Teaching Elements of Mythology in English Literature

8/12/2019 Teaching Elements of Mythology in English Literature

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TEACHING ELEMENTS OF MYTHOLOGY IN

ENGLISH LITERATURE

PROF. MARCU MANUELA

PROF. COORDONATOR, UNIV. DR. MIHAI COSOVEANU

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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INTRODUCTION

I. THEORETICAL APPROACH:

1. GENERAL ELEMENTS OF MYTHOLOGY:

a) Major t !"# o$ % t

') E(a%! "# o$ % t&o o*+"#

. MYTHOLOGY REFLECTED IN THE UNIVERSAL LITERATURE AND ART

-. MYTHOLOGY REFLECTED IN BRITISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE

II. EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE:

1) THE OB ECTIVE OF USING MYTHOLOGY ELEMENTS IN TEACHING

ENGLISH

) ELABORATED ACTIVITIES:

a) L"##o/ P a/#

') T&" 0#" o$ $a+r ta " t"(t#, !o"%# a/ !ro#"

2) Co%%0/+2at+3" "("r2+#"#

) L+#t"/+/*, r"a +/*, #!"a4+/* a/ 5r+t+/* a2t+3+t+"#

") U#+/* % t&o o* +/ t"a2&+/* *ra%%ar a/ 3o2a'0 ar

REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION

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1. GENERAL ELEMENTS OF MYTHOLOGY

Mythology can be defined as a body or collection of myths belonging to a people andaddressing their origin, history, deities, ancestors, and heroes.he origin of the word mythology comes from 'ree" language( mythos means tale or legendand logos means word.Mythology includes all the myths belonging to a culture or religion and it is elaborated beginning with the primitive age culture and continuing up to the culture of the modern age.Myths are traditional or legendary stories, usually concerning some being or hero or event,with or without a determinable basis of fact or anatural explanation, especially one that isconcerned with deities ordemigods and explains some practice, rite, or phenomenon of nature.) myth is a story that may or may not be true. Myths are generally very old. his means there

are no records or other proof that they happened. *e "now about them from older peopletelling them to younger people. Some myths may have started as +true+ stories but as peopltold and re told them, they may have changed some parts, so they are less +true+. hey mayhave changed them by mista"e or to ma"e them more interesting. )ll cultures have myths.Many people once believed in mythological animals and gods. hese animals or gods mayhave control or have power over a part of human or natural life.he main characters in myths are usually gods, supernatural heroes and humans. )s sacredstories, myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and closely lin"ed to religion orspirituality. !n the society in which it is told, a myth is usually regarded as a true account ofthe remote past. !n fact, many societies have two categories of traditional narrative, -truestories- or myths, and -false stories- or fables. reation myths generally ta"e place in a primordial age, when the world had not yet achieved its current form, and explain how theworld gained its current form and how customs, institutions and taboos were established.he term -mythology- can refer either to the study of myths or to a body or collection ofmyths. /or example, landscape mythology is the study of landscape features in terms of

totemic mythology. ) -myth- is a sacred narrative usually explaining how the world orhuman"ind came to be in its present form,1 -a story that serves to define the fundamentalworldview of a culture by explaining aspects of the natural world and delineating the psychological and social practices and ideals of a society-. Many scholars in other fields use

1 0undes, !ntroduction , p.1


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the term -myth- in somewhat different ways2 in a very broad sense, the word can refer to anytraditional story& or, in casual use, a popular misconception or imaginary entity. 3ecause thefol"loristic meaning of -myth- is often confused with this more pe4orative usage, the originalunambiguous term -mythos- may be a better word to distinguish the positive definition fromthe negative.losely related to myth are legend and fol"tale. Myths, legends, and fol"tales are differenttypes of traditional story. 5nli"e mythos, fol"tales can be set in any time and any place, andthey are not considered true or sacred by the societies that tell them. %i"e mythos, legends arestories that are traditionally considered true, but are set in a more recent time, when the worldwas much as it is today. %egends generally feature humans as their main characters, whereasmyths generally focus on superhuman characters.

here is a theory named 6euhemerism7 after the mythologist Euhemerus, who suggested thatthe 'ree" gods developed from legends about human beings. his theory claims that mythsare distorted accounts of real historical events. )ccording to this theory, storytellers repeatedlyelaborated upon historical accounts until the figures in those accounts gained the status ofgods. /or example, one might argue that the myth of the wind god )eolus evolved from ahistorical account of a "ing who taught his people to use sails and interpret the winds.8erodotus 9:th century 3 ; and ller supported an allegorical theory of myth. 8e believed that myths beganas allegorical descriptions of nature, but gradually came to be interpreted literally( forexample, a poetic description of the sea as -raging- was eventually ta"en literally, and the seawas then thought of as a raging god: .

Some thin"ers believe that myths resulted from the personification of inanimate ob4ects andforces. )ccording to these thin"ers, the ancients worshipped natural phenomena such as fireand air, gradually coming to describe them as gods. /or example, according to the theory of2 0undes, Madness, p.1 ?& @ir", 0efining, p. :?6 Euhemerism7, he oncise Axford 0ictionary of *orld Beligions

: Segal, p. 2C

:


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theme much less fre#uently, for all that such creation myths are more satisfying to the philosophical mind.


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he hope of a new world surges up from time to time in many civiliFations. Many suchreligious movements have flourished in the 2Cth century in Melanesia, )frica, South )merica,and Siberia. hristian elements are usually detectable, but the basic element in virtually allcases is indigenous. hese cults and movements centre on prophetic leaders, often emphasiFethe return of the dead at the renewal to come, and are convinced of a catastrophic end of the present world. !n many cases, the culture hero is expected to return and lead believers in battleagainst the evil forces. !n the history of udaism and hristianity, as in many primitivemillenarian and messianic movements, there is an expectation of a new heaven and a newearth.

6M t o$ 20 t0r" &"ro"# a/ #ot"r+o o*+2a % t

) great many non literate traditions have myths about a culture hero 9most notably one who

brings new techni#ues or technology to man"ind e.g.,


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he apparent regularity of the heavenly bodies long impressed every society. he s"y wasseiFed as the very image of transcendence, and what seemed to be the orderly course of sun,moon, and stars suggested a time that transcended mans$in short, eternity. Many myths andmythological images concern themselves with the relationship between eternity and time onearth. he number four for the number of world ages figures most fre#uently. heJoroastrians of ancient


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94ustification of a good god with observable facts of evil;, and predestination. )n importantdifference in mythological accounts of providence exists between those traditions that spea" ofthe creation of the world as a result of 'ods will 9as in udaism, hristianity, and !slam; andthose that attribute worldly phenomena to causation by a lesser being 9as 3uddhism does;.

6M t o$ r"'+rt& a/ r"/"5a

Myths of archaic traditions generally imply a conception of the world, nature, and man interms of cyclic time. )ccording to )ustralian )boriginal myth, man is reincarnated into profane life at the moment of his birth. )t his initiation he reenters sacred time, and throughhis burial ceremony he returns to his original 6spirit7 state. Many tribal peoples hold similar beliefs, and their myths are expressed in terms of cosmic cycles. Special myths are narrated inmany places in preparation for initiation procedures. !n agricultural societies, in addition to the

themes of cosmic renewal, renewal through birth, and rebirth through initiation ceremonies atthe attainment of manhood and womanhood, the theme of seasonal renewal is of greatimportance. he cyclic concept of time in all these traditions is present in many of the greatreligious and philosophical systems, such as 3rahmanism 9a 8indu system;, 3uddhism, and


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many traditions. hey are of great significance in traditions where the idea of rebirth orreincarnation exists. Some people have claimed to remember previous existences, and a few9among them the 3uddha; the very first. he veil ofmaya 96illusion7; in many !ndian stories prevents a man from remembering his true origin and goal. !n 'nosticism there is tal" of asimilar forgetfulness, which must be resisted. !n ancient 'ree" myth, Mnemosyne 9Memory;,the mother of the Muses, is said to "now everything, past, present, and future. She is theMemory that is the basis of all life and creativity. /orgetting the true order and origin of thingsis often tantamount to death 9as in the case of %ethe, the river of death in 'ree" mythology,which destroys memory;. )namnesis, 6commemoration7 or 6recollection,7 is one of thecrucial parts of the hristian celebration of 8oly ommunion. hrough the anamnesis, the


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'enuine myths concerning "ings are found only in traditions that "now a form of sacred"ingship. emple records from ancient 3abylon mention offerings to "ings who wereconsidered divine. 8ymns addressed to them refer to the "ings union with a goddess$i.e., themythological motif of the 6sacred marriage.7 Ane of the epithets for the "ing in ancient Egyptwas 6endowed with life7 or 6imparting life.7 he twofold meaning of the epithet is significantand can serve to ma"e the mythology of sacred "ingship understandable in other places aswell, because the function of the "ing is in fact double. 8e mediates between the divine worldand the world of man, representing each to the other. 8ence, in Egypt a sacrifice by anindividual was understood as offered to the "ing and at the same time by the "ing. he "ingsrole of mediator and protector brings royal mythologies close to myths of culture heroes.Solemn procedures in which "ings become divinities occur relatively late in history. )n early

and most conspicuous case of such an apotheosis 9becoming divine; is that of )lexander the'reat, who was called a god in his lifetime. %ater, apotheosis too" place for Boman emperors,although there are no cases of an emperor being accorded divine honors in his lifetime. )great many legends have accumulated around the figures of "ings 9e.g., around @ing )sho"aof !ndia and @ing )rthur in 3ritain;.

