Teaching Categoris and Models of Teaching

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Teaching Categoris and Models of teaching

This study focuses on the use of and rated importance of four basic categoriesof teaching models provided by a large sample of Saskatchewan teachers. So

that the study may be fully understood, this section of the proposal provides a

brief delineation of each of these categories of models and a justification forwhy it is important to examine teacher s importance perceptions and use of themodel categories.

According to Joyce & Weil (1980), contemporary teachers have available tothem a rich variety of instructional models for classroom use. These models, theauthors state, may be divided into four discrete categories: (1) InformationProcessing models; (2) Personal models; (3) Social Interaction models; and

(4) Behavioral models. The Information Processing models are those whichcharacterize the mission of education as a facilitation of cognitive development.

Specifically, these models focus on developing students' inductive reasoning,academic reasoning, problem-solving capabilities, analytical abilities, intellectualdevelopment, memory, and social and moral development.

The Personal Instruction models characterize the mission of education as onethat assists people in developing their personal potential as human beings.These models emphasize classroom participation in activities focussing on self-awareness, autonomy, understanding of physical and sensory awareness,creativity, creative problem-solving, and responsibility to one's self and tosociety

Introduction and support package:

Guidance on the concept and use of the processapproach for management systemsDocument: ISO/TC 176/SC 2/N544R3

October 2008

1. Introduction
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This guidance document provides an understanding of the concepts, intent and the application of the

process approach to the ISO 9000 family of Quality Management System standards. The guidance may

also be used to apply the process approach to any management system regardless the type or the size of

organization. This includes but is not limited to management systems for:

Environment (ISO 14000 family),

Occupational Health and Safety,

Business Risk,

Social Responsibility.

This guide also aims to promote a consistent approach to the description of processes and use of process

related terminology.

The purpose of the process approach is to enhance an organizations effectiveness and efficiency in

achieving its defined objectives. In relation to ISO 9001:2008 this means enhancing customer satisfaction by

meeting customer requirements.

Benefits of the process approach are:

Integration and alignment of processes to enable achievement of desired outcomes

Ability to focus effort on process effectiveness and efficiency.

Provision of confidence to customers, and other interested parties, about the consistent performance of the

organization.

Transparency of operations within the organization.

Lower costs and creation of shorter cycle times, through the effective use of resources.

Improved, consistent and predictable results. Provision of opportunities for focused and prioritized improvement initiatives. Encouragement of the involvement of people and the clarification of their responsibilities.

2. What is a process?

A Process can be defined as a set of interrelated or interacting activities, which transforms inputs into

outputs. These activities require allocation of resources such as people and materials. Figure 1 shows a

generic process.

A major advantage of the process approach, when compared to other approaches, is in the management

and control of the interactions between these processes and the interfaces between the functional

hierarchies of the organization (as further explained in section 4).


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Figure 1 - Generic process

Inputs and intended outputs may be tangible (such as equipment, materials or components) or intangible

(such as energy or information). Outputs can also be unintended, such as waste or pollution.

Each process has customers and other interested parties (who may be either internal or external to the

organization), with needs and expectations about the process, who define the required outputs of the

process.

A system should be used to gather data to provide information about process performance, which should

then be analyzed to determine if there is any need for corrective action or improvement.

All processes should be aligned with the objectives, scope and complexity of the organization, and should

be designed to add value to the organization.

Process effectiveness and efficiency can be assessed through internal or external review processes.

3. Types of processes

3.1 References to processes in ISO 9001:2008:

ISO 9001:2008 states:

In sub clause 0.1 General: The design and implementation of an organizations quality management system

is influenced by: its business environment, changes in that environment, or risks associated with that

environment; its varying needs; its particular objectives; the products it provides; the processes it employs;

its size and organizational structure. It is not the intent of this International Standard to imply uniformity in the

structure of quality management systems or uniformity of documentation.

In sub clause 0.2 Process Approach: The application of a system of processes within an organization,

together with the identification and interactions of these processes, a nd their management to produce the

desired outcome , can be referred to as the process approach.

