InBrazilianPiano–Choro,Samba,andBossaNova

(Willey&Cardim,2010),theauthorsincludebriefexplanationsabouttheBrazilianculture

andbasicmusicalfeel,asignificantvarietyofpatternsforpercussioninstruments,and

explanationsofhowthosepatternsareappliedandtransferredtothepiano.

Brazilianpopularmusicstylesarestronglyrootedinpercussionandrhythmic

patterns;therefore,theliteratureincludesconstantreviewandreinterpretationofpatterns

relatedtopercussionandharmonic/rhythmicinstrumentssuchaspiano,guitar,andbass

guitar.Incontrast,littleisavailableformelodicinstrumentssuchasreedsandbrass

instruments,whichplayamajorroleinseveralcontemporarymanifestationsofBrazilian

popularmusic.Asanensembledirector,Ihavedifficultydirectingstudentswhoplay

melodicinstrumentstoresourcesthatcouldhelpthemenrichtheirperformanceskills

relatedtoBrazilianpopularmusic.WhenIinstructnativeBrazilians,Ineedtoprovidelittle

3

ornoguidanceabouthowtoperformadeterminedmelodiclineoraccompanimentthat

worksbothasrhythmicandharmonicsupport.Thesamemusicalelements,however,often

becomeamajorchallengetonon-nativeplayerswhodidnothaveanypriorcontactwith

suchmusicalstyles.

DuringmymusicstudiesintheUnitedStates,IhaveperformedBrazilianpopular

musicinmanydifferentsettingsandwithbothnativeandnon-nativeBrazilians.Building

onmyexperiencesasaperformerandasamusicprofessor,Ihaveexperimentedwitha

pedagogicalapproachdesignedtoteachnon-nativeBraziliansthebackgroundofeach

Brazilianpopularstyleandanunderstandingofandtechnicalabilitytoperformthe

correlatedvocabularyofrhythmicpatterns,leadingthemtotheappropriatefeeland

authenticityforeachofthestyles.AuthenticityisamajorissueinBrazilianpopularmusic

stylesandmustbeapproachedwiththesamelevelofimportanceasgeneraltechnical

skills;thesimplefactthatmusicianscanperformaseriesofpatternsdoesnotmeanthey

are,inacertainmannerofspeaking,pronouncingitproperly.

PurposeoftheProject

Thepurposeofthisprojectwastodevelopandpresentapedagogicalapproachto

teachingtheauthenticperformanceofBrazilianpopularmusicstylestonon-native

musicians.Thefinaldissertationprovidesadetailedexplanationofthepedagogical

approach,whichincludesteachingculturalbackgroundandcontextaswellaspattern

vocabularyandtechnicalskillsviatheinterweavingoftworesearch-basedlearning

sequences:TheVirtualLearningSequenceandTheMotorLearningSequence.A

supplementalpartofthisprojectsoughtinitialvalidationofthepedagogicalapproach:A

fewBrazilianpopularmusicexpertswereaskedtocomparerecordedperformancesby

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native-Brazilianmusicianstoperformancesbynon-nativemusicianstaughtbytheauthor

usingthepedagogicalapproachinanauthenticensemblesetting.Thiswasnotaformal

researchstudybutratheraninformalapproachdesignedtoobtainanecdotalevidence

abouttheinitialeffectivenessofthisapproachintermsofauthenticity.

LimitationsoftheProject

Thesupplementalcomponentofthisprojectwasnotintendedasordesignedtobea

formalresearchstudy.Theresultsservedonlyasinitialanecdotalevidenceofthe

effectivenessofthepedagogicalapproach,providingdirectionforfuturerefinementand

research.

DefinitionofTerms

Thefollowingtermsaredefinedastheywereusedforthepurposesofthisproject:

• Brazilianpopularmusicstyles:AnygenreofmusicperformedbytheBrazilianpeopleas

part of their cultural expression; among other musical styles, themost common are

samba,bossanova,choro,baião,forróandmaracatu.

• Non-nativemusicians:AnymusicianwhodidnotgrowupinBrazilorwasnotraisedby

BrazilianparentswhowereembeddedinculturalexpressionsoftheBrazilianpeople.

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SignificanceoftheProject

ThelackofstylisticauthenticityinperformancesofBrazilianpopularmusicbynon-

nativemusiciansisasignificantandoften-citedissue.SeveralnativeBrazilianmusicians

withwhomIhaveworkedintheUnitedStatesconsistentlymakethisobservation.One

exampleisMr.PauloSauerDias,withwhomIhaveperformedseveraltimeshereinthe

UnitedStates.HehasanextensivecareerasaBrazilianpopularmusicpianistandhas

performedwithimportantBrazilianartistssuchasChicoBuarquedeHollanda,Moraes

Moreira,Djavan,NanaCaymmi,andClaraNunes.AftercomingtotheUnitedStates,Mr.

Diasbeganperformingwithlocalmusicians,includingbothnativeandnon-native

Brazilians.AccordingtoMr.Dias,alargegapofauthenticityexistsbetweenthesetwo

groupsofmusicians.Thisprojectbenefitsnon-nativeBrazilianmusicianswhodesireto

developanin-depthunderstandingofhowtoperformBrazilianpopularmusicstyles.The

developmentofthispedagogicalapproachalsobenefitsallmusicteachers,providingthem

withpedagogicalstrategiestoreduceoreliminatethegapofstylisticauthenticitybetween

nativeandnon-nativeperformersofBrazilianpopularmusic.

CHAPTER2

REVIEWOFLITERATURE Thedevelopmentofapedagogicalapproachtoteachingtheauthenticperformance

ofBrazilianpopularmusicstylestonon-nativemusiciansrequiresathoroughgroundingin

therootsofthesestylesaswellasresearchandlearningtheoryrelatedtoteaching

authenticperformancestyle.ThisliteraturereviewaddressestherootsofBrazilian

popularmusicstyles,researchrelatedtoperformanceauthenticity,andthescholarshipof

pedagogythatimpactsthedevelopmentofauthenticperformances.

TheRootsofBrazilianPopularMusicStyles

AgreatdiversityofBrazilianpopularmusicstylesexistsacrossthecountry,and

eachregiondevelopeditsownmusicalcultureovertheyears.Stylessuchassamba,bossa

nova,choro,baião,frevo,andmaracatubecamemorepopularthanothersbeingperformed

andtaughtaroundtheglobe.Amongthevastculturalinfluencesthataffectedthe

developmentofthesestyles,itisimportanttomentionthattheyareheavilyrootedin

Africandrumming.Theoriginsofsamba,forexample,“layinrhythmicdrumbeatsthat

traditionallyaccompaniedAfricanreligiousceremoniesbroughttoBrazilbyAfricanslaves”

(Raphael,1990,p.74).Theoriginalsettingofmaracatuinvolvesalargepercussion

ensemblesimilartoasambaschoolbateria(percussionensemble),includingalfaias,

ganzás,xequerês,tarois,gonguês,andotherpercussioninstruments.Otherstyleslike

frevo,choro,andbaiãowereinfluencedbyAfro-Brazilianrhythmsaswell.TheAfrican

rootsareacommontraitofallthesestyles,buteachoneincludesuniquerhythmicpatterns

thatdefineit.Asaresult,therhythmandthepatterninflectionsarethemostimportant

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elementstobedevelopedduringtheteachingprocess.TheinfluenceofAmericanjazzalso

playedanimportantroleinthedevelopmentofsomeBrazilianstylessuchasbossanova,

especiallyintermsofperformingensembles.SomeBrazilianpopularmusicstyleswere

stylizedandplayedbyensemblessimilartojazzcombosinwhichthedrummerfunctions

asasynthesisofthepercussionensembles,playingseveralpatternsatthesametimeto

depictthelargepercussiongroupsandcreateauthenticgrooves.

Barsalini(2009)soughttodemonstratehowthedrumsetperformancesofBrazilian

musicstylesdevelopedfromthebeginningofthe20thcenturyuntilthe1960’s.According

tohisresearch,drumsetperformancesareconstantlychanging.Thefirstappearanceof

sambabatucadaonthedrumsetwasintheearly20thcenturywithLucianoPerrone.A

generationlater,significantchangestosambadeprato(sambaonthecymbal)weremade

byEdisonMachado.BothcontinuetobethemostsignificantinfluencesonBraziliandrum

setplaying.BasedonbibliographicalsourcesaboutBrazilianmusichistory,culture,socio-

politicalelements,andanalysesofrecordingsandtranscriptions,Barsaliniconcludedthat

drumsetpatternscanonlyrepresentamusicalstyleiftheyareputintocontext.Therefore,

establishingconnectionsamongthedrumsetapproaches,historicalandmusicalelements

ofdifferentstyles,andthedevelopmentofeachstylethroughoutthe20thcenturyiscritical

tounderstandingthemusicalcultureandidentityduringthoseyears.