6M t o$ tra/#$or%at+o/

ountless stories exist concerning the origin of peculiar roc"s, properties of animals, plants,stars, or other features in the world. !n addition to such etiologic tales there are several mythsthat spea" of cosmic changes brought about at the end of primordial times. )n altogetherdifferent and extensive mythology exists concerning initiation rites and other 6rites of passage7 that involve transformation of mans being.osmic transformation may concern an original world, without proper human means ofexistence and without death, that was transformed through a certain event 9e.g., the death of8ainuwele, a type of primal being "nown as a dema or ancestral deity; into the world "nownto man"ind, a truly inhabitable world with vegetation, animals, and other features that had not

existed before.An a wider scale are myths that could be appendages to cosmogonic myths but that have notturned into mere etiologies. Many myths a"in to the type of the dema deity 9li"e 8ainuwele;and to the culture hero type 9li"e


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the benefit of man. Many others are 4ust as closely related to cosmogonic accounts but tell of6setbac"s7 in primordial times. !n agricultural societies, for example, myths have beencollected that ascribe the unevenness of land or the formation of mountains to an ancientmishap or evil force.!n rites of passage 9e.g., rites accompanying birth, attainment of maturity, marriage, death; thecontents of myths are acted out. !n each case the intention behind the rites is that mans modeof being be affected, indeed transformed. hrough the birth ceremony, the child 6becomes7 a person, and through initiation, an adolescent 6becomes7 an adult, a member of a sodality, or awarrior. here is a great variety of customs in different communities and traditions, buteverywhere these rites dramatiFe graphically the cosmic processes and realities expressed inlanguage in myths. !n many traditions, the myths of the community are conveyed to the novice

at the time of his initiation. Even in the ma4or world religions rites of passage are still performed, as evidenced in such ceremonies as circumcision, 3aptism, weddings, andmortuary rites. !n all instances, the rites derive their meaning from the core of the tradition,and for that reason, mans existence is regarded as transformed. !n some cases, thetransformation derived from the dominant myth is far reaching. he initiated shaman is able totranscend the ordinary human condition and overcome dangers that would cause the death of anon initiate. hrough his initiation, he is believed to have gone through death and thuscon#uered it. !n certain 8ermetic 9an occult magical tradition; and 'nostic texts the certaintyof attaining divine being is clearly expressed.

') E(a%! "# o$ % t&o o*+"#6Gr""4 % t&o o*

!t is the body of myths and teachings that belong to the ancient 'ree"s, concerning their godsand heroes, the nature of the world and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. !t was a part of the religion in ancient 'reece. Modern scholars refer to and studythe myths in an attempt to throw light on the religious and political institutions of )ncient

'reece and its civiliFation, and to gain understanding of the nature of myth ma"ing itself. 'ree" myth attempts to explain the origins of the world, and details the lives and adventuresof a wide variety of god, goddesses, heroes, heroines, and mythological creatures. heseaccounts initially were disseminated in an oral poetic tradition today the 'ree" myths are"nown primarily from 'ree" literature.

1&


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he oldest "nown 'ree" literary sources, 8omer+s epic poems Iliad andOdyssey, focus onevents surrounding the aftermath of the ro4an *ar. wo poems by 8omer+s nearcontemporary 8esiod, theTheogony and theWorks and Days, contain accounts of the genesisof the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession of human ages, the origin ofhuman woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Myths are also preserved in the 8omeric8ymns, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic ycle, in lyric poems, in the wor"s of thetragedians of the fifth century 3 , in writings of scholars and poets of the 8ellenistic )ge, andin texts from the time of the Boman Empire by writers such as


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tales were later told by Avid+s Metamorphoses and they are often divided into two thematicgroups( tales of love, and tales of punishment.K

ales of love often involve incest, or the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god,resulting in heroic offspring. he stories generally suggest that relationships between gods andmortals are something to avoid even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings.he second type 9tales of punishment; involves the appropriation or invention of someimportant cultural artifact, as when


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he monumental events of 8eracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes. o the8eroic )ge are also ascribed three great events( the )rgonautic expedition, the heban ycleand the ro4an *ar.

T&" Troja/ 7ar 2 2 " , a collection of epic poems, starts with the events leading up to thewar( Eris and the golden apple of @allisti, the udgement of


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he study of Boman religion and myth is complicated by the early influence of 'ree" religionon the !talian peninsula during Bome+s protohistory, and by the later artistic imitation of 'ree"literary models by Boman authors. !n matters of theology, the Bomans were curiously eager toidentify their own gods with those of the 'ree"s 9interpretatio graeca;, and to reinterpretstories about 'ree" deities under the names of their Boman counterparts.1&Bome+s early mythsand legends also have a dynamic relationship with Etruscan religion, less documented thanthat of the 'ree"s.

*hile Boman mythology may lac" a body of divine narratives as extensive as that found in'ree" literature, Bomulus and Bemus suc"ling the she wolf is as famous as any image from'ree" mythology except for the ro4an 8orse.1 3ecause %atin literature was more widely"nown in Europe throughout the Middle )ge and into the Benaissance, the interpretations of'ree" myths by the Bomans often had the greater influence on narrative and pictorialrepresentations of -classical mythology- than 'ree" sources. !n particular, the versions of'ree" myths in Avid+s Metamorphoses, written during the reign of )ugustus, came to beregarded as canonical. he characteristic myths of Bome are often political or moral, that is,they deal with the development of Boman government in accordance with divine law, asexpressed by Boman religion, and with demonstrations of the individual+s adherence to moraexpectations(mos maiorum) or failures to do so. 8ere are some other Boman myths(

Bape of the Sabine women, explaining the importance of the Sabines in the formation ofBoman culture, and the growth of Bome through conflict and alliance.

Guma


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%ucretia whose self sacrifice prompted the overthrow of the early Boman monarchy and ledto the establishment of the Bepublic.

8oratius at the bridge, on the importance of individual valor.

Mucius Scaevola, who thrust his right hand into the fire to prove his loyalty to Bome.

aeculus and the founding of


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reign focus on conflicts between him and forces that disrupt his rule, reflecting the "ing+s rolein Egyptian ideology as enforcer ofmaat .1?

he collection of episodes surrounding Asiris+ death and succession is the most elaborate of all

Egyptian myths, and it had the most widespread influence in Egyptian culture.1K !n the first portion of the myth, Asiris, who is associated with both fertility and "ingship, is "illed and his position usurped by his brother Set. !n some versions of the myth, Asiris is actuallydismembered and the pieces of his corpse scattered across Egypt. Asiris+ sister and wife, !sisfinds her husband+s body and restores it to wholeness. She is assisted by funerary deities suchas Gephthys, and )nubis, and the process of Asiris+ restoration reflects Egyptian traditions ofembalming and burial. !sis then briefly revives Asiris to conceive an heir with him, the god8orus.

Several disparate Egyptian texts address a theme( the birth of a divinely fathered child who isheir to the "ingship. he earliest "nown appearance of such a story does not appear to be amyth but an entertaining fol"tale, found in the Middle @ingdom *estcar


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vignettes.21 his 4ourney is a "ey to Ba+s nature and to the sustenance of all life.22 !n travelingacross the s"y, Ba brings light to the earth, sustaining all things that live there. 8e reaches the pea" of his strength at noon and then ages and wea"ens as he moves toward sunset. !n theevening, Ba ta"es the form of )tum, the creator god, oldest of all things in the world.)ccording to early Egyptian texts, at the end of the day he spits out all the other deities, whomhe devoured at sunrise. 8ere they represent the stars, and the story explains why the stars arevisible at night and seemingly absent during the day.2& here is also a myth concerning the endof the universe. Egyptian texts typically treat the dissolution of the world as a possibility to beavoided, and for that reason they do not often describe it in detail. 8owever, many texts alludeto the idea that the world, after countless cycles of renewal, is destined to end. his end isdescribed in a passage in theCoffin Te#ts and a more explicit one in the ook of the Dead , in

which )tum says that he will one day dissolve the ordered world and return to his primeval,inert state within the waters of chaos. )ll things other than the creator will cease to exist,except Asiris, who will survive along with him.2 0etails about this eschatological2: prospectare left unclear, including the fate of the dead who are associated with Asiris. et with thecreator god and the god of renewal together in the waters that gave rise to the orderly world,there is the potential for a new creation to arise in the same manner as the old.2D

6Nor#" % t&o o* 8 the collective myths of the Scandinavians( Sweden, 0enmar", Gorway,and !celand;. he main sources for Gorse mythology, !ndo European in origin, are the!celandic Eddas. he shaping of Gorse mythology itself too" place in 'ermanic Europe,including those elements of the myths, which were current in Scandinavia in the millennium before that. Gorth mythology is the belief system of the Scandinavian countries beforehristianity swept the world. Most of the world is familiar with 'ree" and Boman mythology,

but the Gorse mythology is not so well "nown.Some of the gods of Gorse mythology are Adin, /rigg, %o"i, and hor.

Adin is the father god and is married to /reya. Most of the -lesser- gods of Gorse mythologyare their "ids. 8e has a raven who spies for him.