In sub clause 4.1 General requirements: The organization shall establish, document, implement and

maintain a quality management system and continually improve its effectiveness in accordance with the


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requirements of this International Standard. The organization shall:

a) determine the processes needed for the quality management system and their application throughout the

organization (see 1.2),

b) determine the sequence and interaction of these processes,

c) determine criteria and methods needed to ensure that both the operation and control of these processes

are effective,

d) ensure the availability of resources and information necessary to support the operation and monitoring of

these processes,

e) monitor, measure (where applicable), and analyse these processes, and

f) implement actions necessary to achieve planned results and continual improvement of these processes.

These processes shall be managed by the organization in accordance with the requirements of this

International Standard.

Based on the above, each organization should define the number and type of processes needed to fulfil its

business objectives. It is permissible for a process that is required by ISO 9001:2008 to be part of a process

(or processes) that is already established by the organization, or to be defined by the organization in terms

that are different to those in ISO 9001.

3.2 Typical types of processes that can be identified:

In accordance with 3.1 above, organizations have to define the number and types of processes needed to

fulfil their business objectives. While these will be unique to each organization, it is however possible to

identify typical processes, such as:

Processes for the management of an organization. These include processes relating to strategic planning,establishing policies, setting objectives, ensuring communication, ensuring availability of resources for the

other organizations quality objectives and de sired outcomes and for management reviews.

Processes for managing resources. These include all the processes that are necessary to provide the

resources needed for the organizations quality objectives and desired outcomes.

Realization processes. These include all processes that provide the desired outcomes of the organization.

Measurement, analysis and improvement processes. These include the processes needed to measure and

gather data for performance analysis and improvement of effectiveness and efficiency. They include

measuring, monitoring, auditing, performance analysis and improvement processes (e.g. for corrective and

preventive actions). Measurement processes are often documented as an integral part of the

management, resource and realization processes; whereas analysis and improvement processes aretreated frequently as autonomous processes that interact with other processes, receive inputs from

measurement results, and send outputs for the improvement of those processes.

4. Understanding the process approach

A process approach is a powerful way of organizing and managing activities to create value for the customer

and other interested parties.

Organizations are often structured into a hierarchy of functional units. Organizations are usually managed

vertically, with responsibility for the intended outputs being divided among functional units.

The end customer or other interested party is not always visible to all involved. Consequently, problems that

occur at the interface boundaries are often given less priority than the short-term goals of the units. This

leads to little or no improvement to the interested party, as actions are usually focused on the functions,

rather than on the intended output.


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The process approach introduces horizontal management, crossing the barriers between different

functional units and unifying their focus to the main goals of the organization.

It also improves the management of process interfaces (see Figure 2 ).

Figure 2 - Example of Process linkages across departments in an organization.

The performance of an organization can be improved through the use of the process approach. The

processes are managed as a system, by creating and understanding a network of the processes and their

interactions.

Note: The consistent operation of this network is often referred to as the "system approach" to management.

The outputs from one process may be inputs to other processes and interlinked into the overall network or

system (for generic examples, see Figure 3 and Figure 4 ).

Figure 3 - Example of a generic process sequence


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Figure 4 - Example of a process sequence and its interactions

5. Implementing the process approach

The following implementation methodology can be applied to any type of process. The step sequence is only

one method and is not intended to be prescriptive. Some steps may be carried out simultaneously.

5.1. Identification of processes of the organization

Steps in the

process approach

What to do? Guidance

5.1.1

Define the purpose

of the organization

The organization should identify its

customers and other interested

parties as well as their

requirements, needs and

expectations to define the

organization's intended outputs.

Gather, analyze and determine customer and other

interested parties requirements, and other needs and

expectations. Communicate frequently with customers

and other interested parties to ensure continual

understanding of their requirements, needs and

expectations.

Determine the requirements for quality management,

environmental management, occupational health and

safety, management, business risk, social

responsibilities and other management system

disciplines that will be applied within the organization.