Aquino(2014)investigatedthehistoricaldevelopmentofthedrumset.He

concludedthattheuseofthedrumsetinBrazilianmusicstartedaround1917andwas

consolidatedbyLucianoPerrone.AquinosoughttodetermineLucianoPerrone’s

importanceintermsofmediatingpracticesbetweendrumset,popularpercussion,and

concertpercussion,giventhatPerronewasactiveinallofthese.Healsowantedto

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establishPerrone’simportancetofuturegenerationsbyanalyzinghisperformance

characteristicsandcomparingthemwithlatterpracticecharacteristics.Basedonextensive

fieldworkandanalysesofbibliographicalmaterialsandalargediscography,Aquino

concludesthatthebossanovaperiodrepresentsagapwithrespecttodrumsetpractices

andthedivisionbetweentraditionalandmodernperformances.

Smith(2014)providedamorein-depthandmodernvisionofthecurrentdrumset

performancesceneinBrazil.Thepurposeofhisresearchwastoanalyzecurrentpractices

throughfieldworkandinterviewswithimportantandcurrentlyactiveBraziliandrummers

suchasRamonMontagner,EduardoRibeiro,andCelsodeAlmeida.Smithconcludedthat

performingsambaonthedrumsethasbecomeacontinuingandgrowinginterestfor

drummersaroundtheworld.Althoughmanymethodbooksapproachthesubject,they

seemtolackimportantelementsofcontemporaryBraziliandrumsetplayingthatmost

renownedprofessionalslearnedanddevelopedthroughoraltraditionandactual

performancesratherthaninpracticerooms.

TherhythmicpatternsinBrazilianpopularmusicstylesareveryimportantbecause

theyapplytoharmonicandmelodicinstrumentsaswell.Theguitar,forexample,isoneof

themostimportantinstrumentsinBrazilianmusic,appearinginmanysettingsofdifferent

styles.Lopes(2013)conductedastudyinvestigatingaplayingapproachknownas

“Brazilianguitar”–atermreferringtoaplayingapproachratherthanadifferent

instrument.Lopes’eventualgoalwastodevelopamethodologytoteachBrazilianguitar

performancestyle.Afteranalyzingaseriesofsolosandaccompanimentsfromrecordings

andinterviewingprofessionalguitarplayersandteachers,Lopesconcludedthatthis

performanceapproachischaracterizedbyuniquerhythmcomponents.Toteachit,the

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methodologyshouldbedividedbystyles,teachingadifferentmusicalstylepersemester:

firstchoro,thenNortheasternstyles,andlastlysamba.

Swanson(2004)investigatedthedevelopmentofBrazilianguitar.Hisstudy

includedfocusingonhowtheinstrumentandtheguitaristMarcoPereiraareimportantfor

theBrazilianmusicalidentity,delineatingtheirhistory,andexaminingthehistoryof

performerswhoinspiredMarcoPereira,suchasBadenPowell,PaulinhoNogueira,and

JoãoGilberto.SwansondeterminedhowMarcoPereiradevelopedhisstyleandhowhe

becameanimportantfigureofBrazilianmusic.Heconcludedthattheguitarasan

instrumenthelpedtonarrowsocialgapsovertheyearsbecauseitwaspresentinmany

differentsettingsofbothpopularandclassicalBrazilianmusic–inpartbecauseMarco

Pereirahimselfwasveryinfluentialinbothscenes.

ThestyleknownasbaiãoisoriginallyfromtheNortheastregionofBrazil,whereas

samba,choro,andbossanovaarefromtheSoutheastregionofthecountry.Whilebaião’s

originalinstrumentationincludesaccordionandpercussioninstrumentslikezabumbaand

triangle,overtheyearsitbecamestylizedandperformedbybigbands,jazzcombos,and

otherensembles.Ramalho(1998)researchedthelifeandcareerofthecomposerLuiz

Gonzaga,whoiscreditedwithpopularizingthebaião.Ramalhoestablishedthereasonsfor

Gonzaga’spopularityand,byanalyzingcompositionssuchasGonzaga’smostfamoussong

“AsaBranca,”heconnectedthemusicwiththeculturalelementsoftheNortheastareaof

BrazilknownasSertão.

Witmer(2009)conductedastudyabouttheroleofthefluteandflutistsinthe

musicalstyleknownaschoro.InfluencedbyAfro-Brazilianrhythmsandcharacterizedby

rhythmicsyncopations,choroalsoincludeselementsofclassicalmusicsuchasrondoform

10

andcommonusageofcounterpointandmodulations.Witmer’spurposewasto

demonstratethatchoroensembleshelpedtoestablishthefluteasthefirstinstrumentto

requirevirtuosicperformancesinthestyleandthatearliercomposershelpedtransform

chorointoasophisticatedgenreofmusic.Witmeranalyzedinfluentialchorocomposers

suchasJoaquimAntoniodaSilvaCallado,Pixinguinha,andBenedictoLacerda.Followinga

thoroughreviewofstudiesaboutchorostyleandinterpretation,chorocomposers,andthe

roleoffluteinBrazilianmusic,Witmerconcludedthatchororemainsoneofthefew

popularmusicstylestoemphasizeinstrumentalvirtuosity,withtheflutetypicallythe

featuredmelodicinstrumentoftheensemble.

ItisclearthatBrazilianstylesareveryrootedinAfricandrumming,makingrhythm

andrhythmicpatternsthemostimportantcharacteristicelementsofeachstyle.Inorderto

developaneffectiveteachingpedagogyforsuchstyles,itisnecessarytounderstandtheir

rhythmicpatterns,aswellastherhythmicinflectionsandthedifferenttypesofswingthat

characterizeeachstyle.Althoughtherhythmicrootsareanimportanttraitofthestyles,

thisisnottheonlyelementneededforauthenticity.Todevelopateachingpedagogythat

leadstoauthenticperformances,itisimportanttoconsideralltheelementsthatmakeeach

styleauthentic,includinghownativeBrazilianslearnhowtoperformtheirownmusic.

PerformanceAuthenticity

Authenticityhasbecomeanimportanttopicinmusic.Whetherapproaching

WesternmusicstylessuchasMedievalandBaroqueorworldmusicstylessuchasSalsa

andIndianRaga,authenticityisoneofthemostsignificantchallengesformusiceducators.

Theliteratureaboutauthenticityinmusicfeaturesawidevarietyoftopicsincludingthe

challengesofchoosingappropriaterepertoire.Knapp(2012)suggestsoneofthereasons

11

forthis:“Becauseteachersareoftenaskedtoteachmusicfromcultureswithwhichthey

areunfamiliar,selectingclassroomrepertoirethataccuratelyrepresentsaculturecanbe

challenging”(pp.13-14).Anotherimportanttopicistheimportanceofinformallearningto

theprocessofachievingauthenticperformances.“Manymusiciansuseinformalprocesses

tolearnmusic,especiallypopularorvernacularmusicgenres”(Murray,2013,p.77).In

chorostyle,forexample,theinformallearningplaysanextensiverole.“Therodadechoro

providesauniquesocialgatheringinwhichmusiciansofalllevels,beginnerto

professional,experiencemusictogether–simultaneouslypracticing,performing,and

learning”(Murray,2013,p.22).ReinforcingKnapp,Murraydescribesanotherexample:

“Beyondreadingmusic,Brazilianmusiciansusefixed-dosolfegetodiscussmusicalideas.

Thissystemcanbeconfusingtopeopleunfamiliarwithit,especiallynativeEnglish

speakers”(p.141)

ThisprojectfocusesontheuniquestyletraitsofBrazilianpopularmusic. Theterm

brasilidade–mostcloselytranslatedas“Brazilianness”–isbestdefinedasthe

characteristicsorparticularitiesthatdefinesomethingorsomeoneasBrazilian.Thetermis

commonlyusedbynativeBrazilianstodepictculturalcharacteristicssuchasthe

personalitytraitsofBrazilianpeopleorthestyletraitsofBrazilianmusical.Inorderto

teachauthenticperformanceofBrazilianpopularmusicstyles,itisnecessaryto

understandhownativeBrazilianslearntheirownmusicandapplyelementsofthatprocess

intothepedagogy.Itisalsoimportanttounderstandcorrelationsbetweenthemusicand

theculturalfunctionofeachstyle.

Murray(2013)investigatedthehistoryofchoroschools:institutionsfocusedon

transmittingandsustainingcurrentpracticesofthechorostyle.Theauthorinvestigated

12

pedagogicalpracticesandprocessesfromdifferenttimeperiods,interviewedandsurveyed

bothperformersandteachers,andobservedthe“rodasdechoro”(chorocircles)andthe

teachingintheschools.Heconcludedthattheauthenticchoroperformerlearnsthecraft

throughexperience,performingwithothers,privatepractice,memorizationofrepertoire,

andperformingbyear.Agreatpartofthelearningprocessalsohappensthrough

socializingwiththechorocommunity,aswellasthroughwritingtranscriptionsof

recordings.