21 8ornung 1==2, p. =D22 obin 1=K=, pp. K =2&


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/rigg is the goddess of married women and households. She+s married to Adin.%o"i is the god of mischief. 8e is not considered to be especially evil, 4ust gets into a lot oftrouble because of his thievery.hor is the god of thunder. 8e has these hammers which ma"e thunder when he uses them.Most of Gorse mythology has to do with their gods and what happens with the afterlife. Sincethe Oi"ings were essentially a con#uering people, it was important to -"now- what happenedafter you died. Ane interesting thing about the Gorse system of theology is that their godswere not perfectly formed. hey had scars and physical imperfections 4ust li"e their followersdid.

6C" t+2 % t&o o* 8 the religious beliefs and practices of the ancient elts, an ancient !ndoEuropean people;. !n the th century 3 E, their influence and territories covered the length ofEurope, stretching from 3ritain to )sia Minor. eltic mythology is found in a number ofdistinct, if related, subgroups, largely corresponding to the branches of the eltic languages(

)ncient eltic religion 9"nown primarily through archaeological sources rather than throughwritten mythology cf. )ncient 'aulish and 3ritish deities;

Mythology in 'oidelic languages, represented chiefly by !rish mythology2? and Scottishmythology(

Mythological ycle 5lster ycle

/enian cycle

8istorical ycle

Mythology in 3rythonic languages, represented chiefly by *elsh mythology 9cf. also 3retonmythology and fol"lore;

Irish mythology

2? ABahilly . /. Early !rish 8istory and Mythology, 0ublin, 1= D

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6T&" M t&o o*+2a C 2 "

he Mythological cycle is the first of the four cycles and contains the earliest !rish myths.he !rish, in contrast to other nations, did not have any myth about the creation of the worldwhich usually represents the basis of a nations mythology and which is the essential myth.he situation in !rish mythology 9and in eltic mythology in general; is different( the elts didnot have any world creation myth instead, they created a collection of myths describing theinvasions of their island and the arrival of the first inhabitants. his collection of the oldest!rish myths is commonly "nown as the 3oo" of !nvasions or $e%or !a%&la 'renn in old !rish.Most of the stories focus on the godli"e people of the goddess 0anu or uatha 0P 0anannwho represented the fifth wave of invaders coming to the island.

here were six successive invasions altogether at the end of which the island was inhabited

by the eltic ancestors of todays !rishmen. !n the first invasion came a woman called esair,a granddaughter of Goah who fled from the Gear East with fifty other women before the/lood. )fter her death


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mythologies. Moreover, there is a possibility that it served as an inspiration for the 8oly 'railof the )rthurian legend which will be focused on more in the last chapter.

uatha 0P 0anann fought two important battles, in the /irst 3attle of Magh uiredh theydefeated the /ir 3holg and the in the Second 3attle of Magh uiredh they faced the /omhoireswhom they finally defeated as well. here were several important figures among the uatha0P 0anann that appeared in both battles and thus should be mentioned here. hey oftencorrespond with the old eltic gods and goddesses and appear in the stories throughout thewhole Mythological ycle2K. hey are 0agda, the warrior, and leader of uatha 0P 0anann, who is "nown for hiscauldron and his gigantic club with which he mar"s the border between provinces. 8e could be the eltic counterpart to the northern god hor 2=. he next is 3Rand, the goddess of the

river 3oyne and the lover of 0agda who becomes the mother of engus g, the god of youth,love and poetry. ManannQn mac %ir is the god of the sea and is sometimes connected with the!sle of Man. Gext comes Guadu 9Guadu of the Silver 8and; the former "ing of uatha 0P0anann and husband of the goddess 3Rand. *hen he lost one of his arms he could not be the"ing of his people any longer and was replaced by 3res. %ater his arm was replaced with anartificial silver one and he regained his sovereignty. 8e is also the owner of the magicalsword, which is one of uatha 0P 0ananns talismans. Agma is another important figure of!rish mythology for he is the patron of poetry and elo#uence and the inventor of the oghamscript. 0onn is another god of uatha 0P 0anann, the god of the dead and ruler of theotherworld he is sometimes confused with 0agda. /inally, the last person that will bementioned here is 'oibniu, the godli"e blac"smith and patron of !rish handicrafts&C.

)s has been said earlier uatha 0P 0anann fought two battles at Magh uiredh both ofwhich are recorded in the earlier !rish myths preserved to our times. he /irst battle wasfought against the /ir 3olgh who did not want to share the rule over the island with the newcoming uatha 0P 0anann. he second battle was against a worse adversary N the /omhoires.

)s the Second 3attle of Magh uiredh belongs among the core stories of !rish mythology itwill be briefly described here as well&1.

2K Mac ana, pp. :? :K2= Mac@illop 1D?&C Mac@illop 1D? 1?1&1 Mac ana :K :=

2&


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uatha 0P 0anann were ruled by the wise and rightful "ing Guadu, but after he lost one ofhis arms in the /irst 3attle of Magh uiredh he could not be the "ing any longer and had toleave his place to 3res who was of noble birth but it turned out that he was completelyunsuitable for the "ings throne. !n the meantime Guadu got a new silver arm and could become "ing again and replaced 3res, who wanted to get the throne bac" and decided to loo"for help at the /omhoires side where his grandfather 3alar Tof the baleful eye lived. 3alarseye was so big that he needed four men to raise his lid so that he could open the eye whosegaFe could destroy a whole army of men. Guadu was finally helped by %ugh, the master of allcrafts and second grandson of 3alar. Guadu made him "ing of the country and leader of hisarmy. 0uring the battle against /omhoires, %ugh armed with a sling, drove 3alars eyethrough his head so that he cast a destructive glance on his own people and /omhoires were

thus defeated and expelled from the country forever &2. )fter the last battle uatha 0P 0anann ruled the country for some time until the arrival ofthe Milesians. )lthough the Milesians were common people, they managed to replace theuatha 0P 0anann on the !rish throne and started to rule themselves. hey are said to havearrived from Spain and were probably the historical predecessors of the !rishmen. )fter theirarrival in !reland they met three goddesses( Uriu, 3anba and /Rdla each of whom wanted theisland to be called after her. /inally the Milesians chose Uriu whose name has been used forthe island until these days. )fter victorious battles over uatha 0P 0anann they started to ruleover the island and the godli"e uatha 0P 0anann decided to leave the sphere of mortalsforever and left for the underground. !t is believed that they live under hills and mounds called s dh which serve as the entrance gates to their 6fairyland7&&. %ater, the word s dh started to beused as another name for the eltic otherworld.

6 T&" U #t"r C 2 "

)s the title of the cycle already suggests, the stories in this cycle focus on the !rish provinceof 5lster, whose "ing is onchobar, and its relationship with the neighbouring province

onnacht, which is ruled by the #ueen Medb. his cycle is also closely tied with the life andheroic deeds of V hulainn whose name appears in several stories of this cycle. his part of!rish mythology bears thus some characteristics of the heroic literature so popular in theMiddle )ges. he cycle is also connected with the names of onall ernach and /ergus mac&2 'regory ? :&&& Mac@illop 1?: 1KC

2


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%ug, who guards him for several days and nights so that the hero can have some rest. /inally,the decisive fight comes in which V hulainn has to fight against /erdia, his friend andcolleague from ScQthach. !t is sometimes referred to asThe 6ight at the 6ord 1 . 3oth men hadsworn never to fight against each other however, there is no other option for there is no otherwarrior as s"ilful as V hulainn and /erdia is the only one who can face him because theywere both trained by ScQthach. hey meet at a ford where they fight for four days. )t the endof each day V hulainn sends medicaments to /erdia who sends him food in return. An thefourth day V hulainn uses his lethal weapon 'ae 3ulga and "ills /erdia. he fight between5lster and onnacht thus ends with the victory of 5lster. 0onn, the bull of 5lster, has,however, fled to onnacht where he meets and fights the white horned /indbennach. heyfight the whole day and night and finally 0onn "ills /indbennach and runs with his remains on

his horns bac" to 5lster. 8owever, when he reaches home, his heart splits and he dies as well.hus the war between 5lster and onnacht ends and peace is made between the two

"ingdoms.)nother tale of the cycle is called Death of C, Chulainn78 and tells the story of the heros

death. V hulainn dies because of three reasons. Ane of the reasons is his trespassing of acertain prohibition 9 geis;, the second reason is the revenge of his enemies and the third is themagic of his enemies allies. !n one of his battles V hulainn "illed a magician ailitWnwhose wife gave birth to six children who got educated in magic. hey are determined torevenge their father and are 4oined by Erc and %ugaid, both of whom lost their fathers than"to V hulainn. ailitWns children cast a magic spell over V hulainn, who thin"s that thecountry is in danger. An his way to his stronghold, he is stopped by three witches who offerhim roasted dog. 8is refusal would be a trespass of a common prohibition, "nown as geis, notto refuse any offered food, however, by eating the dog with them he trespasses one of his own geis, not to eat dogs meat. Oiolation of any of these prohibitions means a disaster, in this casehis own death. *hen he approaches the stronghold, at first his coachman is "illed, then V

hulainns horse and finally V hulainn himself is mortally wounded. 8e goes to the nearby

1 Geeson, Eoin. Irsk. M/ty a $egendy, pp. 1C: 1&:, rans. !vana 0a\helovQ. 3rno( )ndo


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la"e where he washes his body and then ties himself to a pillar stone so that he can diestanding. Gobody dares to approach him for three days after which MorrWgan in the shape of crow sits on his shoulder and confirms thus his death. %ater, %ugaid cuts off his hand and head both of which are ta"en to the capital of emaira. *ith the death of its main hero the 5lstercycle comes to its end as well.