5.1.2

Define the policies

and objectives of

the organization

Based on analyses of the

requirements, needs and

expectations, establish the

organization's policies and

objectives

Top management should decide which markets the

organization should address and develop relevant

policies. Based on these policies, management should

then establish objectives for the intended outputs (e.g.

products, environmental performance, occupational

health and safety performance)


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5.1.3

Determine the

processes in the

organization

Determine all the processes

needed to produce the intended

outputs.

DDetermine the processes needed for achieving the

intended outputs. These processes include

Management, Resources, Realization and

Measurement, Analysis and Improvement.

Identify all process inputs and outputs, along with the

suppliers, customers and other interested parties (who

may be internal or external).

5.1.4

Determine the

sequence of the

processes

Determine how the processes flow

in sequence and interaction

Define and develop a description of the network of

processes and their interaction.Consider the following:

- The customer of each process,

- The inputs and outputs of each process,

- Which processes are interacting,

- Interfaces and what are their characteristics,

- Timing and sequence of the interacting processes,

- Effectiveness and efficiency of the sequence.

Note: As an example, a realization process that results

in an output, such as product delivered to a customer,

will interact with other processes (such as themanagement, measurement and monitoring, and

resource provision processes).

Methods and tools such as block diagrams, matrix and

flowcharts can be used to support the development of

process sequences and their interactions.

5.1.5

Define process

ownership

Assign responsibility and authority

for each process

Management should define individual roles and

responsibilities for ensuring the implementation,

maintenance and improvement of each process and itsinteractions. Such an individual is usually referred to as

the "process owner".

To manage process interactions, it may be useful to

establish a "process management team", that has an

overview across all the processes, and which includes

representatives from each of the interacting processes.

5.1.6

Define processdocumentation

Determine those processes that

are to be documented and howthey are to be documented.

Processes exist within the organization and the initial

approach should be limited to identifying and managingthem in the most appropriate way. There is no

"catalogue", or list of processes, that have to be

documented.

The main purpose of documentation is to enable the

consistent and stable operation of the processes.


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The organization should determine which processes are

to be documented, on the basis of:

- The size of the organization and its type of activities,

- The complexity of its processes and their interactions,

- The criticality of the processes, and

- The availability of competent personnel.

When it is necessary to document processes, a number

of different methods can be used such as graphical

representations, written instructions, checklists, flow

charts, visual media, or electronic methods.

Note: For more guidance see the ISO 9000 Introduction

and Support Package module Guidance on the

Documentation Requirements of ISO 9001:2008

5.2 Planning of a process

Steps in the

process approach

What to do? Guidance

5.2.1

Define the activities

within the process

Determine the activities needed to achieve the intended

outputs of the process

Define the required inputs and

outputs of the process.

Determine the activities required

to transform the inputs into the

required outputs.

Determine and define the

sequence and interaction of the

activities within the process.

Determine how each activity will

be performed.

Note: In some cases, the

customer may specify the way

the process is to be performed.

5.2.2

Define the

monitoring and

measurement

requirements

Determine where and how monitoring and measuring

should be applied. This should be both for control and

improvement of the processes and the intended process

outputs. Monitoring is always applicable but

measurement may not be practicable or even possible.

Nevertheless measurement gives more objective data on

the performance of the process and i t is a powerful

management and improvement tool.

Identify the measures and

monitoring criteria for process

control and process performance,

to determine the effectiveness

and efficiency of the process,

taking into account factors such

as:

- Conformity with requirements,
http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/management_and_leadership_standards/quality_management/iso_9001_2008/guidance_on_the_documentation_requirements_of_iso_9001_2008.htmhttp://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/management_and_leadership_standards/quality_management/iso_9001_2008/guidance_on_the_documentation_requirements_of_iso_9001_2008.htmhttp://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/management_and_leadership_standards/quality_management/iso_9001_2008/guidance_on_the_documentation_requirements_of_iso_9001_2008.htmhttp://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/management_and_leadership_standards/quality_management/iso_9001_2008/guidance_on_the_documentation_requirements_of_iso_9001_2008.htmhttp://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/management_and_leadership_standards/quality_management/iso_9001_2008/guidance_on_the_documentation_requirements_of_iso_9001_2008.htmhttp://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/management_and_leadership_standards/quality_management/iso_9001_2008/guidance_on_the_documentation_requirements_of_iso_9001_2008.htm


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Determine the need for recording results.