Brunet(2012)conductedinvestigationsaboutgenderrolesinsambaschoolsinthe

cityofSãoPaulo.Thismaybeconsideredadelicatetopic,butitsinvestigationisessential

tounderstandhowthemusicisdeeplyinfluencedbytheculture.Brunetsoughtto

understandhowcertainrolescametobelabeledasmasculineorfeminine,howtheyare

highlighted,andhowtheycametobetaught,learned,andnaturalizedamongsambaschool

members.Thestudyanalyzedactualperformancesthroughfieldwork,analysisofthe

organizationofsambaschools,andthehistoricalfactsthatledtothisorganization.The

studyconcludesthatmanyrolesarechosenanddefinedbyage,bodytype,skincolor,and

behavior.Brunetalsoobservedthatwomenand/orhomosexualmencannowfillmany

rolesthatpreviouslywerefilledbymenonly,showinganimportantevolutionincultural

behavior.Brunet’sconclusionsemphasizehowprofoundlythemusicisattachedto

Braziliancultureandidentity.Thissuggeststhatitisextremelyimportanttointegratethis

understandingintotheinstructionalprocesswhenseekingtoprepareatrulyauthentic

performance.Whendetermininghowbesttoteachnon-nativestudents,itisimportantto

takeintoconsiderationtheircurrentunderstandingsaboutBrazilianmusic–buildingon

13

associationswithmusicalelementstheyalreadyunderstandandthenaddingthenew

elementsrequiredforanauthenticperformance.

Knapp(2012)conductedastudywiththepurposeofassessinghowundergraduate

musicmajors’perceptionofauthenticityandpreferenceforteachingmulticulturalmusic

wereaffectedbymulticulturalmusicinstruction.Accordingtothisstudy,authentic

performancesofaspecificmusicstylerequirenativeperformers,theuseoforiginal

instruments,theuseoftheoriginallanguagespecifiedbythecomposer,audiences

consistingofmembersofthespecificculture,andsettingstypicalofthecultural

environment.Ifoneofthesecomponentsisnotpresent,theauthenticitywillbe

compromised.Theinstructorneedstobeawareofhowmuchcompromisecanbeallowed

beforetheoriginalislost.Althoughthisstudyconcludedthatmostundergraduatemusic

majorsreceivedtraininginworldmusicandthereisagrowinginterestinmulticultural

music,resultsalsosuggestthat1)thestudentsstilllacktheabilitytomakedistinctions

aboutwhetherornotperformancesareauthenticand2)teachersarestillunpreparedto

teachsuchmusic.

TakingintoconsiderationthatmostnativeBrazilianslearntheirculture’smusicvia

oraltradition(listening,observingmoreexperiencedplayersperform,andperformingin

pubsandothervenues)ratherthanviaformaleducationinaschool,itseemsclearthat

informallearningisresponsibleformuchoftheauthenticityofBrazilianmusic.When

teachingnon-nativestudents,therefore,thisinformalexperienceneedstobeincorporated

intothelearningprocess.Adams(2014)investigatedthevalueofimplementinginformal

learningpracticesintotheformallearningenvironment.AccordingtoAdams,informal

learninghappenswhenstudentsareresponsiblefortheirownlearning,oftenwithoutthe

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presenceofaninstructor.Thisistypicalforthelearningofpopularmusicstyles.Although

Adamsstudywasfocusingonincorporatinginformalmusiclearningintomusicstylesthat

areusuallytaughtformallyinschoolsettings,thismixtureofformalandinformallearning

couldbeextremelyvaluabletodevelopingauthenticityfortheperformanceofBrazilian

popularmusicstyles.Adamsconcludedthatstudentswhowereexposedtoinformal

learningmadeconnectionsinmorewaysthansimplyassociatingnotationwithinstrument

fingering,forexample.Theseextraconnectionsallownon-nativemusicianstodevelopa

senseofmusicalcontextthatisessentialforauthenticity.

Accordingtotheresearch,then,theachievementofauthenticperformances

requirestherecreationofasmanyauthenticcharacteristicsaspossible.These

characteristicsincluderecreatingnotonlytheinstrumentationbutalsothelearning

process.Theinstrumentationusedineachstyleandtheirrolesareimportantelements

and,althoughsomecompromisemaybenecessary,studentsandinstructorsmustbe

familiarenoughwiththestylestomaketheappropriatechangeswithoutlosingthe

originalityofeachstyle.Intermsofteachingauthenticperformance,itisimportantto

considertheinformaltypeoflearningthatnativeBraziliansengageinwhenlearningtheir

ownmusicandtointegratethisinformalapproachintotheteachingprocess.

MusicCognition,Perception,andLearningTheory

WhiletakingPsychologyofMusicaspartofmydoctoralstudies,myinterestin

achievingahigherlevelofperformanceauthenticityamongdrumsetstudentsledmeto

beginresearchingareassuchasmusicperception,musiccognition,andpsychomotor

learningtheories.Specializedresearchintheseareasprovidesimportantinsightsintothe

mosteffectiveandefficientapproachestodevelopingtheunderstandingandskillneeded

15

forauthenticperformancesofnewmusicalstyles.Researchandlearningtheoryrelatedto

audiation,modeling,musicalimagery,motortheory,andpracticestrategieseachplay

importantrolesinthislearningprocess.

Audiationisafundamentalelementofthelearningprocessbecause“soundbecomes

musicthroughaudiationwhen,aswithlanguage,wetranslatesoundsinourmindandgive

themmeaning”(Gordon,2012,p.3).BuildingonGordon’sMusicLearningTheoryand

integratingcurrentperceptionandcognitionresearch,Ester(2005)developedateaching

guideformusicliteracyentitledSoundConnections.Thispedagogicalapproachwas

thoroughlydevelopedwithalearningsequenceandtheuseofbest-practicesyllable

systems,facilitatingaseriesofcognitiveconnectionsbyhavingstudentsechowhatthey

hear,thenconnecttheseauralpatternswithsyllablepatterns,andeventuallyconnectthe

syllablepatternswithmusicalsymbols.AsGordonstates,audiationisnotpossiblewithout

priorauralperception;therefore,Ester’sfirststepofechoingwhatisheardisfoundational

toanymusicallearning.Additionally,beingabletovocalizemusicalpatternsisan

importantstepinthedevelopmentofmusicliteracy.AccordingtoEster:

Thesingingvoiceisthefundamentalinstrumentforeverymusicianbecauseitis

mostcloselylinkedtothemusician’sear.…Beingabletopressthecorrectkeyson

thepianoorclarinetinresponsetonotation,forexample,doesnotconfirmthatthe

performercanaudiatethemusic.(p.1)

Therefore,inordertoprovidemusicalunderstanding,itisnecessarythatbothinstructors

andstudentsareabletovocalizemusicalpatterns.Thisprojectuseslistening,audiation,

andvocalizationtodevelopmusicalunderstanding.Studentsneedtobeexposedto

recordingsinordertofamiliarizethemselveswiththenuancesofthestyletobestudied.

16

Listeningprovidestheprerequisiteforaudiationbecause“weaudiatesoundonlyafterwe

haveaurallyperceivedit”(Gordon,2012,p.3).Thus,audiationsuggestsstorageand

understanding,whilevocalizingrepresentsretrievalofthelearnedinformation:“Inorder

tobeverifiedaslearned,entitiesmustberetrievedfromlong-termmemory.Itisgenerally

supposedthattheprocesscalledretrievalrequiresthatcertaincuesbeprovided,eitherby

theexternalsituationorbythelearner”(Gagné,1977,p.73).

AccordingtosociallearningtheoristBandura(1970),humanslearnandformideas

aboutnewbehaviorsbyobservingothers’behaviorsandtheoutcomesofthosebehaviors.

Thosewhoareobservedarereferredtoasmodels,andBanduralabelsthisprocess

modeling.Appliedtothisproject,observingliveorvideoperformancesofnativeBrazilians

modelingauthenticperformancestylefacilitatestheencodingofthisinformation,which

willinturnserveasafoundationforfurtherlearning.

Godøytakestheconceptofmodelingastepfurther,proposingatriangularmodelof

cross-modalitythatemphasizesthe“inextricablerelationshipsbetweenaction,visionand

soundinmusicperceptionandcognition”(p.317).Heobservesthatmusicappealstomany

humansensesbeyondhearingalone.Forexample,soundsareoftendescribedusingterms

suchasdark,low,andpiercingthatarerelatedtoeyesightoractions.AccordingtoGodøy,

evidenceisemergingthat“wementallyimitatesound-producingactionswhenwelisten

attentivelytomusic”(p.318);theseimagesofactionsarereferredtoasmotorprograms.

Godøy’sresultingtriangularmodelservesasthebasisformotor-mimesis,whichcanbe

thoughtofasaudiationbutwiththeaddedsimulationofmovements:“Motor-mimesis

translatesfrommusicalsoundstovisualimagesbyasimulationofsound-producing

actions…formingmotorprogramsthatre-codeandhelpstoremusicalsoundsinour

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minds”(p.318).Statedanotherway,theimageofsoundproductionhasnotonlyaural

componentsbutalsovisualandmotorcomponents.Throughmotor-mimesis,performers

developconnectionsbetweensoundsandmovements.Inotherwords,beforethey

physicallyperformanyofthemusicalpatterns,theywillvisualizethemovements(actions)

thatproducethedesiredsoundsandthenstarttopracticeandperfecttheirmotorskills.

Thepedagogicalapproachdevelopedduringthisprojectuseslistening,audiation,

modeling,andmotor-mimesistocreateamentalimage,whichfunctionsasthebasisforthe

motorskilldevelopment.Creatingamentalimageisperhapsmoreimportantthanany

verbalexplanationbecausemusic“isanaural,aesthetic,nonverbal,perceptual-motorskill”

(Kohut,1985,p.8).Todeveloptheirmotorskills,studentswillbe“makingadjustments

untiloneisabletoimitatethemodeleffectivelyorreproducethementalimage”(Criss,

2008,p.44).ThecompletementalimageiscalledCognitiveMotor-Imagingandit

representswhattheperformerswilltrytorecreateasthedesiredsoundandthefinalgoal.