T&" F+o// C 2 "

he third cycle of !rish mythology is called the /ionn ycle and it is the best preservedand most voluminous cycle of all four, in addition to this its stories are still alive in the fairytales and in the !rish story telling tradition. he main heroes of the cycle are /ionn macumhail with his men, his son AisWn and his nephew aWlte mac BRnQin. )s


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/ionns birth and childhood are described in the story calledThe Coming of 6inn77. 8e wasthe son of umhall and Muirne who was a daughter of Guadu, the "ing of the uatha 0P0anann. 8is father was "illed in the battle against the sons of Morna and so young/i onn wasfor security reasons brought up secretly in the woods by a druid 3odhmall who taught him thelove of nature and trained him for a s"ilful hunter and warrior as well. 8e gets his name,similarly to V hulainn, only later in his life.

)s a young boy he went to the poet called /ionn who was waiting for a Salmon of *isdomfor it was prophesised that he would become immensely wise after he eats it. *hen young/ionn 9called 0emhne at that time; brought the salmon to his master, he told him that he hadsuc"ed his burnt finger. he wise poet than told the boy that his name would be /ionn and thatit was he who was destined to eat the salmon. %ater, whenever /ionn wants to summon his

special s"ills he starts to suc" his finger : . /ionn was, li"e V hulainn, who was born on the same day as his two horses, oftenconnected with animals, especially with his two faithful dogs, 3ran and Sceolan. hese werein fact his two nephews. )lso his wife Sadbh met /ionn for the first time in the shape of a hindinto which she was enchanted by a 0ar" druid whom she refused to love. *hen /ionn too"her to his home she changed into a beautiful woman and they got married. 8owever, aftersome time, the druid came again and too" Sadbh with him in the shape of a hind again. Shegave birth to a child whom /inn found in the woods some time later and who got the nameAisWn 9a fawn;, and later became one of /iannas best fighters and poetsD. 8ere, the motif ofthe transformation of a human being into an animal appears again, which once more illustratesthe interconnectedness between the world of eltic people and the natural world. AisWn appears in the story calledThe Call of Ois n79 in which he does not resist thetemptation of Giam, daughter of the "ing of Wr na n g, the land of eternal youth. She ta"eshim to her land and marries him. )fter some time, however , AisWn, although happy with hiswife, longs to visit his homeland and meet his father and peers. 8e does not "now that since

the time he left with Giam three hundred years have elapsed. Giam is sad for she "nows thatthey will never see each other again and warns him not to step on the ground in !reland. AisWleaves her and when he comes to !reland he not only does not find his father or his peers, but

'regory 11? 12&: Mac@illop 2D:D'regory 12D 12K? 'regory 2KK 2=C

2=


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he "ing ruled in a certain region calledtuath 9"ingdom; and he lived in emair 9 ara;.he #uality of his reign was reflected by the state of his "ingdom. )ccording to


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together with her appearance of an ugly hag, it has been suggested by some scholars, one ofwhom is also Boger Sherman ugly hag, it has been suggested by some scholars, one of whomis also Boger Sherman %oomis, that the goddess of sovereignty could have served as aninspiration for the 3earer of the 'rail in the )rthurian legend. )s it can be seen from the preceding pages the range of themes and motifs of !rishmythology is wide with some motifs repeating in several stories. Ane of the favourite themesin the !rish myths is the transformation of a human being into an animal, which is common in*elsh mythology as well. his happens for example in such stories asThe 6ate of theChildren of $ir :9 in which the children of %ir were enchanted by their stepmother into swansor in theWooing of 'ta n:; in which UtaWn is transformed first into water and then she wasturned into a wor m and finally into a scarlet fly by a 4ealous wife of her lover Midir. )nimals

and nature in general play an important role not only in the everyday life of the eltic people but naturally in their mythology as well. Oery popular is the motif of cattle, which is typicalfor !rish mythology and which appears in many stories withThe War for the ull of Cuailnge9orT&in %2 C,ailnge;:= being the most famous one. Ather popular animals often appearing invarious stories are dogs, swans and other birds, horses, salmon and insect. /rom the naturalscenery, the most im portant part is played by the sea which was the primary source oflivelihood for the inhabitants of !reland, rivers appear also #uite often in the myths as well asthe hills that served primarily as the entrance gates to the !rish otherworld. he otherworldappears in several myths as well, the most well "nown is the storyThe Call of Ois n


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shield came against his own head, and cut it clean off Y]Z and the shield dragged after him byits own thongs, and Sualtims head in the hollow of it, and the head said the same words as before Y]Z7D&. Ather common motifs that appear in !rish mythological stories deal more orless with everyday events and things such as marriage, fights, cheating or the celebration ofthe deeds of a hero.

he motifs appearing in !rish mythology are often similar to the motifs and themes found inthe mythology of the *elsh elts.he oldest body of myths stemming from the 8eroic )ge is found only from the earlymedieval period of !reland.D )s hristianity began to ta"e over, the gods and goddesses wereslowly eliminated as such from the culture. *hat has survived includes material dealing withthe uatha 0P 0anann and the /omorians, which forms the basis for the textCath Maige

Tuireadh 9the 3attle of Mag uireadh;, as well as portions of the history focused $e%or!a%&la 'renn 9the 3oo" of !nvasions;. he uatha 0P represents the functions of humansociety such as "ingship, crafts and war, while the /omorians represent chaos and wild nature.he leader of the gods for the !rish pantheon appears to have been the 0agda.D: he 0agdawas the figure after which male humans and other gods were based due to his embodiment ofthe ideal !rish traits. eltic gods were also considered to be a clan due to their lac" ofspecialiFation and un"nown origins. he particular character of the 0agda describes him as afigure of burles#ue lampoonery in !rish mythology, and some authors even conclude that hewas trusted to be benevolent enough to tolerate 4o"es at his own expense. !rish tales depict the0agda as a figure of power, armed with a spear. !n 0orset there is a famous outline of anithyphallic giant "nown as the erne )bbas 'iant with a club cut into the chal"y soil. *hilethis was probably produced in relatively modern times 9English ivil *ar era;, it was longthought to be a representation of the 0agda. his has been called into #uestion by recentstudies which show that there may have been a representation of what loo"s li"e a largedrapery hanging from the horiFontal arm of the figure, leading to suspicion that this figure

actually represents 8ercules 98eracles;, with the s"in of the Gemean %ion over his arm andcarrying the club he used to "ill it. !n 'aul, it is speculated that the 0agda is associated withSucellos, the stri"er, e#uipped with a hammer and cup.

D& 'regory KD ac"son, @enneth 8urlstone 9 1=?1;, ) eltic Miscellany,


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he MorrWgan was a tripartite battle goddess of the elts of )ncient !reland. DD She was "nownas the MorrWgan, but the different sections she was divided into were also referred to a Gemhain, Macha, and 3adb 9among other, less common names;, witheach representingdifferent aspects of combat. She is most commonly "nown for her involvement in theT&in 2C,ailnge.he god appearing most fre#uently in the tales is %ugh. 8e is evidently a residual of theearlier, more widespread god %ugus, whose diffusion in eltic religion is apparent from thenumber of place names in which his name appears, occurring across the eltic world. hemost famous of these are the cities of %ugdunum 9the modern /rench city of %yon;,%ugdunum 3atavorum 9the modern city of @atwi4", 1C "ilometers to the west of %eiden in th Getherlands; and %ucus )ugusti or _`u ` _u ` ` 9the modern 'alician city of %ugo;.

%ug is described in the eltic myths as the last to be added to the list of deities. !n !reland afestival called the %ughnasa 9Modern !rishl,nasa ; was held in his honour.Ather important goddesses include 3rigid 9or 3rigit;, the 0agda+s daughter )ibell, ine,Macha, and the sovereign goddess, Uriu. Gotable is Epona, the horse goddess, celebrated withhorse races at the summer festival. Significant !rish gods include Guada )irgetlQm, the first"ing of the uatha 0P 0anann 'oibniu, the smith and brewer 0ian echt, the patron ofhealing and the sea god ManannQn mac %ir.

Mythology of Wales

%ess is "nown about the pre hristian mythologies of 3ritain than those of !reland. !mportantreflexes of 3ritish mythology appear in the /our 3ranches of the Mabinogi, especially in thenames of several characters, such as Bhiannon, eyrnon, and 3endigeidfran 9T3ran Y rowZ the3lessed;. Ather characters, in all li"elihood, derive from mythological sources, and variousepisodes, such as the appearance of )rawn, a "ing of the Atherworld see"ing the aid of amortal in his own feuds, and the tale of the hero who cannot be "illed except under seeminglycontradictory circumstances, can be traced throughout !ndo European myth and legend. he

children of %l r 9TSea j !rish %ir; in the Second and hird 3ranches, and the children of 0kn90anu in !rish and earlier !ndo European tradition; in the /ourth 3ranch are ma4or figures, butthe tales themselves are not primary mythology. *hile further mythological names andreferences appear elsewhere in *elsh narrative and tradition, especially in the tale ofCulh+ch

DD 'eddes ^ 'rosset %td 9 1==?;, 0ictionary of the elts, 3roc"hampton


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and Ol+en, where we find, for example, Mabon ap Modron 9Tthe 0ivine Son of the 0ivineMother;, and in the collected riads of the !sland of 3ritain, not enough is "nown of the3ritish mythological bac"ground to reconstruct either a narrative of creation or a coherent pantheon of 3ritish deities. !ndeed, though there is much in common with !rish myth, theremay have been no unified 3ritish mythological tradition per se. *hatever its ultimate origins,the surviving material has been put to good use in the service of literary masterpieces thataddress the cultural concerns of *ales in the early and later Middle )ges.