- Customer satisfaction,

- Supplier performance,

- On time delivery,

- Lead times,

- Failure rates,

- Waste,

- Process costs,

- Incident frequency.

5.2.3

Define the

resources needed

Determine the resources needed for the effective

operation of each process

Examples of resources include:

- Human resources,

- Infrastructure,

- Work environment,

- Information,

- Natural resources,

- Materials,

- Financial resources

5.2.4

Verify the process

and its activities

against its planned

objectives

Confirm that the characteristics of the processes are

consistent with the purpose of the organization (see

5.1.1)

Verify that all the requirements

identified in 5.1.1 are satisfied. If

not, consider what additional

process activities are required

and return to 5.2.1 to improve the

process.

5.3. Implementation and measurement of the process

Implement the processes and their activities as planned.

The organization may develop a project for implementation that includes, but is not limited to

Communication,

Awareness,

Training,

Change management,

Management involvement,

Applicable review activities.

Apply the controls, and perform the monitoring and measurements as planned.

5.4. Analysis of the process

Analyze and evaluate process information obtained from monitoring and measuring data, in order to quantify

process performance. Where appropriate, use statistical methods.

Compare the results of process performance information with the defined requirements of the process, to

confirm process effectiveness and efficiency and to identify any need for corrective action.


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Identify process improvement opportunities based on the results of the analysis of process information.

Report to top management, and other relevant people in the organization, on the performance of the

process, as appropriate.

5.5. Corrective action and improvement of the process

Whenever corrective actions are needed, the method for implementing them should be defined. This should

include the identification and elimination of the root causes of the problems (e.g. errors, defects, lack of

adequate process controls). The effectiveness of the actions taken should be reviewed. Implement the

corrective actions and verify their effectiveness according to plan.

When planned process outcomes are being achieved and requirements fulfilled, the organization should

focus its efforts on actions to improve process performance to higher levels, on a continual basis.

The method for improvement should be defined and implemented (examples of improvements include:

process simplification, enhancement of efficiency, improvement of effectiveness, reduction of process cycle

time). Verify the effectiveness of the improvement.

Risk analysis tools may be employed to identify potential problems. The root cause(s) of these potential

problems should also be identified and eliminated, preventing occurrence in all processes with similarly

identified risks.

The Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) methodology can be a useful tool to define, implement and control

corrective actions and improvements. Extensive literature exists about the PDCA cycle in numerous

languages.

PLAN >> Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver

results in accordance with customer, statutory and regulatory requirements and the organization's policies; DO >> Implement the processes;

CHECK >> Monitor and measure processes and product against policies, objectives and requirements for

the product and report the results;

ACT >> Take actions to continually improve process performance;

The PDCA is a dynamic methodology that can be deployed within each of the organizations processes and

across their interactions. It is intimately associated with planning, implementation, verification and

improvement.

Maintaining and improving process performance can be achieved by applying the PDCA concept at all levelswithin an organization. This applies equally to all processes, from high-level strategic processes to simple

operational activities.


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Problem solving is a mental process and is part of the larger problem process that includes problemfinding and problem shaping. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions, problem solvinghas been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of moreroutine or fundamental skills .[1] Problem solving occurs when an organism or an artificial intelligencesystem needs to move from a given state to a desired goal state.

Characteristics of difficult problems

As elucidated by Dietrich Drner and later expanded upon by Joachim Funke, difficult problems havesome typical characteristics that can be summarized as follows:

Intransparency (lack of clarity of the situation)o commencement opacityo continuation opacity

Polytely (multiple goals)o inexpressivenesso oppositiono transience

Complexity (large numbers of items, interrelations and decisions)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_findinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_findinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_shapinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving#cite_note-G.26L87-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving#cite_note-G.26L87-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving#cite_note-G.26L87-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietrich_D%C3%B6rnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Funkehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytelyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytelyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Funkehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietrich_D%C3%B6rnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving#cite_note-G.26L87-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_shapinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_findinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_findinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem


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o enumerabilityo connectivity (hierarchy relation, communication relation, allocation relation)o heterogeneity

Dynamics (time considerations)o temporal constraintso temporal sensitivityo phase effectso dynamic unpredictability

The resolution of difficult problems requires a direct attack on each of these characteristics that areencountered.

