Teaching Grammar Selection of the most Appropriate

Method

Fatima JAFRI Habib Public SCHOOL

Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language. It can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the richness of expression available in English. And it can help everyone--not only teachers of English, but teachers of anything, for all teaching is ultimately a matter of getting to grips with meaning.

David Crystal,"In Word and Deed,"

(TES Teacher, April 30, 2004)

Grammar and Its Teaching: Challenging the Myths

Diane Larsen-Freeman, School for International Training (VT)

1. Grammar is acquired naturally; it need not be taught.

2. Grammar is a collection of meaningless forms. 3. Grammar consists of arbitrary rules.

4. Grammar is boring.

5. Students have different learning styles. Not all students can learn grammar.

6. Grammar structures are learned one at a time.

7. Grammar has to do only with sentence-level and subsentence-level phenomena.

8. Grammar and vocabulary are areas of knowledge. Reading, writing, speaking, and listening are the four skills.

9. Grammars provide the rules/explanations for all the structures in a language.

10. "I don't know enough to teach grammar."

Language learners are often frustrated by the disconnect between knowing the rules of grammar and being able to apply those rules automatically in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. This disconnect reflects a separation between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge.

·    Declarative knowledge is knowledge about something. Declarative knowledge enables a student to describe a rule of grammar and apply it in pattern practice drills.

·  Procedural knowledge is knowledge of how to do something. Procedural knowledge enables a student to apply a rule of grammar in communication.

E.g: Declarative knowledge is what you have when you read and understand the instructions for programming the DVD player. Procedural knowledge is what you demonstrate when you program the DVD player.

Procedural knowledge does not translate automatically into

declarative knowledge; many native speakers can use their

language clearly and correctly without being able to state the

rules of its grammar. Likewise, declarative knowledge does

not translate automatically into procedural knowledge;

students may be able to state a grammar rule, but

consistently fail to apply the rule when speaking or writing.

Inductive approach and Deductive approach The more traditional of the two theories, is the deductive approach, while the emerging and more modern theory, is the inductive approach. (Goner, Phillips, and Walters 135-136).With Inductive approach, the teacher's role is to provide meaningful contexts to encourage demonstration of the rule, while the students evolve the rules from the examples of its use and continued practice (Rivers and Temperley 110).Following Stern(1992:150), we can represent the deductive and inductive sequences schematically in the following way:

Deductive approach: General rule → Specific examples → Practice

Inductive approach: Specific examples → Practice → General rule

The deductive approach represents a more traditional style

of teaching in that the grammatical structures or rules are

dictated to the students first (Rivers and Temperley 110).

Thus, the students learn the rule and apply it only after they

have been introduced to the rule. For example, if the structure

to be presented is present perfect, the teacher would begin the

lesson by saying, "Today we are going to learn how to use the

present perfect structure". Then, the rules of the present

perfect structure would be outlined and the students would

complete exercises, in a number of ways, to practice using the

structure. (Goner, Phillips, and Walters 135) In this approach,

the teacher is the center of the class and is responsible for all

of the presentation and explanation of the new material.

The inductive approach represents a more modern style of teaching where the new grammatical structures or rules are presented to the students in a real language context (Goner, Phillips, and Walters 135). The students learn the use of the structure through practice of the language in context, and later realize the rules from the practical examples.

For example, if the structure to be presented is the comparative form, the teacher would begin the lesson by drawing a figure on the board and saying, "This is Jim. He is tall." Then, the teacher would draw another taller figure next to the first saying, "This is Bill. He is taller than Jim." The teacher would then provide many examples using students and items from the classroom, famous people, or anything within the normal daily life of the students, to create an understanding of the use of the structure. The students repeat after the teacher, after each of the different examples, and eventually practice the structures meaningfully in groups or pairs.

Covert grammar teaching means that grammatical facts are

hidden from the students- even though they are learning the

language. Students may be asked to do any activity where a

new grammar is presented or introduced, but their attention will

be drawn to this activity not to the grammar.

Overt grammar teaching means that the teacher actually

provides the students grammatical rules and explanations-the

information is openly presented.

With overt teaching grammatical rules are explicitly given to

students, but with covert teaching students are simply asked to

work with new language to absorb grammatical information

which will help them to acquire the language as a whole.

Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry- based instruction

and is considered a constructivist based approach to

education. It is supported by the work of learning theorists and

psychologists Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Seyour Papert.

Although this form of instruction has great popularity, there is

some debate in the literature concerning its efficacy (Mayer,

2004).

Discovery Learning takes place in problem solving situations

where the learner draws on his own experience and prior

knowledge and is a method of instruction through which

students interact with their environment by exploring and

manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and

controversies, or performing experiments.

Grammar teaching should be implicit

In the early 20th century, Jespersen, like Boas, thought

grammar should be studied by examining living speech rather

than by analyzing written documents. By providing grammar in

context, in an implicit manner, we can expose students to

substantial doses of grammar study without alienating them to

the learning of English or other foreign language. I also agree

with this implicit approach of teaching grammar. The principal

manner in which I accomplish this is by teaching short

grammar-based sessions immediately followed by additional

function-based lessons in which the new grammar / structure is

applied in context.