American mythology Gative )merican myths are very different from the 'ree" and eltic traditions. hey containfew recurring characters, and for most tribes few deities. 8owever, they are full of a senseof all pervading spirit, magical possibilities, and timelessness.

he Gr"at S!+r+t in some form or name is found in most )merican !ndian beliefs. !t is theun"nown power that is found in everything$the air, a roc", the s"y. he 'reat Spirit is oftenseen as the great creator of life and the universe, aided by other spirits who are in charge ofmore specific things, such as stars, water, or trees. he heyenne call the 'reat Spirit >eamma+ihio the Shawnee, 6inisher and the )lgon#uin,!itche Manitou.

Co ot" was a popular spirit among western tribes such as the Gava4o, Juni, Sioux, andhinoo". ) sly tric"ster, he made life more interesting for people. oyote was responsible forsorrow and death, but also for the creation of humans and the Mil"y *ay. here are manystories of oyotes mischievous tric"ery and his contributions to the world.

Ra3"/ seemed to have his bea" into everything, and li"e oyote, was somewhat wily. 8ecould change into a bird, a human or an animal. Baven could bring both good and evil. )lwayshungry, his search for food often got him into a lot of trouble. Baven was found mainly in


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A/+/*a/ 9Es"imo; is the most important Es"imo god and the Moon spirit. 8e was a hunterand he also chased his sister, the Sun, around the Gorth


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'oethe in 'ermany revived 'ree" drama. Bacine rewor"ed the ancient myths $ includingthose of


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ungle 3oo". - he ungle 3oo"- was based on the concept of the -feral child-, that is childrenwho were raised by animals after being lost or abandoned somewhere in the 4ungle. herewere actual documented cases of such children.he important Boman deities were eventually, identified with the more anthropomorphic'ree" gods and goddesses and assumed many of their attributes and myths. )s far as Bomanmythology influencing modern culture, one should thin" about the fantasy genre in literatureand cinema. /or example, the various mythological creatures from - he hronicles of Garnia-... and, also 8ercules.hemes and motifs from mythology appear fre#uently in Egyptian literature, even outside ofreligious writings. )n early instruction text, the - eaching for @ing Mery"ara- from theMiddle @ingdom, contains a brief reference to a myth of some "ind, possibly the 0estruction

of Man"ind the earliest "nown Egyptian short story, - ale of the Shipwrec"ed Sailor-,incorporates ideas about the gods and the eventual dissolution of the world into a story set inthe past. Some later stories ta"e much of their plot from mythical events( - ale of the wo3rothers- adapts parts of the Asiris myth into a fantastic story about ordinary people, and - he3linding of ruth by /alsehood- transforms the conflict between 8orus and Set into anallegory.?1

) fragment of a text, about the actions of 8orus and Set dates to the Middle @ingdom,suggesting that stories about the gods arose in that era. Several texts of this type are "nownfrom the Gew @ingdom, and many more were written in the %ate and 'reco Boman periods.)lthough these texts are more clearly derived from myth than those mentioned above, theystill adapt the myths for non religious purposes. - he ontendings of 8orus and Seth-, fromthe Gew @ingdom, tells the story of the conflict between the two gods, often with a humorousand seemingly irreverent tone. he Boman era -Myth of the Eye of the Sun- incorporatesfables into a framing story ta"en from myth. he goals of written fiction could also affect thenarratives in magical texts, as with the Gew @ingdom story -!sis, the Bich *oman+s Son, and

the /isherman+s *ife-, which conveys a moral message unconnected to its magical purpose.he variety of ways that these stories treat mythology demonstrates the wide range of

purposes that myth could serve in Egyptian culture.?2

?1 3aines in %oprieno 1==D, pp. &D? &D=, pp. &?& &??2 3aines in %oprieno 1==D, pp.&DD, pp.&?1 &?&, p. &??

&=


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)nti#uaries of the 1=th century such as 'eorge *ebbe 0asent brought the mythology ofScandinavia bac" to the popular notice of many people in 'ermany and England in bothcases, Gorse mythology was recogniFed as the latest surviving form of 'ermanic paganism.'ermany and England were hristianiFed far earlier than the Scandinavian countries andmuch of their own traditions were lost.!n 3ritain, *illiam Morris composed poetry such as1igurd the ?olsung on Gorse legendarysub4ects as well as translating !celandic sagas into English. !n 'ermany, Bichard *agner borrowed characters and themes from Gorse mythology to compose the four operas that ma"eup Der @ing des Ni%elungen 9The @ing of the Ni%elung ;, though he also utiliFed medieval'erman sources and 'ermaniFed the names of the Gorse gods.!n the Marvel 5niverse, the Gorse istory s 1trongest Disciple -enichi, the protagonists fight against a gangorganiFation "nown as Bagnaro". Each of the Eight /ists were nic"named after a figure in Gorse mythology including 3erser"er, /reya, %o"i, hor, Siegfried, 8ermit, Oal"yrie, andtheir leader Adin.

C


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3rat halla is a mythology webcomic about the Gorse gods during their elementary schooldays. )ll /ather Adin and his wife /rigg constantly have their hands full with youngsters hor9the super strong runt of the litter;, %o"i 9the god of mischief who li"es to play with dolls;,3alder 9the invulnerable pretty boy;, 8od 9the blind god of dar"ness and winter;, 8ermod 9thehyper super speedster; and the rest of the Gorse pantheon.

he Arder of the Stic" features the Gorse pantheon deities, including hor, Sif, %o"i, andAdin, as the gods of the Gorthern lands and participants in the creation of the universe.0ur"on hundershield, one of the main characters, is a cleric of hor.he manga anime series 6OhB My !oddess 6contains aspects of Gorse mythology. 8eaven+smain computer is called ggdrasil and the goddesses and demons+ names are based on Gorsegods and goddesses, and the 5nderworld+s computer is called Gidhogg.

Ance a diverse cultural group that extended throughout western Europe and even farther southand east, the elts are today generally associated with the northwestern locales of *ales,Scotland, ornwall, 3rittany, the !sle of Man, and especially !reland, where individuals ofeltic ancestry predominate. %in"ed with the insular branch of eltic culture, these areas arecontrasted with those of the ontinental elts, who occupied the region "nown as 'aul 9todayapproximately occupied by modern /rance;.he eltic people were closely tied with the natural world that surrounded them as well asruled their lives all year round. heir religion was therefore closely connected with nature aswell. he rituals were performed usually on the sacred places in the open air in sacred groves,at pools, rivers or under a well grown tree. here were not many temples or shrines built onthe 3ritish !sles until the arrival of the Bomans. he druids as well as the common people preferred natural sanctuaries over the man made ones. eltic people often worshiped not onlygods and goddesses as we imagine today, but they also worshipped trees, rivers, hills andvarious animals, especially birds.)nother important part of the eltic spiritual world was the world of the dead. elts too"

death as an inseparable part of life and so li"ewise, they did not separate the world of theliving from the otherworld. he otherworld was often located on an island, and it could beentered through a certain cave, a la"e or through bogs. 0uring the Samhain festival on the &1st

Actober the border between the two worlds disappeared and it was possible for people to enterthe otherworld and the beings from the otherworld could visit the human world too. he

1


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otherworld thus became an inseparable part of this world and therefore it often appears ineltic mythology as well.!rish myths ran" among the oldest literary pieces in Europe the oldest !rish literary wor"soriginated in the times of eltic settlement in !reland. hey were transmitted orally andrepresented the whole world of the eltic people. hey represent a rich source of our todays"nowledge about eltic beliefs, values or their system of gods and goddesses. *hat is typicalof early !rish literature and storytelling is its 6tension between reality and fantasy7?&. loserelation to nature and natural elements as well as close relationship to the supernatural are alsotypical features of ancient !rish literature. )nother thing typical of eltic mythology is that itdid not have a written form, and all the stories were transmitted orally for the druids did notwrite anything down despite their "nowledge of the ogham writing. he stories star ted to be

written down only after the arrival of hristianity in the sixth and seventh centuries )0 byliterate mon"s and scribes in monasteries. )lthough the scribes made some mista"es andsometimes, influenced by their religious beliefs, misinterpreted or changed some passages ofthe stories, their wor" is invaluable for the study of eltic mythology.here are literally hundreds of boo"s out there on eltic myths, !rish and Scottish legends andlore.