In reform mathematics, greater emphasis is placed on problem solving relative to basic skills, where basicoperations can be done with calculators. However some "problems" may actually have standard solutionstaught in higher grades. For example, kindergarteners could be asked how many fingers are there on allthe gloves of 3 children, which can be solved with multiplication .[5]

[edit] Problem-solving techniques

Abstraction: solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system Analogy: using a solution that solved an analogous problem Brainstorming: (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or

ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum is found Divide and conquer: breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems Hypothesis testing: assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in

some contexts, disprove) the assumption Lateral thinking: approaching solutions indirectly and creatively Means-ends analysis: choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal Method of focal objects: synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects

into something new Morphological analysis: assessing the output and interactions of an entire system Reduction: transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist Research: employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems Root cause analysis: eliminating the cause of the problem Trial-and-error: testing possible solutions until the right one is found Proof: try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The point where the proof fails will be the

starting point for solving it

"A solution, to be a solution, must share some of the problems characteristics." Richard L Kempe

[edit] Problem-solving methodologies

Eight Disciplines Problem Solving GROW model How to solve it Kepner-Tregoe PDCA RPR Problem Diagnosis TRIZ (Teoriya Resheniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch, "theory of solving inventor's problems")

[edit] Example applications

Problem solving is of crucial importance in engineering when products or processes fail, so corrective

action can be taken to prevent further failures. Perhaps of more value, problem solving can be applied to aproduct or process prior to an actual fail event i.e. a potential problem can be predicted, analyzed andmitigation applied so the problem never actually occurs. Techniques like Failure Mode Effects Analysiscan be used to proactively reduce the likelihood of problems occurring. Forensic engineering is animportant technique of failure analysis which involves tracing product defects and flaws. Correctiveaction can then be taken to prevent further failures.

[edit] See also
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumerabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogeneityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unpredictabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Problem_solving&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainstorminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_thinkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Means-ends_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_focal_objectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_analysis_(problem-solving)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_(complexity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_cause_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial-and-errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_(truth)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Problem_solving&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Disciplines_Problem_Solvinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GROW_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_solve_ithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepner-Tregoehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDCAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPR_Problem_Diagnosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIZhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Problem_solving&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_mode_and_effects_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Problem_solving&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Problem_solving&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_mode_and_effects_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Problem_solving&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIZhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPR_Problem_Diagnosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDCAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepner-Tregoehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_solve_ithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GROW_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Disciplines_Problem_Solvinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Problem_solving&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_(truth)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial-and-errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_cause_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_(complexity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_analysis_(problem-solving)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_focal_objectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Means-ends_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_thinkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainstorminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Problem_solving&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unpredictabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogeneityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumerability


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Thinking portal

Artificial intelligence C-K theory Creative problem solving Divergent thinking Educational psychology Executive function Forensic engineering Grey problem Heuristics Innovation Intelligence amplification Inquiry Logical reasoning Problem statement Herbert Simon Thought Transdisciplinary studies Troubleshooting Wicked problem
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Thinkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-K_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_problem_solvinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergent_thinkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_amplificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquiryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_reasoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_statementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Simonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transdisciplinary_studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troubleshootinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicked_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nicolas_P._Rougier's_rendering_of_the_human_brain.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicked_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troubleshootinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transdisciplinary_studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Simonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_statementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_reasoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquiryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_amplificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergent_thinkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_problem_solvinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-K_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Thinking


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Inquiry education (sometimes known as the inquiry method ) is a student-centered method of educationfocused on asking questions. Students are encouraged to ask questions which are meaningful to them, andwhich do not necessarily have easy answers; teachers are encouraged to avoid giving answers when this ispossible, and in any case to avoid giving direct answers in favor of asking more questions. The methodwas advocated by Neil Postman and Charles Weingartner in their book Teaching as a Subversive Activity .