Ifthestudentsfocusonlyontechnicalaspects,the“performancemightbecomesterileor

mechanical”(Criss,2008,p.43).AccordingtoCriss,instructorscan“giveanimageofthe

goaltothestudentandthenencouragethemtofindtheirownstrategiesforimitatingthat

image”(p.44).Theskillswillthendevelopfurtherandbeconsolidatedduringphysical

practiceasstudentsrepetitivelyreproducethemodel.

Effectiveandefficientpracticestrategiesarecrucialtorefinedmotorskill

development.PerformingBrazilianpopularmusicstylesisaverydemandingtaskinterms

ofmotorskillsandcoordination,bothintermsoftheindividualandtheensemble;thisis

especiallytruefordrummers,pianists,guitarists,andotherswhomayneedtocombine

severalpatternstocreateauthenticgrooves.Eachpatternmayincludemanymusicalfacets

18

thatwereoriginallyplayedbyseparateindividuals.Asresearchindicates,itisimportantto

dividetheprocessintosmallertasksbecause“whentoomuchinformationispresentedat

once,ourshort-termmemorybecomesoverwhelmedandunabletoprocessit”(Luckner,

1990,p.101).AccordingtoTan,Pfordrescher,andHarré(2010),motorskillsare

developedmoreeffectivelyviadistributedpractice:shorterpracticesessionsspread

throughouttheday.Thisdistributedapproachinvolvesregularbreaks,allowingforthe

“opportunitytotakeafreshlookatthemusic,andtounderstanditsstructuremoredeeply”

(p.186).Alongwithbreaks,sleepingcontributestotheconsolidationofthemotorskills

because“thememorytraceformotorlearningcontinuestobereprocessedevenduring

periodswithoutinterveningtraining”(p.186).Gebrian(2015)summarizesavarietyof

researchthatsupportstheimportanceofsleeptotheconsolidationofmotorlearning:

Duringasleepspindle,thereisahugeburstofelectricalactivityinapopulationof

neuronsthatcausesmassiveamountsofcalciumtoenterthosecells.Calciumis

whatcausesallthechangesdiscussedearlier,fromstrengtheningandweakening

synapses,tomakingnewsynapses,tosynchronizingthefiringofneuronal

ensembles.(p.31)

Thedevelopmentofapedagogyfocusedonmotorskilldevelopmentrequires

carefulconsiderationoftheavailableresearchintheareasofmusicperception,cognition,

andlearningtheory.Thisincludesanalysisofthecomponenttasksanddeterminationof

themosteffectiveapproachleadingtosynthesis.“Ifthecomponentactsofatotalskillhave

beenpreviouslywelllearned,aminimalamountoftimemayhavetobespentinputting

themtogether”(Gagné,1985,p.207).Itseemsclearthatisolatingandthenreintegrating

19

musicalunderstandingandmotorskilldevelopmentresultsinthemosteffectivelearning

process.Thissuggeststheimportanceoftwoseparatebutrelatedlearningsequences:a

VirtualLearningSequenceandaMotorLearningSequence.Theseservedasthebasisfor

thedevelopmentoftheproposedpedagogy.

CHAPTER3

DESIGNANDMETHOD

Thepurposeofthisprojectwastodevelopandpresentapedagogicalapproachto

teachingtheauthenticperformanceofBrazilianpopularmusicstylestonon-native

musicians.Chapter4ofthedissertationprovidesadetailedpresentationandexplanation

ofthepedagogicalapproach,whichincludesteachingculturalbackgroundandcontextas

wellaspatternvocabularyandtechnicalskillsviathesynthesisoftworesearch-based

learningsequences:theVirtualLearningSequenceandtheMotorLearningSequence.The

VirtualLearningSequencefocusesondevelopingthestylisticaspectsvialistening,

audiation,andvocalization;andbuildingthefoundationfortherequiredmotorskillsvia

motor-mimesis,mentalimage,andmentalpractice. TheMotorLearningSequencefocuses

ondevelopingtheactualmotorskillsrequiredtoperformBrazilianpopularmusicstyles;

thisinvolvedthedevelopmentofthesequenceinwhichpatternsshouldbelearnedandthe

establishingofeffectiveandefficientpracticestrategies.Inadditiontothedetailed

presentationofthepedagogicalapproach,asupplementalcomponentofthisprojectsought

initialvalidationoftheapproachviathesolicitationofexpertobservationsofthe

performanceauthenticityofensemblespreparedusingtheapproach.

InceptionandBackgroundoftheProject

Whileworkingwithdifferentensembles,whichsometimeshadnativeBrazilian

studentsaswell,Icametorecognizeasignificantdifferenceinapproachbetweennative

andnon-nativestudents.Thenon-natives,regardlessoftheirtechnicalproficiencylevel,

oftenhadproblemswithproperinflections,feels,andapproachestobasicpatterns.Asa

percussionist,IwasparticularlyinterestedindrumsetperformanceofBrazilianmusic

21

stylesandhowtohelpmystudentsdevelopnotonlyastrongskillsetbutalsoan

understandingofthefeelsandinflectionsthatmakesaperformanceauthentic.While

takingPsychologyofMusic,myinterestinachievingahigherlevelofperformance

authenticityamongdrumsetstudentsledmetobeginresearchingareassuchasmusic

perceptionandpsychomotorlearningtheories.Thisresultedinafinalpaperthatoutlined

someinitialpedagogicalideasfocusedonaddressingthischallenge.Thisprojectinvolved

thefurtherdevelopmentofthesepedagogicalstrategiestoteachnotonlydrumset

performersbutalsootherinstrumentalistswhoarenon-nativeBrazilians.

OverviewoftheInitialPedagogicalFoundation

MyresearchandwritinginPsychologyofMusicfocusedonteachingdrumset

performanceofBrazilianpopularmusicstylesandresultedinthedevelopmentoftwo

mainlearningsequences:theVirtualLearningSequenceandtheMotorLearningSequence.

Eachofthosesequenceswasdesignedtodevelopdifferentcomponentsofthewholeskill

set.Itisimportanttoapproacheachcomponentseparatelybecause“ifthecomponentacts

ofatotalskillhavebeenpreviouslywelllearned,aminimalamountoftimemayhavetobe

spentinputtingthemtogether”(Gagné,1985,p.207).TheVirtualLearningSequence

intendstodevelopunderstandingofbothmusicalstyleandtheskillsinvolvedbycreating

associations,whichGagné(1977)claims“seemstooccurwithsuchfrequencythatit

deservestobecalledabasicprocess”(p.23). TheMotorLearningSequencedevelopsand

guidesthepracticeofmotorskills.ThissequenceisbasedonEdwinGordon’sMusic

LearningTheory,researchontheapproachtopracticestrategiesandtheirrelativeimpacts

onmotorskilldevelopment,brainhemispheresandstructuresusedduringeachtask,and

theroleofbreaksandsleepingintheconsolidationofmotorskills.

22

DuringthisprojectIfurtherdevelopedanddetailedbothlearningsequences,

focusingonhowtoteachBrazilianpopularmusicstylestonon-nativeBraziliansingeneral

andhowthosesequencesarecombinedduringthelearningprocesstoeffectivelydevelop

students’understandingandauthenticperformanceskills.Synthesisofthetwolearning

sequencesfacilitatesteachingstudentswhoplayinstrumentsthatrequirethecombination

oftwoormorepatternstocreateamorecomplexgroove;theseincludedrumset,piano,

guitar,andvibraphone.Inasimilarmanner,theblendingoflearningsequencesisessential

tointegratepatternsplayedbydifferentperformersinanensemblesetting.

Chapter4ofthedissertationprovidesadetailedpresentationandexplanationofthe

pedagogicalapproach.Figure3.1presentsanoutlineofthestructureoftheapproachand

contentofthechapter.

o VirtualLearningSequence§ Listening§ Audiating§ Vocalizing§ Motor-mimesis§ CognitiveMotor-Imaging§ MentalPractice

o MotorLearningSequence§ MotorSkillDevelopment§ PracticeStrategies

Figure3.1.ProposedoutlineofAPedagogicalApproachtoTeachingBrazilianPopularMusicStylestoNon-NativeMusicians.

Thepedagogicalapproachisfoundedonthepremisethateachmusicalstyleisalanguage

andthepatternsthatcharacterizeeachstylearethewordsthatconstituteitsbasic

vocabulary.Basedonthispremise,theVirtualLearningSequencefocusesondeveloping

thestylisticaspectsvialistening,audiation,andvocalization;andbuildingthefoundation

23

fortherequiredmotorskillsviamotor-mimesis,cognitivemotor-imaging,andmental

practice.Listeningdevelopsthemusicalbackground.Likelearninganewlanguage,when

studentslistentoaspecificmusicalstyle,theywillbelisteningtohowthewords(patterns)

areusedinthecontextandhowtheyfunctioninsidethelanguage(musicalstyle),helping

themtodevelopmoreautonomy.Audiationandvocalizationwereaddedtodevelop

understandingofmusicalpatternsthatareimportanttoeachmusicalstyle.“Sound

becomesmusicthroughaudiationwhen,aswithlanguage,wetranslatesoundsinourmind

andgivethemmeaning”(Gordon,2012,p.3).Vocalizingisimportantforretrievalofthe

learnedinformationanditalsoisa“fundamentalinstrumentforeverymusicianbecauseit

ismostcloselylinkedtothemusician’sear”(Ester,2005,p.1).Vocalizingisapproached

withthedevelopmentofasimplesyllablesystem,whichassistsstudentstoassociateand

vocalizethepatternswithappropriateinflections.