T&" Art&0r+a/ L"*"/ 6 he legend of @ing )rthur is our Y3ritishZ most pervasive secular myth. Aut of few facts, notall of them certain, grew a story elaborated in impressive detail and dimension, and it isapparent that the evolution of that story is not yet finished7? . Some wor"s of art are said to be immortal and this is certainly true of the )rthurian legend.Many things have already been written about it since the creation of the first story concerningthe legendary @ing )rthur. !t is still popular in our times not only among scholars whodevoted their lives to the study of this part of medievalliterature but it also attracts a widerange of readership, starting with young teenage readers and ending with the 6)rthurian7

?& 'antF, effrey. 0arly Irish Myths and 1agas, p. 1, 8armondsworth(


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experts. o put it simply, the legend has not lost its attractiveness and still is able to "indle theinterest of scholars as well as the lay public. here are numerous literary and film adaptationsof the legend together with many computer games fostering the interest in the theme amongthe youngest members of todays society. Many aspects of the legend have already beenresearched yet there can still be found topics and aspects of the whole cycle that have not beenloo"ed into yet or touched only briefly. Moreover, there are still many obscurities concerningits origins and especially the origins and historicity of @ing )rthur, the main protagonist of thestories. he interest in the legendary mythical "ing, living with his beautiful wife 'uinevere inamelot, fighting together with his "nights of the Bound able against their enemies andfinally being "illed by his illegitimate son Mordred, has never faded and will be probably alivein the third millennium as well.

he stories about )rthur and his "nights #uic"ly spread on both sides of the English hanneland became increasingly popular not only in the country of their origin but became popular inother countries on the continent as well, which was true especially in /rance.!n the latter part of the twelfth century hrPtien de royes, a popular /rench writer, wroteanother version of the )rthurian legend in which he celebrated above all the ideas of chivalryand courtly love, starting thus the tradition of the /rench )rthurian romances. 8e gave thelegend a new shape because he introduced the character of %ancelot together with the conceptof the 8oly 'rail that both became characteristic parts of the )rthurian cycle. )nother changeintroduced by hrPtien de royes is that @ing )rthur is no longer the main protagonist of thelegend, he is present but not directly involved in the action and remains rather in the bac"ground of the story. 6 he @ing only rarely initiates action and even more rarely participates directly in it. et his court remains the ideological and geographical center of thecharacters world7?: . he focus thus shifts more on the deeds of )rthurs "nights and the #uestfor the 8oly 'rail.%ater, the story of )rthur and other "nights, especially %ancelot and the magician Merlin was

further elaborated in the so called Oulgate cycle of the )rthurian romances and mostimportantly in homas Malorys wor" $e Morte d Arthur published in the fifteenth centuryand retelling theentire story of )rthur and his "nights of the Bound able. 8e based hisstories on various sources but the main source of inspiration were the /rench romances. 6 he

?: %acy D=

&


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Twhole boo" is the collection which grew up by means of successive additions of romancesoften unconnected with each other7?D. Malory writes his own version of the )rthurian storyfocusing not only on )rthur but also and even more on his "nights,


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)s mischievous and intelligent fol" they are general harmless to the general population in!reland, although they are "nown to play the odd tric" on farmers and local population ofvillages and towns.!t is said that every %eprechaun has a pot of gold, hidden deep in the !rish countryside. o protect the leprechauns pot of gold the !rish fairies gave them magical powers to use if evercaptured by a human or an animal. Such magic an !rish leprechaun would perform to escapecapture would be to grant three wishes or to vanish into thin air%eprechauns are also very "een musicians who play tin whistles, the fiddle and even the !rish8arp and various other !rish traditional instruments. hey are "nown to have wild musicsessions at night which in !reland are "nown as eilis with hundreds of !rish leprechaunsgathering to dance, sing and drin".

he leprechaun is fond of drin"ing


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Stories from the 3ible have also shaped English literature. he 'enesis account of the /all ofMan and the subse#uent expulsion from the 'arden of Eden is played out in the poetry of ohnMilton+s -


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hristian moral or illustrate a hristian virtue.-KD Euphrosyne, 8ymen and 8ebe appear in his $ Allegro.K?)lexander


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the Artist as a Houng Man, and a significant character in*lyssesF is the epitome of oyce+smythological passions. )lthough it is obvious of ortrait +s adherence to the 'ree" myth of theescape of 0aedalus and !carus, there are also other references as well.!n )merican fiction, two forms of the )rthurian myth are commonly found( the use of themyth for political reasons, and the use of the myth for the continuation of an aesthetic traditionthat can be traced bac" to the earliest use of the )rthurian cycle by writers in the 3ritish !sles.his wor" traces the use of the legend from Mar" wain+s ) onnecticut an"ee in @ing)rthur+s ourt to 0onald 3arthelme+s novel he @ing. !t discusses how wain used the mythto ta"e a stand against England, how it served cultural and aesthetic purposes in ohnSteinbec"+s writing, how Baymond handler used it in complex texts with less obvious)rthurian allusions that carried strong cultural and even political associations, how ohn

'ardner used aspects of the myth to embellish already existing narrative structures and tounderscore philosophic debates, and how 0onald 3arthelme suggests the continuing interest of)merican writers in the )rthurian legend today in his novels. )lso discussed is the effect of*orld *ar !! on )merican literature and the )rthurian myth and the amelot imagesurrounding the @ennedys.!n the 1=th century, Gathaniel 8awthorne wrote children+s versions of the 'ree" myths, whichhe intended to -entirely revolutioniFe the whole system of 4uvenile literature.-KK 8is wor",along with the wor"s of 3ulfinch and @ingsley, have been credited with -recastYingZ 'ree"mythology into a genteel Oictorian sub4ect-. he


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mythology.8owever, they aremerely references bac" to the myths.

Geither the story or plot line was derived from the myths, it is completely new. herefore it isnot a rewriting, but solely inspirational to the author. !t supplies nothing more than mere bac"ground.. @. Bowling drew elements from )rthurian legend and lassical mythology in her >arry

otter series Argus /ilch, the 0umbledore and 8arry relationship, Miner"a Mc'onagall,/luffy the threeGheaded dog , etc. Gevertheless, there are again, only elements. Abviously, theseries is amaFing, and completely of her own ma"ing with only the obvious points of

inspiration that she had. Every author has some point of inspiration from somewhere, oftenfrom mythological stories. Even derived into the )rthurian %egends are aspects of elticmythology Merlin appears in both, as does the %ady of the %a"e and even Excalibur.

*hile modern adaptations of 'reco Boman mythology abound, movies with direct lin"s to theeltic tradition can be difficult to find. @ing )rthur is obviously the most well "nown figureof 3ritish mythology, but hell warrant a post of his own.

!n the meantime, here are a few of the lesser "nown stories with roots in eltic legend(

Ondine

his is a movie about an !rish fisherman 9 olin /arrell; who finds a mysterious woman in hisnet. /arrells daughter believes the woman might be a sel"ie, a mythological creature said to

:1


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shed her seal s"in and wal" on land as a woman. !f a man hides her s"in, he can "eep her for awife but if she ever finds it, shell escape bac" into the sea.

The Mists of A alon

*hile ! do plan to write an )rthur specific post, ! thin" Mists of )valon should be categoriFedwith the elts. he tv miniseries was admittedly a terrible bastardiFation of the boo", but thestory as it was written focused on paganism and 0ruidry in 'reat 3ritain, rather than thefantasy and chivalry of amelot. !t depicts the %ady of the %a"e as the matriarch of a femalecentric religion under attac" by the oppressive regime of the priests and the intolerance of the

6new7 hristian religion.

Tristan ! Isolde

his story is oftenwrapped up into

the )rthurianlegends, but itactually predatesthem N and probably inspiredthe story of

%ancelot and 'uineveres romance. he details of the story vary, but the gist is that !solde ismarried to @ing Mar", but in love with ristan. !n some versions they live happily ever afterin others, they bite it Bomeo ^ uliet style. 5nfortunately that means weve pretty much seenevery version of the story told before, and told better. his adaptation was pretty lousy 9whichyou probably could have guessed from the fact that the trailer features an Evanescence song;,due in large part to the overwhelming sense of tragedy that casts a pall over the entire story.!ts incredibly dour and something of a chore to sit through. he story of ristan and !solde

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9and of %ancelot and 'uinevere; is an unhappy one because their love is rooted in the betrayalof a good man they both care for ames /rancos sullenness doesnt help matters.

-Men# $irst %lass

ou might have lost trac" of him amidst all the newbies, but one of the 6first class7 ofaviers mutants was named 3anshee. 3anshee is capable of ultra sonic screaming as thecharacter is !rish,he named himselfafter the9traditionallyfemale; bansheespirit from !rishmythology, who begins to wail ifsomeone is about to die.

&ellboy '

his comic boo"movie delvesdeeply into elticmythology, usingas a villain


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rac la

he name 0raculawas ta"en from aBomanian title forOlad the !mpaler9Olad 0racul 7Oladthe 0evil7;, a localruler who foughtagainst the

Attomans. 8owever, being an !rishman it is possible that 3ram Sto"er was also influenced tosome extent by the story of the !rish vampire )bhartach, an undead ruler who dran" the bloodof his sub4ects. ) 0ruid or a hristian saint advised the people to "ill him with a sword madeof wood, to bury him upside down with a large stone on top, and then to plant thorn treesaround the grave.

The *ion, The Witch, and the

Wardrobe

.S. %ewis, another !rishman,was also heavily influenced byeltic 9along with 'ree" and

Gorse; mythology, as well asother aspects of eltic heritage.8e incorporated a number ofwell "nown mythological

creatures in his Garnia stories, including hags, boggles 9or boggarts;, white stags, andwooses 9woses;. he elts also believed that parallel worlds lay on top of and next to eachother, and that you could pass from one to the next 9a ma4or theme in the Mists of )valon,

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both with the land of the /aerie and the !sle of )valon itself;, which may have inspired thevery idea of the portal to Garnia.