The inquiry method is motivated by Postman and Weingartner's recognition that good learners and soundreasoners center their attention and activity on the dynamic process of inquiry itself, not merely on theend product of static knowledge. They write that certain characteristics are common to all good learners(Postman and Weingartner, 31 33), saying that all good learners have:

Self-confidence in their learning ability Pleasure in problem solving A keen sense of relevance Reliance on their own judgment over other people's or society's No fear of being wrong No haste in answering Flexibility in point of view Respect for facts, and the ability to distinguish between fact and opinion No need for final answers to all questions, and comfort in not knowing an answer to

difficult questions rather than settling for a simplistic answer

In an attempt to instill students with these qualities and behaviors, a teacher adhering to the inquiry

method in pedagogy must behave very differently from a traditional teacher. Postman and Weingartnersuggest that inquiry teachers have the following characteristics (pp. 34 37):

They avoid telling students what they "ought to know". They talk to students mostly by questioning, and especially by asking divergent

questions. They do not accept short, simple answers to questions. They encourage students to interact directly with one another, and avoid judging what is

said in student interactions. They do not summarize students' discussion. They do not plan the exact direction of their lessons in advance, and allow it to develop in

response to students' interests.

Their lessons pose problems to students. They gauge their success by change in students' inquiry behaviors (with the abovecharacteristics of "good learners" as a goal .

The discovery method is a teaching technique that encourages students to take a more active role in theirlearning process by answering a series of questions or solving problems designed to introduce a generalconcept (Mayer 2003). Jerome S. Bruner, a highly influential cognitive psychologist, is credited for itsdevelopment into an accepted instructional technique.
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Overview

The discovery method is based on the notion that learning takes place through classification and schemaformation (Gellenstien 2004). Three main principles guided Bruners development of this approach:

1. Consideration should be given to experiences and contexts

? that motivate the students interests

2. There should be a spiral organization of the material forcing students to build upon previously acquiredinformation

3. The instruction should facilit ate extrapolation ? constructivist theory

In this teaching approach, the instructor guides the students thought process by posing a series of questions whose responses would lead to the understanding of a concept before it is explicitly stated.Children act as detectives as they solve concept -attainment activities in stimulating learningenvironments. In doing so, they place a newly introduced object in a category that they have previously

discovered or identified ? (Gallenstien 2004). This teaching method is believed to increase retention of material because the student organizes the new information and integrates it with information that hasalready been stored.

Method outline

A. Examples Manipulation

B. Practice with more examples

C. New concepts explained/defined (Hopkins 2002)

Mayer describes these as pure discovery, guided discovery, and expository, respectively.

The Discovery method refers to how much guidance a teacher should give their students. There are threelevels of guidance in teaching:

1. Pure Discovery - The student recieves representative problems to solve with minimal teacher guidance(Mayer, 2003).

2. Guided Discovery - The student recieves problems to solve, but the teacher provides hints anddirections about how to solve the problemto keep the student on track (Mayer, 2003).

3. Expository - The final answer or rule is presented to the student (Mayer, 2003).
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What Are the Goals of Screening Tests?

Screening tests have many goals.

A screening test that works the way it should and is helpful does the following:

Finds cancer before symptoms appear.

Screens for a cancer that is easier to treat and cure when found early.

Has few false-negative test results and false-positive test results .

Decreases the chance of dying from cancer.

Screening tests are not meant to diagnose cancer.