Acquisition vs. Learning:

The hypothesis is that adult language students have two

distinct ways of developing skills and knowledge in a second

language, acquisition and learning. Acquiring a language is

"picking it up" i.e., developing ability in a language by using it

in natural, communicative situations. Learning language differs

in that it is "knowing the rules" and having a conscious

knowledge of grammar / structure. Adults acquire language,

although usually not as easily or as well as children.

Acquisition, however, is the most important means for gaining

linguistic skills. A person's first language (L1) is primarily

learned in this way. This manner of developing language skills

typically employs implicit grammar teaching and learning.

Grammar teaching should be explicit

This does not exclude explicit grammar-teaching entirely, however. In cases where features of English grammar are diametrically opposed or in some other way radically different from the manner of expression in the student's L1, explicit teaching may be required.

An exclusive approach using either implicit or explicit methodologies is not as effective as utilizing one or the other of these approaches as required. There is no one best way to introduce and provide practice in them. Young learners have more natural facility in acquisition, while adults may benefit substantially from more "formal" language learning. Learning styles and intelligence strengths are also a significant factor.

Descriptive grammar and Prescriptive grammar

Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers.

Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used.

Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules-but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar (called linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers) lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language.

Functional grammar has following three specific features:

•Firstly, it is based on the notion of choice - it models grammar as a set of options (a repertoire or resource). This means that it presents grammar to teachers and students as a set of tools they can use rather than a set of rules about what not to do.

Secondly, functional grammar looks at the way in which grammar is used to construct texts in their context of use - it is concerned in other words with real language not just with the made up examples of language that can be found in many language tests, exercises, work sheets or traditional grammar books. Its application is not restricted to the analysis of isolated sentences - it explains the way in which sentences are structured to construct whole texts such as stories, essays and reports which students learn to read and write in primary and secondary school.

Thirdly, functional grammar is concerned with the way in which grammar is organised to make meaning. Because it is concerned with meaning, it can be related directly to the concerns of teachers and students in all subject areas.

Three levels of functions are distinguished in terms of functional notions:

   i. SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS (Agent, Patient, Recipient, etc.) which define the roles that participants play in states of affairs, as designated by predications.

     ii.SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS (Subject and Object) which define different perspectives through which states of affairs are presented in linguistic expressions.

iii.PRAGMATIC FUNCTIONS (Theme and Tail, Topic and Focus) which define the informational status of constituents of linguistic expressions. They are determined by the status of the pragmatic information of Speaker and Addressee as it develops in verbal interaction.

Teachers using the Lexical Approach will not analyse the targetlanguage in the classroom, but will be more inclined toconcentrate learners' attention upon these chunks. This newapproach develops many of the fundamental principlesadvanced by proponents of Communicative Approaches. The most important difference is the increased understanding of the nature of lexis in naturally occurring language, and its potentialcontribution to language pedagogy. The guiding principles ofthe Lexical Approach:1. The grammar/vocabulary dichotomy is invalid. 2. Collocation is used as an organizing principle. 3. Successful language is a wider concept than accurate

language. 4. The Observe-Hypothesise-Experiment cycle replaces the

Present-Practise-Produce Paradigm. 5. Most importantly, language consists of grammaticalised lexis--

not lexicalised grammar

In a CLT classroom, the teacher pays more attention to enabling students to work with the target language and communicate in it. The following is the typical procedure of a grammar lesson according to a CLT author- Adrian Doff (1981).1.The teacher uses visual aids to present the grammar structure to be taught.2.Students deduce the meaning, the form and the use of it.3.The teacher checks students understanding by asking yes/no questions focusing on form, meaning and use.4.The teacher gets students to practice the structure through Repetition and Substitution Drills, Word Prompts, and Picture Prompts. The teacher provides maximum practice within controlled, but realistic and contextualised frameworks and to build students’ confidence in using the new language. The teacher provides students with opportunities to use new language in a freer, more creative way. The students can integrate new language with the previously learnt language and apply what they have learnt to talk about their real life activities.

Classroom activities used in CLT• Role play• Interviews• Information gap• Games• Language exchange• Surveys• Pair work• Learning by teaching

However, not all courses that utilize the communicative language approach will restrict their activities solely to these. Some courses will have the students take occasional grammar quizzes, or prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for instance

Grammar for Beginning Level:• Regardless of the fact that the recommended text is

functional, communicative or structural, grammar and grammar sequencing is in issue.

• The scheme would be ‘simple to complex’. Typically it deals with very simply verb forms, pronouns, articles, singular and plural pronouns in a progression.

• For EFL learners, if L1 is same, teacher may use L1 for explanations.

• In an ESL classroom, where teacher must rely on English language only, grammatical explanation of any complexity will overwhelm the learners.

• An inductive approach with suitable examples and patterns will be more effective.

    

Grammar for Intermediate level:1. Student can benefit from short, simple explanations of points in

English.2. Overt attention in grammar can be exceedingly helpful at this

stage.E.g: she can kept her child. A student, when referring to past

He must paid the insurance. tense, used to say things like.