)re the - old Anes- from wilight a real Gative )merican vampire legend from the uileute

tribe, or in any other !ndian tribe here are no beings li"e this in Gative )mericanmythology. Stephenie Meyer, the author of the wilight boo"s, has stated that the uni#uefeatures of her old Ane vampires 9unnaturally beautiful, cold to the touch, spar"ling insunlight; came from her own imagination. She did base other parts of her boo"s on actualuileute !ndian mythology for example, it is true that uileute tribal tradition says they weredescended from wolves that were changed into men. 3ut the old Anes are entirely fictional.

!n the firstT+ilight film, we learn that acob 3lac" is a member of the Gative )mericanuileute tribe in the se#uel Ne+ Moon, we find out he+s also a werewolf. Got bound by thefull moon, the 3lac"s can transform on command into oversiFed but otherwise normal loo"ingwolves.

!s )potam"in 9or )potamp"in; really the name of a Gative )merican vampire

)potam"in is a real Gative )merican monster 9from the Maliseet and


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feature of a true vampire is the ability to turn a victim into another vampire by biting him orher. here is nothing e#uivalent to that in traditional Gative )merican fol"lore.

So what are some of these authentic )merican !ndian vampire li"e creatures

*indigo : *indigos are cannibal ice giants of the hippewa and other northern )lgon#uian!ndian tribes. 9 hey are also "nown asChenoo in the Micmac language,!i+ak+a in the)bena"i language, and a few other names in other tribes.; !n most versions of the legend,*indigos were once humans who had committed cannibalism or some other terrible sin,causing their hearts to turn to ice. !n other legends, people are turned into *indigos by evilwiFards. Either way, the monsters are then doomed to wander the wilderness devouring everyhuman they meet until they are "illed. ) few legends do have happier endings where the*indigo is able to be transformed bac" into a human.

II. EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE:

1. THE OB ECTIVE OF USING MYTHOLOGY ELEMENTS IN TEACHING

ENGLISH

Beading mythology is an easy way to motivate students in class. he students can all read orlisten to and understand the stories of the myths. hey usually en4oy them. Mythology seemsto be a natural way to involve the student. Most children of any age love to hear and readmyths, and even to write their own myths. he stories of the gods and goddesses seem to havea particular appeal for their imaginations. hey become fascinated with the exploits of thegods. Students especially love, of course, to read about the involvement of the gods withmortals. onse#uently, children love to learn about heroes. 8eroes are important to them,hildren have all "inds of heroes today sports heroes, roc" heroes, movie heroes, cartoonheroes and for different reasons. he heroes, however, who appeal to children the most, seemto have changed little over the years. hese heroes are super powerful, have some "ind of

magical power, are extremely brave, and are on the side of good. hey are usually embar"edon a #uest, which involves fighting some "ind of enormous evil. Ane can immediately thin" ofthe tremendous popularity of Superman and1tar Wars he heroes in these films, as in othermagical and mythical films such asClash of the Titansand 1+ord and the 1orcerer , areindeed such super heroes.

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hildren seem to find security in watching or reading about the victory of a hero. 8owever,they also en4oy the #uest and the great dangers that befall a hero.


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60iscuss the nature of myth distinguish between and compare the stories of real people andmyths that grew from those stories

6Study the central themes of )rthurian legend through a modern lens

6Examine whether the ideas of chivalry, honor, and courtly love have been internaliFed intocontemporary art and culture

60iscuss whether these ideas are relevant to today and to what extent they apply to modern life

6*rite and perform a short play incorporating these ideas

T"a2&+/* A!!roa2&

6)rts !ntegration

6hematic

T"a2&+/* M"t&o #

60iscovery %earning60iscussion

6Experiential %earning

6Beflection

6Besearch

A##"##%"/t T !"

Abservation

L"##o/ S"t0!

eacher 3ac"ground Gote to teacher( 3efore class, pre screen video or 0O0 versions of -ing Arthur 92CC


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1. B"$or" #t0 "/t# "/t"r t&" 2 a##, 5r+t" t&" 5or # honor , chi alry , a/ co rtly lo e o/ t&"

'oar . *hen the class arrives, tell them they will be learning about the @ing )rthur legend,and exploring the ideas of honor, chivalry, and courtly love contained within that story. )s"the class if they "now what the words on the board mean. )fter students volunteer what they"now, you may wish to write abbreviated definitions on the board for them to read.

Chi"alry4 very polite and helpful behavior, especially by a man toward a woman acode of noble and polite behavior that was expected of a medieval "night

Courtly $o"e4 an idealiFed form of love written about in medieval literature, where a"night devotes himself to a noblewoman

>onor4 code of integrity and dignity 9usually among men;, in medieval society

. E/*a*" #t0 "/t# +/ a +#20##+o/ a'o0t &o5 to '"&a3" &o/"#t a/ $a+r +/$r+"/ #&+!#. o initiate a group conversation, have students read and answer the #uestions inthe first part of the +Movie 0iscussion+ wor"sheet located within the Besource arousel, thendiscuss as a class. Explain that @ing )rthur was a medieval historical figure, whose life became a legend in subse#uent centuries. Aver time, the legend of @ing )rthur has come to be"nown for its tales of chivalry, honor, and courtly love.

-. S&o5 t&" 2 a## t&" 'r+"$ !r"6#" "2t" #2"/"# $ro% t&" $+ % +ing Arth r , 5&+2& $o20#"#

o/ t&" &+#tor a/ !o +t+2# o$ t&" t+%". hen, show brief pre selected scenes from the filmCamelot , based on the 3roadway musical, which gives a more romantic perspective of theamelot legend.(Note4 If you cannot access either of these mo"iesF refer to Mo"ies A%out

-ing Arthur info sheet located +ithin the @esource CarouselF +hich contains t+o lists ofmo"ies4 some more sentimentalF some more realistic >a"e the students +atch at least one film from each list for home+ork Tell them to %e prepared to discuss the films in class )

9. Ha3" #t0 "/t# oo4 at t&" $+r#t &a/ o0t a*a+/, t&"/ r"a a/ a/#5"r t&" =0"#t+o/# +/

Part II. 8ave students discuss their answers as a class.

B0+ /o5 " *"

1. T" #t0 "/t# t&" 5+ '" o+/* a r"#"ar2& a/ 5r+t+/* !roj"2t t&at 5+ a o5 t&"% to

2o/#+ "r &o5 t&" +$" a/ "" # o$ t&" &+#tor+2 +/* Art&0r "3o 3" +/to a "*"/ 'a#"

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o/ &o/or, 2&+3a r , a/ 2o0rt o3". Beserve computer time at the computer lab anddistribute the +*ho *as @ing )rthur + research guide, located within the Besource arousel,to students. his handout provides students with a list of websites. 9Gote( !f computers are notavailable, the handout also includes excerpts from the sites.; !t concludes with #uestions aboutwhat students can infer about @ing )rthur and the chivalry ideal. 8ave students read these#uestions, then complete the following short essay on the bac" of the paper.

. A#4 #t0 "/t# to 2o/#+ "r t&" $o o5+/*: >Ar" &o/or, 2&+3a r , a/ ro%a/t+2 o3"

%o "r/ + "a # or a/2+"/t o/"#< 7&"/ + t&"#" + "a # #tart to $a " Explain that thereare many versions of codes of honor and chivalry that have been handed down from medievaltimes. 0istribute the + ode of hivalry+ wor"sheet located within the Besource arousel.Students should answer the comprehension #uestions on the handout. )s" students what theythin" of these rules of honor. 0o any of them seem strange *hich of these rules would stillma"e sense in today+s world

-. D+#tr+'0t" t&" ?Co "# o$ Ho/or a/ C&+3a r ? 5or4#&""t, o2at" 5+t&+/ t&" R"#o0r2"

Caro0#" , to #t0 "/t#. his exercise will encourage them to develop their own ideas aboutforging and abiding by a code of behavior in life, and to consider what benefits and sacrificesmight stem from using such a code.

A!!

1. T" #t0 "/t# t&at t&" 5+ /o5 "(a%+/" t&" Art&0r+a/ + "a # o$ >2o0rt o3"> $ro%

t&" 5o%a/?# !"r#!"2t+3". ueen Eleanor of )#uitaine 9a #ueen of /rance and then ofEngland; and her daughter, ountess Marie of hampagne strongly influence the popularity ofcourtly love. 0istribute the info sheet, + he Bules of ourtly %ove+ located within the Besourcearousel and explain to the class that the boo"The Art of Courtly $o"e was written at the

re#uest of ountess Marie. !t is believed to describe ueen Eleanor+s court from the years11?C to 11? but was probably written several years after that time.

. Ha3" #t0 "/t# 2o/#+ "r a/ +#20## 5& +/$ 0"/t+a 5o%"/ o$ t&at t+%" %+*&t &a3"

!ro%ot" t&"#" + "a # . *hen students are finished reading the text on the handout, you may

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wish to reserve time in the computer lab so they may visit some of the websites listed. hen,using the Bules of ourtly %ove info sheet, as" students which rules they agree with and why.