Screening tests usually do not diagnose cancer. If a screening test result is abnormal , more testsmay be done to check for cancer. For example, a screening mammogram may find a lump in thebreast . A lump may be cancer or something else. More tests need to be done to find out if the

lump is cancer. These are called diagnostic tests . Diagnostic tests may include a biopsy , in whichcells or tissues are removed so a pathologist can check them under a microscope for signs of cancer.
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uage=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=44636&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=46450&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=340929&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=340928&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=318813&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=45022&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=45333&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?id=46171&version=Patient&language=English


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People Power Revolution

The People Power Revolution (also known as the EDSA Revolution and the PhilippineRevolution of 1986 ) was a series of popular demonstrations in the Philippines that occurred in1983-86. The methods used amounted to a sustained campaign of civil resistance against regime

violence and electoral fraud. This case of nonviolent revolution led to the departure of PresidentFerdinand Marcos and the restoration of the country's democracy. It has been an inspiration forthe Revolutions of 1989 that contributed to the ending of communist dictatorships in EasternEurope .[1] It is also referred to as the Yellow Revolution due to the presence of yellow ribbonsduring the demonstrations and the arrival of Benigno Aquino, Jr. .[2][3] It was widely seen as avictory of the people against the 20-year running authoritarian, repressiv e[4] regime of thenpresident Ferdinand Marcos and made news headlines as "the revolution that surprised theworld" .[5]

The majority of the demonstrations took place at Epifanio de los Santos Avenue, known morecommonly by its acronym EDSA , in Quezon City, Metropolitan Manila and involved over two

million Filipino civilians as well as several political, military, and religious figures, such asCardinal Jaime Sin. The protests, fueled by a resistance and opposition of years of corruptgovernance by Marcos, occurred from February 22 25, 1986, when Marcos fled MalacaangPalace to the U.S. state of Hawaii and conceded to Corazon Aquino as the legitimate President of the Philippines .[6]

Background and history

President Ferdinand Marcos

Ferdinand Marcos was elected president in 1965, defeating incumbent Diosdado Macapagal by a veryslim margin. During this time, Marcos was very active in the initiation of public works projects and theintensification of tax collections. Marcos and his government claimed that they "built more roads than allhis predecessors combined, and more schools than any previous administration" .[8] Amidst charges of

vote buying and a fraudulent election, Marcos was reelected in 1969, this time defeating Sergio OsmeaJr.

Marcos's second term for the presidency, however, was marred by allegations of widespread graft andcorruption. The increasing disparity of wealth between the very wealthy and the very poor which made upthe majority of the country's population led to the rise of crime and civil unrest around the country. Thesefactors, including the formation of the New People's Army, an armed revolt that called for theredistribution of wealth and land reform in the Philippines, and a bloody Muslim separatist movement in
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the southern island of Mindanao led by the Moro National Liberation Front, contributed to the rapid riseof civil discontent and unrest in the Philippines.

Marcos was barred from running for a third term as president in 1973, so on September 23, 1972, byvirtue of a presidential proclamation (No. 1081), he declared martial law, citing rising civil disobedienceas justification. Through this decree, Marcos seized emergency powers giving him full control of thePhilippine military and the authority to suppress the freedom of speech, the freedom of the press, andmany other civil liberties. Marcos also dissolved the Philippine Congress and shut down mediaestablishments critical of the Marcos government. Marcos also ordered the immediate arrest of hispolitical opponents and critics. Among those arrested were Senate President Jovito Salonga, Senator JoseDiokno, and Senator Benigno Aquino Jr., the staunchest of his critics and the man who was groomed bythe opposition to beat Marcos in the 1973 elections. Marcos would also abolish the Philippines' 1935constitution and replace it with a parliamentary-style government (the Batasang Pambansa) along with anew constitution written by him. With practically all of his political opponents arrested and in exile,Marcos' pre-emptive declaration of martial law in 1972, and the ratification of his new constitutionthrough political coercion, enabled him to effectively legitimize his government and hold on to power foranother 14 years beyond his first two terms as president. At a period when the Cold War was still apolitical reality, Marcos's dictatorship ensured the political support of the United States by Marcos'promise to stamp out communism in the Philippines and by assuring the United States of its continued useof military and naval bases in the Philippines .[9]