3. A simple explanation from his teacher about modal auxiliaries ‘cured him.

4. Grammar explanation must be minimum. But it should not be dominant focus of student attention.

Grammar for Advanced level:1. At this level grammar teaching is linked with ‘functional

forms’, ‘sociolinguistic’ and ‘pragmatic phenomena.

2. Deductive grammar has its place at this level.

Teaching Grammar to Young Learners

• Presenting the grammatical structure in a child's context, with humour

• Practising the grammatical structure

• Drawing and writing on the board

• Story telling

• Songs and chants

• Rhymes and poems

• Total Physical Response

Goals and Techniques for Teaching Grammar

The goal of grammar instruction is to enable students to carry out their communication purposes. This goal has three implications:

•Students need overt instruction that connects grammar points with larger communication contexts.

•Students do not need to master every aspect of each grammar point, only those that are relevant to the immediate communication task.

•Error correction is not always the instructor's first responsibility.

Developing Grammar Activities For curricula that introduce grammatical forms in a specified sequence, instructors need to develop activities that relate form to meaning and use. Describe the grammar point, including form, meaning, and use, and give examples (structured input) Ask students to practice the grammar point in communicative drills (structured output)Have students do a communicative task that provides opportunities to use the grammar point (communicative output)

For curricula that follow a sequence of topics, instructors need to develop activities that relate the topical discourse (use) to meaning and form.

Provide oral or written input (audiotape, reading selection) that addresses the topic (structured input) Review the point of grammar, using examples from the material (structured input) Ask students to practice the grammar point in communicative drills that focus on the topic (structured output)Have students do a communicative task on the topic (communicative output)

Using Textbook Grammar Activities Textbooks usually provide the following three types of grammar exercises.Mechanical drills: Mechanical drills are the least useful because they bear little resemblance to real communication. They do not require students to learn anything; they only require parroting of a pattern or rule. Meaningful drills: Meaningful drills can help students develop understanding of the workings of rules of grammar because they require students to make form-meaning correlations. Their resemblance to real communication is limited by the fact that they have only one correct answer. Communicative drills: Communicative drills require students to be aware of the relationships among form, meaning, and use. In communicative drills, students test and develop their ability to use language to convey ideas and information.- Recognizing Types -Supplementing  

Why to acquire mastery over past perfect? The past perfect tense is one way to put actions in order.  As has been mentioned, it would feel quite unnatural to repeatedly refer to the time something happened.  In addition, and especially when speaking, the speaker may forget to tell some information or other information may need clarification.  As a result, the past perfect plays an important role.  Look at the following:     Dave:  Yesterday was an absolutely awful day!    Ken:  Really?    Dave:  Yeah!  I woke up late.  By the time I got out of the house, I had spilled coffee on my shirt and realized I didn't have any clean ones.  So I put on a shirt that I had worn a few days before.  On the way to the station, I realized that I had forgotten to lock the door, so I ran back home.  At work, my boss yelled at me because I hadn't finished the report for the 10:00 meeting with the head of marketing.  And that was only the morning...

Present Perfect Tense: Answer key We haven’t seen Jamal for ages. I do not know what has happened to him. I didn’t see Ahmed in the office yesterday. Do you know where he was. They’ve known each other since they were at school together. They’ve always been very good friends.I’ve had this dress for ages. I’ve worn it many times. I bought it when I went to Lahore I a few years ago. I love his books. I’ve read them all several times. A friend gave me his first book and since then, I’ve bought them all. I studied Sindhi in school but I’ve forgotten most of it now because I’ve never had the chance to practice it.

Past Perfect Tense: Answer KeyI'm sorry I left without you last night, but I told you to meet me early because the show started at 8:00. By the time I finally left the coffee shop where we were supposed to meet, I (have) had had five cups of coffee and I (wait) had been waiting over an hour. I had to leave because I (arrange) had arranged to meet Amjad in front of the theatre.When I arrived at the theater, Amjad (pick, already) had already picked up the tickets and he was waiting for us near the entrance. He was really angry. He said he (give, almost) had almost given up and (go) gone into the theater without us.Amjad told me you (be) had been late several times in the past. He mentioned that he (miss) had missed several movies because of your late arrivals. I think you owe him an apology. And in the future, I suggest you be on time!

Parallelism means that words used in pairs or groups should all have the same gram-matical form (verbs and verbs; nouns, nouns, and nouns; gerunds and gerunds, etc.) When using words or phrases with coordinating conjunctions or in a series, make sure that they follow the same grammatical structure. For example, Terry likes swimming and to dive. (Incorrect: not parallelTerry likes swimming and diving. (Correct)Terry likes to swim and (to) dive. (Correct)I'm taking history, math, and chemical. (Incorrect)I'm taking history, math, and chemistry. (Correct)Sometimes repeated words, such as auxiliary verbs, can be deleted in parallel constructions.I have been to Paris and saw the Eiffel Tower. (Incorrect)I have been to Paris and have seen the Eiffel Tower. (Okay)I have been to Paris and seen the Eiffel Tower. (Better)Is she coming to the party or go to a movie? (Incorrect)Is she coming to the party or going to a movie? (Correct)