-. Ha3" #t0 "/t# t&+/4 o$ "(a%! "# o$ 2o/t"%!orar TV #&o5# or $+ %# t&at r"$ "2t

/ot+o/# o$ 2o0rt o3" . !n these stories, does unre#uited love ma"e people happy or sad*hat happens when two friends love the same person 0oes it end the friendship

9. T" #t0 "/t# t&" 5+ /o5 '"*+/ 5or4 o/ t&"+r $+/a !roj"2t $or t&+# "##o/. 0ivide theclass into groups of four or five students each. ell the class that each group will have todevise a dramatic scene to act out during the next class. he scene that they write can be basedon any part of the versions of the )rthurian tales they have learned, and can use any set of themain characters from the story. !t can also be based on something they+ve read about or seen inone of the movies from the lesson. here are some important rules that must be followed asstudents create the scene(

he amelot characters must stay true to the way they would behave(i e F you can tha"e Arthur %e co+ardlyF ha"e !uine"ere and $ancelot dislike each otherF etc )

he scene has to have a problem or conflict that ma"es us thin" about the ideas ofchivalry and courtly love(e g F $ancelot lo"ing !uine"ereF %ut +anting to %e loyal to

Arthur) he scene has to show how the characters decide to deal with that conflict

ell students they should divide the wor" evenly. Encourage students to brainstorm andstoryboard, share their ideas as a group, and write down all their ideas, before they startwriting the scene. Bemind students that in the final presentation, each person should have atleast a small part to read, even if 4ust a narrator.

@. 7&"/ #t0 "/t# &a3" +#20##" t&"+r #2"/", t&" #&o0 '"*+/ t&" 5r+t+/* !ro2"##. oumay wish to have students type out their scenes and print out copies for the whole group. *al"around the class during the students+ writing process to support their wor", and answer any#uestions they might have. !f students are having difficulty coming up with ideas, as" them#uestions such as( *hat do you thin" was the most interesting part of the )rthur story *hich

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of the characters did you li"e the best *hat made you li"e them 8ow would you behave ifyou were in a particular character+s position in life

. Ma4" #0r" t&at "a2& #t0 "/t "a3"# 2 a## 5+t& a 2o! o$ t&" #2r+!t $ro% &+# or &"r

*ro0!?# #2"/". !f a computer and or computer printer is not available, you should ma"e copies before the end of class. ell students at the end of class that they do not have to memoriFetheir lines, but they should try to become as familiar with them as possible.

R"$ "2t

1. 7&"/ #t0 "/t# "/t"r t&" 2 a##, t" t&"% t&" &a3" 1 %+/0t"# to oo4 at t&"+r #2r+!t#

a/ #!"a4 to t&" ot&"r !"o! " +/ t&"+r *ro0! a'o0t a/ a#t %+/0t" =0"#t+o/#.

. Ha3" "a2& *ro0! a2t o0t t&"+r #2"/". )fter each scene is finished, invite a discussion withthe rest of the class about the scene. )s" students( *hat issue was explored 0id they agreewith how the characters handled their conflicts 0id the characters behave honorably ordishonorably *ould they have behaved similarly or differently toward each character

-. A# a 2o/2 0 +/* a2t+3+t , "/2o0ra*" a *ro0! +#20##+o/ a'o0t 5&at &a# '""/ "ar/" +/

t&" "##o/ o3"ra . Students should reflect on whether any of their ideas about honorable

behavior have been affected by this lesson. hen, as" each student to briefly write theirdefinitions of the words honor, chivalry, and courtly love.

A##"##%"/t

5se the +)ssessment Bubric+ located within the Besource arousel to assess your student+swor"s.

Show students one or two pre selected scenes from the film Monty ython and the >oly !rail91=?:;, a hilarious satire of @ing )rthur 9@ing of the 3ritons;, and his "nights, in #uest forhe 8oly 'rail.

0iscuss with students this satirical view of )rthurian times. )s" them( -0oes this film ma"eus consider the ideas we have been studying in a way that the more serious films did not -

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)s" students how the ideas of chivalry, honor, and courtly love hold up when seen through thelens of modern times.

)dditional class #uestions(

)re there people in the world who still give their allegiance to a "ing or #ueen 0o you thin" modern day people who live in monarchies still feel the same way about

"ings and #ueens as people did in the Middle )ges *hy or why not *hy were people loyal to "ings and #ueens in those days 0o people still honor the marriages of other people as they used to *hy or why not 0o people thin" about their own set of values today as they did in the past !s it possible people were honorable and dishonorable in the same proportions as

people of today, but we simply have no way to "now it

%ESSAG


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to use correctly the Simple


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Stor #tr+!"# $or t&" #tor o$ +/* M+ a#

8e touched his daughter and she turned into a golden statue. 8e cried.Midas decided he didnt want his golden touch.Midas found him and too" him to a friendly god.Midas touched the trees, flowers and fruit N they turned to gold8e wanted everything he touched to turn to gold.he god than"ed Midas and gave him a wish.Midas washed away the golden touch in a river.Midas didnt thin" carefully.Ane morning, an old blind man was lost in Midass gardens.*hen he touched his food, it turned to gold

LESSON PLAN

E) 8EB(

OPTIONAL COURSE: A Kourney Through the Worlds of 6antasy

GRADE: 12th intensive study

LEVEL: )dvancedNO. OF CLASSES 7EE : 1 class wee"

UNIT: 6 [email protected] ) /antasy *riters Becipe for Success7

LESSON: Harr Pott"r A D"3" o!+/* H"roalfG lood rince;

5ESA5BGEB!)%SES S

8E%


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QR>arry is not in fact strictly a hero in classical termsF %ut an ordinary %oyF mundane reluctant RS Although he has remarka%le gifts of magicF he has to rely on moral courage anon his friends to accomplish his tasks >e is not the selfGsufficientF indi"idualistic hero In mytermsF he is "ery like the ordinary ho%%its 6rodo and 1am in VThe $ord of the @ings F ++eakness and small stature accomplish +hat the great and po+erful cannot RS >arry stestings and trials prepare him for his ultimate suffering in the last %ookF +hich leads at last healing and peace P9 olin 0urieF, The *nauthoriLed !uide to >arry otter , 2CC?, pp. 1DK 1D=;

S0%%o/ , tr " #0% %o/" J o order to ta"e a specified action bid.

M0/ a/" , ad3 j Belating to, characteristic of, or concerned with commonplaces

ordinary.R" 02ta/t , ad3 j 5nwilling disinclined.

S" $6#0$$+2+"/t, ad3. j )ble to provide for oneself without the help of others independent.

Q@o+ling has %een "ery clear on the ildungsroman aspect of her seriesF ha"ing said o >arryF QI do +ant him to gro+ upP RS Most heroes 3ourney as part of their de"elopment RShe 3ourneys each year to >og+arts RS a place of tests4 some academicF some practicalF sommoral Many of these tests include ad"entureF dangerF choice heady stuff that forces >arry t gro+ or fail And failure in a uni"erse of magic is too often fatal P9Mary arry otter as >eroGinG rogress in The I"ory To+er and >arry otter , 2CC2, p.:K;

H"a , ad4. j extremely exciting. QRS >arry is not the most focused or relentless heroF at least not until later in the %ook >is tendency to stray from his uest is not literal or physicalF %ut mental and emotional Whthere are no clear leads and nothing to doF RS >arry tends to lose focus and driftF follo+ing hemotions This happens most dangerously in !odric s >ollo+F +hen >arry leads them into a

trapF his real reasons for going there ha"ing nothing to do +ith the uest and e"erything to do+ith his grief and dou%t concerning Dum%ledore P

Q ecause >arry +as famous %efore he e"en kne+ he +as a +iLardF much of his personalitis shaped %y his desire to li"e up to his fame >e steers clear of special treatmentF flatteryF a

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praise >e stri"es to li"e a normal +iLard s lifeF and to a great e#tent he does >e has close friendshipsF enemiesF dilemmasF and triumphs 3ust like any other t+el"eGyearGold %oy utis distinct %ecause of his courage and loyalty P

Q>arry is not a typical or mythological hero >e is an underdogF +ith his skinny stature%roken glassesF and relati"e ine#perience in the +iLard +orld Het he li"es up to his fame%ra"ely entering situations +ith the in%orn faith that someone G either himself or someone he%efriended G +ill get him through the situation ali"e P

( 12ar 3otes A"aila%le at4 http4XXgsearch sparknotes comXsearch Y harryZpotter[ search%gY[templateYdefault[outputY #ml\no\dtd[oeY*T6G;[ieY*T6G;[clientY

default\frontend[pro#ystylesheetYdefault\frontend[siteYdefault\collection[#YJ9[ yY8;)R" "/t "## , ad3. j Steady and persistent unremitting.

Stra , intr " #tra " J o deviate from the correct course.

Dr+$t, n j he direction in which something is going.

U/ "r o* , n j Ane at a disadvantage and expected to lose.

I/'or/ , ad3 j Gatural possessed by a person from birth.


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9http( www.filmofilia.com wp content uploads 2CC= C& harry potter D poster :.4pg;

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LESSON PLAN

TEACHER:

A< !AG)% A5BSE( A Kourney Through the Worlds of 6antasy'B)0E( 12 th intensive study%EOE%( )dvanced GA. A/ %)SSES *EE@( 1 class wee" 9optional course;5G! ( 6 .S. %ewis N ) Storyteller for Garnia7%ESSAG( T&" Cr"at+o/ o$ a 7or Nar/+a


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O#ford Ad"anced $earner s Dictionary, 2CC:,Axford 5niversity


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"nowledge.hen the teacher as"s which of thesemyths reminds them of the creation ofthe

Documents

Teaching Elements of Mythology in English Literature