Motor-mimesis,cognitivemotor-imaging,andmentalpracticeconstitutethesecond

stageoftheVirtualLearningSequence.Motor-mimesisisaconceptbasedonatriangular

modelthatcreatesa“relationshipbetweenaction,visionandsoundinmusicperception

andcognition”(Godøy,2003,p.317).Itisdevelopedlikeaudiationbutformotor

movementsinsteadofmusicalunderstanding,whilecognitivemotor-imagingprovidesa

clearobjectivetobeachieved,andmentalpracticefunctionsasabridgeintotheMotor

LearningSequence.

TheMotorLearningSequencefocusesondevelopingtheactualmotorskills

requiredtoperformBrazilianpopularmusicstyles.Duringthispedagogicalapproach

studentsdevelopthesequenceinwhichpatternswillbelearnedandhowtoapproachthe

motorskillspracticebasedonpatterncomplexity,durationofpracticesession,useofbrain

24

hemispheresandstructures,andtheroleofbreaksandsleepingintransferringthelearned

materialintolongtermmemory.

InitialValidationofThePedagogicalApproach

Sincecompletingtheinitialresearchanddevelopmentofthedrumsetpedagogyto

teachBrazilianpopularmusicstyles,IhavebeenteachingBrazilianJazzensemblesaswell.

Ihaveappliedaspectsofthepedagogicalstrategiesduringtheensemblerehearsals.

Elementslikelistening,audiation,vocalization,watchingvideosofauthenticperformances,

motor-mimesis,andmentalpracticeseemedtobeeffectiveforthedevelopmentofmore

authenticperformancesonalloftheinstruments.Asupplementalcomponentofthis

projectsoughtinitialvalidationoftheapproachviathesolicitationofexpertobservations

oftheperformanceauthenticityofensemblespreparedusingtheapproach.Sample

recordingsofensemblespreparedusingthepedagogicalapproachwereinterposedwith

recordingsofnativeensemblesandnon-nativeensemblesthatwerenotexposedtothis

approach.OnceIRBapprovalwasobtained,asmallsampleofBrazilianpopularmusic

expertswereinvitedtolistentotherecordingsandcompleteabriefquestionnaire(see

AppendixC)thatsolicitedLikert-scaleratingsrelatedtotechnicalskillsandauthenticity.

ChapterSummary

ThelackofstylisticauthenticityinperformancesofBrazilianpopularmusicbynon-

nativemusiciansisasignificantandoften-citedissue.Thisdissertationprojectprovidesa

detailedpresentationandexplanationofaresearch-basedpedagogicalapproachto

teachingtheauthenticperformanceofBrazilianpopularmusicstylestonon-native

musicians.Asupplementalcomponentofthisprojectsoughtinitialvalidationofthe

approachviathesolicitationofexpertobservationsoftheperformanceauthenticityof

ensemblespreparedusingtheapproach.Thisprojectbenefitsnon-nativeBrazilian

25

musicianswhodesiretodevelopanin-depthunderstandingofhowtoperformBrazilian

popularmusicstylesandmusicteacherswhowishtoreduceoreliminatethegapof

stylisticauthenticitybetweennativeandnon-nativeperformersofBrazilianpopularmusic.

CHAPTER4THEPEDAGOGICALAPPROACH

Introduction

ThelackofstylisticauthenticityinperformancesofBrazilianpopularmusicbynon-

nativemusiciansisasignificantandoften-citedissue.SeveralnativeBrazilianmusicians

withwhomIhaveworkedintheUnitedStatesconsistentlycommentedthatthereisalarge

gapinthisperformanceauthenticitybetweennativeandnon-nativemusicians.This

projectwillbenefitnon-nativeBrazilianmusicianswhodesiretodevelopanin-depth

understandingofhowtoperformBrazilianpopularmusicstyles.Itwillalsobevaluablefor

musicteachers,providingthemwithpedagogicalstrategiestoreduceandpossibly

eliminatetheauthenticitygapbetweenthosetwogroups.Thispedagogicalapproach

providesin-depthguidanceonthedevelopmentofmusicawareness,authenticity,and

motorskillsinbothappliedlessonandensemblesettings.

Theapproachisdividedintotwomainlearningsequences:TheVirtualLearning

SequenceandTheMotorLearningSequence.Thefirsthasthepurposeofdevelopingmusical

understandingthroughlistening,audiating,vocalizing,observing,andmotor-mimesis.

Aftercompletingthosesteps,studentswillbeabletosynthesizethesefiveelementsinto

whatIlabelCognitiveMotor-Imaging(CMI):mentalimagerythatcombinesandassociates

thefivevirtual-learningelementsandservesasthefoundationforthemotorskill

development.CMIcombinesmusicalknowledgewithelementsofmotor–mimesis,

enhancingstudents’capacitytoeffectivelyusementalpracticethroughouttheentire

learningprocess.Thesecondsequence–theMotorLearningSequence–willdevelopthe

actualmotorskillsthroughtwomainsteps:motorskilldevelopmentinwhichmusical

27

patternsshouldbeapproachedinadeterminedorder,andthenpracticingeachmusical

patternseparatelythroughaseriesofstrategiesthatwilloptimizethetimespentoneach

task.Lastly,theVirtualandMotorlearningsequenceswillinterweave,creatingstrategies

tocombinemultiplepatterns,solidifyingconceptsandtechniques,andprogressively

developingmorecomplexskills,independentthinking,andhigherlevelsofauthenticityfor

eachstyleofBrazilianpopularmusic.

WhenapproachingBrazilianpopularmusicstyles,whichtypicallyinvolveseveral

overlappingrhythmicpatternsplayedonpercussioninstruments,musiciansarerequired

tonotonlyplaywhatisonthepagebutalsounderstandeachpatternpresentinthewhole

structure.Inaddition,itisnecessarytounderstandtheculturalaspectsofthespecificstyle

andhowitisplayedinitsoriginalsettinginordertoenrichperformancesandreach

authenticity.Itisimportanttoconsiderhowperception,cognition,culturalexperience,and

personalbackgroundaffectthelearningofthematerialandhowtoeffectivelytransferthe

patternsfromtheoriginalsettingtoagiveninstrumentaswellastotheoverallensemble

setting.Likewise,associationswillbecreatedconnectingeachstepofthelearningprocess.

“Associationisoneoftheprocessesthatoccursinlearning.Furthermore,associationseems

tooccurwithsuchfrequencythatitdeservestobecalledabasicprocess”(Gagné,1977,p.

23).BecausemanyBraziliangenresarederivedfrompercussionsettingsand/ordeveloped

fromstylesoriginallysetforpercussiononly,theyofteninvolvecomplexrhythmic

patterns.Studentsandinstructorswhoplayand/orteachdrumset,piano,guitar,bass

guitar,andotherrhythmsectioninstrumentswillfaceimportantdecisions.Such

instrumentsoftencombinerhythmicpatternstocreategrooves,whichmayormaynotbe

appropriateforagivensituation.Therefore,decisionsshouldbemadeaboutwhichgrooves

areappropriateand/orthebestfitforeachsetting.Choiceoftimbresmightbeinvolvedas

28

well,inanefforttobestdepicttheoriginalpercussioninstrumentsonthevariousrhythm

instruments.Thatisespeciallyimportantfordrumset,whichistheclosestinstrumentto

theoriginalsettings.Melodicinstrumentswillhaveacompletelydifferentrole,ofcourse,

butthosemusiciansmustalsoacquirein-depthknowledgeoffeel,inflections,andmain

patternsthatcharacterizeeachstyle.Thoseelementsoftengetlostduringthedevelopment

ofdemandingmotorskills,leadingstudentstobecometechnicallyproficientbutwith

limitedauthenticityandmusicalawareness.Therefore,thispedagogicalapproachis

designedtooptimizethetimespentontheprocessoflearningBrazilianpopularmusic

stylesbydevelopingdepthinauthenticity,musicalawareness,andmotorskillsthrougha

seriesofresearch-basedsteps.Studentswilldevelopauthenticityandmusicalawareness

first,thenapplythatknowledgeduringthemotorskilldevelopment.Thissequencewill

allowstudentstodevelopasenseofcontextualizationandbecomeabletocreatetheirown

generalizationsineachstyleapproached.

OverviewofthePedagogicalApproach

Itwillbehelpfulforthereadertofirstencounterageneraloverviewoftheentire

processandbecomefamiliarwiththemainstepsoftheapproach.Eachstepisrelatively

shortandthestepsmustoccurinthesequenceinwhichtheyarepresented;however,

somewilloccurinanalmostsimultaneousmanner.ThemainstepsoftheVirtualLearning

SequenceandtheMotorLearningSequencecanbeseeninFigure4.1,whichisdesignedto

provideanoverviewofthepedagogicalstepsthatleadtoanauthenticperformance.Prior

toanymotorskilldevelopmentandphysicalpractice,studentsshouldbecomefullyaware

ofeveryaspectofwhattheyaretryingtoachieve.Therefore,bothinstructorsandstudents

shouldfollowthedetailedinstructionsforeachstepoftheVirtualLearningSequence(VLS)

beforeapproachingtheMotorLearningSequence(MLS).

29

• VirtualLearningSequenceo Listeningo Audiatingo Vocalizingo Observingandmotor-mimesiso CognitiveMotor-Imaging(CMI)o Mentalpractice

• MotorLearningSequenceo Motorskilldevelopmento Practicestrategies

Figure4.1.Generalsummaryofthepedagogicalapproach.

TheoverallgoalofthispedagogicalapproachistousetheVirtualLeaningSequence

tocreateastrongandin-depthfoundationwherethestudentswillhaveallthetools

necessarytounderstandthemusictheyarelearning,understandhowthesoundsare

produced,anddeveloptheactualmotorskills.Itisalsoimportantthatstudentsunderstand

andlearntheprocess,sotheycanuseitineverydaypracticetobecomeindependent

musicians.Myexperiencesasateacherhaveledmetoconcludethatitisveryeffectiveto

brieflyexplainthisapproachtothestudentspriortotheactualteachingofanyBrazilian

popularmusicstyle.HereisabrieftranscriptionofwhatItellmystudentsbeforewestart

workingonthemusic:

Thefirststeptolearnthisstyleistolistentomanysongsinthestyle.First,

youcanlistentotheplaylistwhiledoingotheractivitiessuchaswalking,

cooking,workingout,etc.Afterthat,wewillbreakdownthestyletoitsbasic

patternstolearneachoneseparately,soyoucanunderstandthe“words”

[patterns]thatconstitutesthislanguage[style].Afterbecomingfamiliarwith

thebasicpatterns,youwilllistentosongsagainandtrytorecognizesuch

patterns;however,somevariationsmayhappenandIwillprovidefurther

30

guidance.Afterlistening,wewillselectonepatterntoworkonandwewill

followseveralstepstodevelopthispattern.Afterlisteningtotheselected

pattern,youwillaudiateit,meaninglistentoitinyourheadwithoutthe

soundbeingphysicallypresent.Itissimilartohavingasongstuckinyour

head.Afteraudiating,youwillsingthepatternwithsyllablesthatare

assignedtoit.Sometimes,youwillrealizeyouarenotsingingitthewayyou

hearitinyourhead[audiate],butyouwilltryagainuntilyoudo.Thenext

stepistoassociatesoundswithmotions.Forexample,ifsomeoneknockson

ourdoor,wewillnotseeithappening,butweknow,basedonwhatwehear,

howthatsoundwasproduced,correct?ConverselyifIdothis[movemy

handlikeknockingonthedoor]youwouldbeabletoaudiatetheresulting

sound,correct?Youaudiatedthesoundandyouassociateditwiththe

motion.Wewillbuildthesameconnectionsbetweenmusicalpatternsand

technique,associatingmotionswiththespecificsoundswearetryingto

produce.Whenyouareabletohaveallthoseelementsinyourmind

(listening,audiating,vocalizingwithsyllables,andassociatingmotionswith

sounds),youhaveamentalimageryofwhatyouaretryingtoachieve.During

thepracticetimeyouwilltrytoreproducethatimageusingstrategiesthat

willoptimizethetimespentinthepracticeroom.

Theprecedingnarrativeisanintroductoryexplanationofeachstepandithelps

studentswiththeirfirstcontactwiththispedagogicalapproachusedtoteachBrazilian

popularmusicstyles.ThereadershouldkeeptheoverallstructurefromFigure4.1inmind

andrevisititfrequentlytobecomefamiliarwiththemainsteps.Eachnewpattern

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presentedwillbelearnedthroughthesameprocessoflistening,audiating,vocalizing,and

associatingsoundswithmotionsbycreatingamentalpicture.ThisCognitiveMotor-Image

(orCM-image)willserveasthefoundationforbothmentalpracticeandactualphysical

practiceintheMLS.Thispedagogicalapproachisusedinacycle,repeatingitselfforevery

newpattern.Moreover,itisalsousedtocombinepatterns,creatingcomplexgrooves

composedoftwoormoresimultaneouspatterns,dependingontheinstrumentthestudent

plays.Thefollowingpagespresentin-depthinformationabouteachstepoftheVirtualand

Motorlearningsequences,resultinginacomprehensiveapproachtoteachingBrazilian

popularmusicstylesindifferentsettings.

TheVirtualLearningSequence

TheVirtualLearningSequence(VLS)isdesignedtodevelopmusicalawareness,

authenticity,andassociationsbetweensoundandactions.TheVLSiscompletedpriorto

anyphysicalpracticeandtechnicaldevelopment.Itsstepsenablestudentstodevelopa

seriesofassociationstofacilitatetheeventualmotorskilldevelopment.Thestepsofthe

VLS,asshowninFigure4.2,arelistening,audiating,vocalizing,observingandmotor-

mimesis,cognitivemotor-imaging,andmentalpractice.Althoughmentalpracticeispartof

thissequence,itshouldbeconsideredasaconnectorbetweentheVLSandtheMLS.The

VLSisdesignedtodevelopaspectsrelatedtoauthenticityanditdoesnotincludephysical

practiceandmotorskilldevelopment.Eachstepdevelopsspecificskillsthatarerequiredto

achieveanauthenticperformanceandeventuallyassociateitwithmotionsandtechnique,

butthisdoesnotyetincludeactualphysicalpractice.Listeningdevelopsmusical

backgroundandvocabulary.Audiationdevelopsmusicalawarenessandanincreased

understandingofhoweachpatternshouldsoundwithinthestyle.Vocalizingismeantto

developproperpatterninflectionandassistinstoringlearnedinformationinlong-term

32

memory.Observingandmotor-mimesiscreatesassociationsbetweensoundsandthe

techniquethatproduceseachsound.Cognitivemotor-imagingisasynthesisoftheprior

steps:Studentsdevelopamentalimageryofthemselvesperformingwhileaudiatingthe

soundassociatedwithaparticularpattern.Oncethisimageiscreated,studentswill

mentallypracticeeachpatternbeforemovingtotheMLS.

TheVirtualLearningSequence• Listening

o Passivelisteningo Patternlisteningo Recognitionlistening

• Audiating• Vocalizing• ObservingandMotor-mimesis

o Imitatingo Motor-mimesis

• CognitiveMotor-Imaging(CMI)• Mentalpractice

Figure4.2.TheVirtualLearningSequence.

Listening

Thefirststepindevelopinganauthenticperformanceistolistentomusic;thiswill

developthenecessarymusicalbackgroundandallowperformerstostartcontextualizing

themusicalelements.Audiofilescorrespondingtothefiguresinthisdocumentcanbe

foundat:

https://soundcloud.com/bruno-cabrera-40190673/sets/doctoral-dissertation-audio-examples

Theseaudioexampleswillbeextremelyhelpfulduringthelearningprocess.Eachspecific

stylewillrequireguidedlisteningtosongsthatarerepresentativeaswell.Forexample,

“GarotadeIpanema”(GirlfromIpanema)isoneofthemostrepresentativetunesofthe

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bossanovastyle.AlisteningguideisincludedinAppendixAtoassistthereaderwiththis

step.

Asthestudentsstarttheirstudies,thefirststepistobeexposedtothestyleand

listentoasmanyrecordingsaspossible.Theculturehasanimportantroleinthe

developmentofthemusicalexperienceofeachindividual;many“cognitivepsychologists

wouldadmitthatcultureplayssomesignificantroleintheactions,thoughts,andfeelings

thatareinvolvedinmusicalexperience”(Tan,Pfordrescher&Harré,2010,p.281).Also,

listeningwillhelptodevelopmusicalvocabularybecausethe“moretonalpatternsand

rhythmicpatternsstudentshaveintheirlistening,performance,andaudiation

vocabularies,thebettertheywillconceptualizefromandformgeneralizationsaboutmusic

theyhearorproduce”(Gordon,2012,p.99).Likelearninganewlanguage,whenstudents

listentoadeterminedstyle,theywillbelisteningtohowthewords(patterns)areusedin

thecontextandhowtheyfunctioninsidethelanguage(musicalstyle),helpingthem

developmoreautonomy.Toassistthevocabularydevelopment,thisdocumentoffersa

seriesofpatternsforthefiveBrazilianpopularmusicstylesaddressedinthispedagogical

approach.AppendixBpresentsabasicvocabularyforsamba,bossanova,choro,baião,and

maracatu.Sampleaudiofilesofeachofthesepatternscanbeaccessedat:

https://soundcloud.com/bruno-cabrera-40190673/sets/doctoral-dissertation-audio-examples

MostoftheVLStreatsamusicalstyleasifitwerealanguage:eachcomponent,as

partofthefullskillset,willbecarefullydeveloped.AccordingtoGagné(1985),“ifthe

componentactsofatotalskillhavebeenpreviouslywelllearned,aminimalamountoftime

mayhavetobespentinputtingthemtogether”(p.207).Thelisteningcomponentis

importantfortworeasons.First,itwillallowstudentstoaudiate:“weaudiatesoundonly

afterwehaveaurallyperceivedit”(Gordon,2012,p.3).Second,itprovidestheexperience

34

necessarytotrulyunderstandthemusicalstyle.NativeBrazilianmusiciansareexposedto

themusicalcultureeveryday.AsanativeBrazilianwhogrewupinthecountry,I

experienceddailyexposuretothemostvariedtypesofpopularmusicstylesinthestreets,

stores,bars,andtheatersandonthetelevisionandradio.Thisinvoluntaryexposurehelps

tocreatearichmusicalbackgroundthattranslatestofacilitationduringthelearning

process,providingelementsthatcontributetoauthenticity.InBrazil,thepeopleare

exposedtomanydifferentmusicalstyleseveryday.Whentranslatingthisinformallearning

toaformalinstructionalsetting,however,itisimportanttofocusononlyonestyleata

timetoavoidconfusionamongtheuniquemusicalpatterns.Forexample,ifthestudentis

learningaboutsamba,itiscrucialthatthisstudentisexposedtosambaenredo,whichisthe

musicplayedbythesambaschoolsfromRiodeJaneiroandSãoPaulo.Thesambaenredois

mostlyperformedbyBrazilianpercussioninstrumentsaccompaniedbystringinstruments

suchasguitar,cavaquinho(Braziliansmallguitarsimilartoaukulele),bandolim(Brazilian

versionofthemandolin),andvoice.Regardlessofwhichinstrumentthestudentplays,the

sambaenredocontainsmusicalpatternsthatmustbecomepartofthemusician’s

vocabulary.Additionally,studentsmustbeexposedtogroupsandartistswhoperform

othervariationsofsambaindifferentmusicalsettings,therebyhelpingtoexpandtheir

vocabulary.Duetotheiruniquetraits,styleslikebossanovaandchoroshouldbe

approachedseparately;theyaredifferentdialects(tocontinuethelanguagemetaphor)and

maysoundsimilaroreventhesametonoviceears.Samba,bossanova,andchoroshare

severalrhythmicpatterns,buttheyaresignificantlydifferentininflection.Theproper

inflectionofpatternswillgeneratetherightfeelofthestyle,makingitauthentic.Forthe

purposesofthispedagogicalapproach,inflectionreferencesthefactthat,withinagiven

musicalpattern,somenotesareslightlystrongerorweakerthanothers.Likeinlanguage,

35

differentwordsinasentencecanbeemphasizedtoslightlychangethemeaningofthe

sentence.Forexample,takethephrase“heisplayingmusic.”Sayitoutaloudseveraltimes,

emphasizingadifferentwordeachtime.First,“HEisplayingmusic,”then“heISplaying

music,”then“heisPLAYINGmusic,”andfinally“heisplayingMUSIC.”Althoughitisthe

samephrasewiththesamewords,theoverallmeaningmaychangedependingonwhich

wordhasastrongerinflection.Thesamehappenswithmusicandmusicalpatterns.

Inflectionshouldbecarefullyapproachedandunderstoodsothatstudentscanreacha

higherlevelofauthenticityineachstyle.Thiscanbeadifficultconcepttodevelop;

therefore,thelisteningguideofeachstylemustbecarefullychosen(seeAppendixBfora

suggestedlisteningguide).Thelisteningportionisdividedintouniquethreesteps:passive

listening,patternlistening,andrecognitionlistening.

Passivelistening.First,studentsshouldlistentoauthenticmusictobecome

familiarwiththestyleandestablishabasicbackground.Thisshouldfocusonlisteningto

BrazilianmusicplayedbynativeBrazilianmusicianssothatperformerscanlistentothe

mostauthenticsources;however,thefactthatamusiciangrewupinBrazilandplays

Brazilianstylesisnottheonlyelementthatbringsauthenticity.Therepertoiremust

containrenownedmusicianswhoarerepresentativeandcontributedtothedevelopment

ofthestyle.Insimpleterms,thisisapassivestepwherestudentsneedtolistentomusic

andbeexposedasmuchaspossible.Passivelisteningdoesnotrequirelistenerstobefully

attentivetothemusic;theycanlistenwhiledoingotheractivitiessuchasdishes,laundry,

homework,etc.Thisstepisaboutbeingexposedtoratherthanstudyingthemusic;thiswill

providethebasisforfutureassociationsandforaudiation.Themoreexposure,theeasierit

willbecometoaudiateandcontextualizemusicalpatterns;therefore,itisrecommended

36

thatstudentslistentothemusicalstyletheyarelearningeveryday,regardlessofwhich

stageofthelearningprocesstheyarein.

Patternlistening.Thesecondlisteningstepistoisolatethemainpatternsand

listentothemseparately(seeAppendixBandaccessaudiofiles).Forexample,students

learninghowtoplaymaracatuwouldhavetheirinstructorbreakitdowntoitsmain

patternsandlistentohoweachoneofthemisplayed,sothattheylearnaboutsubtle

inflectionsofeachpatternandthefeelofthestyle.Keepinmindthatsomestylesmayhave

considerablevariationsthatcreatesub-genres,suchasmaracatudebaqueviradoor

maracatudemarcação.Thepatternscanbepresentedtothestudentsinmanyways:short

samples,instructorperformsforthestudentduringalesson,etc.

Recognitionlistening.Thefinalstepofthelisteningportionistolistentosongs

again.ThelisteningguideinAppendixAprovidesrepresentativerepertoireandcanbe

usedagainduringthisstep.Studentswillactivelylistentothetunesfromthelistening

guide,nowattemptingtorecognizethepatternsincontextthattheypreviouslylistenedto

inisolationwhilebeingattentivetopossiblevariations.Assistancefromaninstructor

and/ormoreexperiencedplayerswillbeimportantduringthisstep.Thistypeofrelation

is,accordingtoVygotsky(1978),thezoneofproximaldevelopment(ZPD):“Thedistance

betweentheactualdevelopmentallevelasdeterminedbyindependentproblemsolving

andthelevelofpotentialdevelopmentasdeterminedthroughproblemsolvingunderadult

guidanceorincollaborationwithmorecapablepeers”(p.86).BecausemostBrazilian

popularmusicstyleshavetheirmainpatternsplayedandvariedinwaysthateven

experiencednativeperformersmayhavedifficultyrecognizing,thistypeofguidancewill

beessentialtostudentswhomustrecognizepatterns,variations,andcharacterizing

aspectssuchasinflectionsandfeel.AnotherimportantcharacteristicofmanyBrazilian

37

popularmusicstylesisthatpatternsarenotplayedandrepeatedthroughoutthesongs

(liketheclavepatternisinsomeLatinmusicstyles,forexample).Whenperforming

Brazilianpopularmusic,ifthereisarecurrentpatternthatisnotvariedorchangedatall

duringanentiresong,thatsongwillgenerallylackauthenticity.Whilethereareexceptions

tothis,patternvariationisanimportantelementforauthenticityanditispresentmore

oftenthannot.

Audiating

Audiationwillhelpstudentsattachmeaningtomusicandmusicalpatterns.

Audiation“takesplacewhenonehearsmusicsilently,thatis,whenthesoundisnot

physicallypresent”(Gordon,2012,p.11).Itisimportantformusiciansingeneraland

shouldbeencouragedbyteachersinordertofullydevelopstudents’musicalpotential.

“Soundbecomesmusicthroughaudiationwhen,aswithlanguage,wetranslatesoundsin

ourmindandgivethemmeaning,”andaudiationis“integraltobothmusicaptitudeand

musicachievement”(Gordon,2012,p.3).Itmightseemoddthatitwouldbepossibleto

givemeaningtoseveralrhythmicpatternsinisolation;however,thatisexactlywherethe

mainissueresideswhenitcomestoauthenticity.Manymusicianswithenoughmusic

readingandcoordinationskillscouldperformBrazilianpopularmusicgroovesfroma

methodbook,playingalongwithrecordings–butwouldthataloneproduceauthentic

performances?Withoutcreatingamusicalbackgroundanddevelopingaudiationskills,

musicalpatterns,melodiclines,orevenchordchangesarejusttechnicalelementsthat

alonewillnotgeneratemusicandstyle.“Beingabletopressthecorrectkeysonthepiano

orclarinetinresponsetonotation,forexample,doesnotconfirmthattheperformercan

audiatethemusic”(Ester,2005,p.1).Forexample,considertheexampleofamusic

instructorteachingjazzondrumsettoaBrazilianoranon-nativeAmericanstudent

38

throughamethodbook.Assumingthisstudenthasnotechnicalissuesandisaproficient

musicreader,itwouldbesafetoassumethisstudentwouldlikelybeabletoreproduce

whatisonthepagerhythmicallycorrect.SeeFigure4.3foranexampleofajazzexerciseon

drumset.

Figure4.3.One-measurejazzexerciseondrumset.

Nowconsideranotherstudentwhohadneverheardofjazzandhadneverlistenedtojazz

tunes.ThestudentmightbeabletoperformtheexampleinFigure4.3;however,wouldshe

playwithswingsincethereisnothingthatreferencesthat?Wouldsheperformbeatstwo

andfourwiththeappropriatefeelofthestyle?Lastly,wouldthestudentknowthat,onbeat

two,boththetopandthebottomvoicesaresupposedtobeplayedexactlythesameeven

thoughtheyarenotateddifferently?Veryunlikely.Thelisteningstepwillhelpstudents

developtherequisitebackgroundandallowthemtoaudiatetheexercisespresentedonthe

pageandthemusictheyarelearning,leadingtoamoreauthenticperformanceofeach

Brazilianmusicstyletheyapproach.

Developmentofmeaning.Inordertodevelopmeaningwithmusicalpatterns,one

canrelateaudiationtotheactofreadingabook.Whenreadingthetext,wordsimmediately

becomemeaningfultotheeducatedreader.Thereaderisaudiatingthewords,phrases,and

paragraphs.Thesameshouldhappenwhilereadingmusic:patternsareparalleltowords,

whileindividualnotesareparalleltosingleletters.Ifonetriestoreadatextletter-by-

letter,itwouldnotbeaveryE-F-F-E-C-T-I-V-Eapproachtoreadingandwouldnotfacilitate

comprehension.Thesameappliestomusicwhenmusicianstrytoreadeachsinglenote

39

ratherthantherhythmicpatternsand/ormelodicmotives.Bylisteningtoisolated

patterns,thestudentswillbecomeadeptataudiatingthemwithproperinflectionsand

stylisticfeel–inshort,withmeaning.

Solidifyingrhythmicpatterns.Rhythmicpatternsarefundamentaltoany

Brazilianpopularmusicstyleand“themannerinwhicheachrhythmpatternisaudiated

andperformed,inassociationtosomedegreewithtonequality,melodicandharmonic

implications,dynamics,andtempo,contributesformativelytoestablishingstyleinmusic”

(Gordon,2012,p.174).Duringthisstage,itisimportanttokeeplisteningtorecordingsand

startaudiatingpatternsseparatelytocreateastrongandauthenticbackground.Froman

instructor’sperspectiveitisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,toassessifstudentsareaudiating

thepatternscorrectly;however,itisnecessarytoencouragethemtodosoandgivethem

timetothinkandcreatetheirownideasaboutthepatternstheyheardduringthelistening

step.Keepinmindthataudiationisonlypossibleafterbeingexposedthroughlistening,

andthemoreexposuretheeasieritwillbetoaudiate.

Vocalizing

VocalizingwillbeanimportanttoolforstudentswhoarelearningBrazilianpopular

musicstyles.Theyshouldbeencouragedtovocalizeandsingtheirpartsinorderto

retrieveandsolidifytherecentlylearnedmaterials.Everystudent,regardlessofwhich

instrumenttheyplay,shouldbeencouragedtovocalizethebasicrhythmicpatternsplayed

bypercussioninstruments.Vocalizingthepatternsisextremelyimportantsince“the

singingvoiceisthefundamentalinstrumentforeverymusicianbecauseitismostclosely

linkedtothemusician’sear”(Ester,2005,p.1).Thevocalizationstepshouldbe

approachedimmediatelyafteraudiation.First,studentsshouldbegiventimetoaudiate

whattheyheardandthenaskedtovocalizewhattheyjustaudiated.Theaudiationstep

40

focusesonlisteningandwillallowthedevelopmentofmusicalunderstanding,while

vocalizingconfirmsretrievaloflearnedinformation.“Inordertobeverifiedaslearned,

entitiesmustberetrievedfromlong-termmemory.Itisgenerallysupposedthatthe

processcalledretrievalrequiresthatcertaincuesbeprovided,eitherbytheexternal

situationorbythelearner”(Gagné,1977,p.73).Whenstudentsorperformersvocalizethe

rhythmicpatternsofaspecificBrazilianpopularmusicstyle,instructorsandthestudents

themselvescanverifythatthematerialwaslearnedproperly.

Vocalizingwithasyllablesystem.Theuseofaneffectivesyllablesystemforthe

vocalizationofpatternsisveryimportanttotheprocessofassociation.Severalsyllable

systemsareusedinmusiceducation.Afewexamplesincludetakadimiorcountingfor

rhythmpatternsandvarioustonalsystemsthatapplysolfege:fixeddoormoveabledowith

do-andla-basedminoroptions,forexample.Thesesystemshelpstudentsmake

associations,learn,andreinforcelearnedmaterials.InBrazilianstylestheuseofsyllables

arealsoverycommon.Severalwordsarelooselyusedasmusicaltermsandassociated

withspecificpatternsorstyles.Wordslikeziriguidum,maracatuandtelecoteco,whichare

notactualtermsinBrazilianstyles,canbeassociatedwithdifferentpatternsandmusical

styles.Telecoteco(pronouncedteh-leh-coh-teh-coh)iscommonlyusedinsambaandit

“canbethoughtofasanequivalenttotheclaveinAfro-Cubanmusic.Oftenimpliedandnot

heard,itisanorganizingpatternthatfunctionsasatimeline”(Monteiro,2015,p.52).

Telecotecoisanonomatopoeicvocalizationofthetamborim(Braziliandrum)pattern,

whichisusedasshowninFigure4.4.

Figure4.4.Telecotecopattern. Accessaudiosamples

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The“Te”and“Le”syllablesfallontheactualwrittennotes,whichareusuallyplayedwitha

stick,whileallthe“co”syllablesfallontheremaining16th-note-subdivisions,whichare

usuallytappedbythemiddlefingerofthehandholdingtheinstrument.Thisistheonly

patterninsambathathassyllablesattached,anditcanbehelpfulduringthelearning

process.Therefore,atthisstagestudentsshouldbegivenaseriesofsyllablesthatwillbe

associatedwithspecificsounds.Duringmyteachingcareer,Ihavedevelopedthesyllable

systemshowninTable4.1;theseareonomatopoeicsoundsassociatednotonlywiththe

instrumentbutalsowithproperinflections.AccesstheaudiosamplesforTable4.1tohear

thepronunciationofthesyllables.

Table4.1

RhythmVocalizationSyllables

Syllables Instrumentsassociated

Tu 1st,2ndand3rdsurdos,alfaia,zabumbalowersound(lowdrums)

Tum 1stand3rdsurdos,alfaia,zabumbalowertone(lowdrums)

Ts Chocalho,shequere(shakers),

K Chocalho,shequere(shakers),triangle

TeLecoTeco Tamborim(smallframedrumtraditionalfromBrazil)

Ke Gongue(Instrumentsimilartoacowbell)

Pa tarol,caixa(typesofsnaredrum),zabumbahighertone,

Bzz Tarol,caixa(whenrollingontheseinstruments)

T Chocalho,shequere(shakers),triangle

Tin Triangle

Gi Triangle

Keh Highertonesofwoodblocksandagogobells

Koh Lowertonesofwoodblockandagogobells

42

Thesyllablesarecombinedindifferentwaysdependingonwhichpatternisbeinglearned.

Idevelopedthissystemtohelpstudentsunderstandtheproperinflectionofeachpattern,

whichwillhelpnotonlywithestablishingassociationsandstoringthelearnedmaterialin

long-termmemorybutalsowithdevelopingauthenticity.Forexample,acommonpattern

ofthe3rdsurdo(lowdrumusedinsamba)isshowninFigure4.5.Althoughthisisonlyone

drum,thepatternwillhavedifferentsyllablesdependingonitsinflection.

Figure4.5.3rdsurdopattern. Accessaudiosamples

Tofullyunderstandtheapplicationandpronunciationofthesyllables,itwillbevery

helpfultolistentoaudiosamples.Eachfigurethatrequiresvocalizationandispartofthe

vocabularyhasacorrespondingaudiosampleat:

https://soundcloud.com/bruno-cabrera-40190673/sets/doctoral-dissertation-audio-examples

Also,thevocabularypatternsinAppendixBcanbeaccessedonthissamewebpage.The

followingexplanationsaresimplyattemptstoclarifytheuseofthesyllablesandtheir

associationswithspecificsoundsandpatterninflections;theaudiosampleswillbethebest

guidanceforunderstandingandmakingclearsyllabicassociations.Theaudioandvisual

materialsare,perhaps,evenmoreimportantthananyattemptatwrittenorverbal

explanationbecausemusic“isanaural,aesthetic,nonverbal,perceptual-motorskill”

(Kohut,1985,p.8).Visualmaterialscanbeanysourceinwhichthestudentcanseehow

somethingisperformed.Examplesofvisualmaterialsareinstructormodeling,YouTube

videos,andliveperformances.Eachsyllableisassociatedwithatypeofsound:forexample,

43

thesyllable“Tu”isassociatedwithashortnoteonlowdrums,whilethesyllable“Tum”–

alsoassociatedwithlowdrums–willrepresentalongnotewithmoreweighttoit.Note

that,forourpurposes,thewordweightisreferringdirectlytotheemphasisthatrelatesto

theinflectionwithinapattern.Injazz,forexample,beats2and4havemoreweightthan

beats1and3.Regardlessofthestyle,thesetwosyllablesshouldbeassociatedwithlow

drums.Ifthestudentisworkingonsamba,thesyllables“Tu”and“Tum”willbeusedto