Throughout his presidency, Ferdinand Marcos had set up a regime in the Philippines that would give himultimate power over the military and the national treasury, as well as set up a personality cult. Followinghis declaration of martial law on September 21, 1972 ,[10] Marcos immediately began to embezzle moneyfrom the government and order the military to kill any political competition against him. As a result, thePhilippine economy began to tumble greatly, and the nation lost its competitive edge in Southeast Asia.He also ordered many stores, hotels, schools, universities, and other public places to place his Presidentialpicture prominently or otherwise their facilities were shut down. The media frequently "eulogized"Marcos through public service announcements and news reports. Even billboard advertisements acrossthe country were replaced with his propaganda messages on justifying his regime's actions. Marcos alsoordered the shutdown and takeovers of businesses in the country, then put these businesses either underthe government control, or under the control of Marcos cronies .[9]

Several groups of people, however, even within the government, conspired throughout the term of theMarcos regime to overthrow him. They were led by the popular public figure, incarcerated oppositionsenator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr, who Marcos accused as leaning to a left-wing solution. Whilegaining popularity amongst the Filipino people for his stance against Marcos, Aquino was eventuallyforced to seek exile in the United States for health and safety reasons. However, in 1983, Ninoy Aquinoannounced of his plans to return to the Philippines as a challenge to Marcos's government .[9]

Within the military and the police, disillusioned junior officers silently conveyed their grievances. Thisled to the formation of the Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM), Soldier of the Filipino People(SFP), and Young Officers Union (YOU). RAM, which was led by graduates of the Philippine MilitaryAcademy Class of '71, Lt. Col. Gringo Honasan, Lt. Col. Victor Batac, and Lt. Col. Eduardo Kapunan, found an ally and mentor in the Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile.

[edit] Assassination of Ninoy Aquino Main article: Assassination of Benigno Aquino, Jr.
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The Manila Bulletin headline of Aquino's assassination on August 21, 1983

Despite warnings from the military and other pro-Marcos groups, and even by Ferdinand Marcos' wifeImelda, not to return to the Philippines, Ninoy Aquino was determined to return to the Philippines. Askedwhat he thought of the death threats, Ninoy Aquino responded "The Filipino is worth dying for."

On August 21, 1983, after a three-year exile in the United States, as he disembarked from a commercialflight at the then -Manila International Airport (now named after him), Aquino was assassinated .[11] Hisassassination shocked and outraged many Filipinos, most of whom by then had lost confidence in theMarcos administration. The event led to more suspicions on the government, triggered non-cooperationamong Filipinos that eventually caused more civil disobedience .[12] It also shook the Marcos government,which was by then deteriorating, in part due to Marcos' worsening health condition due to an eventualfatal illness (lupus erythematosus) .

The assassination of Ninoy Aquino in 1983 caused the economic problems of the country to deteriorateeven further, and the government plunged further into debt. By the end of 1983, the country wasbankrupt, and the economy contracted by 6.8% .[13]

In 1984, Marcos appointed a commission, led by Chief Justice Enrique Fernando, to launch an inquiryand investigation into Aquino's assassination. Despite the commission's conclusions, Cardinal Jaime Sin, the Archbishop of Manila at the time, declined an offer to join the commission, rejecting the government'sviews on the assassination. In October of that year, Marcos appointed a second commission to investigate.The commission's final report accused the military of staging a conspiracy to assassinate Aquino, dealinganother major blow to the already collapsing government. Aquino was shot at Manila InternationalAirport (MIA) which is now called Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA) .[14]

[edit] Calls for election Main article: Philippine presidential election, 1986

On November 23, 1985, after pressures from Washington ,[15] Marcos suddenly announced that apresidential snap election would take place the following year, one year ahead of the regular presidentialelection schedule, to legitimize his control over the country .[1] The snap election was legalized with the

passage of Batas Pambansa Blg. 883 (National Law No. 883) by the Marcos-controlled unicameralcongress called the Regular Batasang Pambansa. The growing opposition movement encouraged NinoyAquino's widow, Corazon Aquino, to run for the presidency with Salvador Laurel as running mate forvice-president. Marcos ran for re-election, with Arturo Tolentino as his running mate. The Aquino-Laureltandem ran under the United Opposition (UNIDO) party, while the Marcos-Tolentino ticket ran under theKilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL) party .[16]
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[edit] Snap election Main article: Philippine presidential election, 1986

The elections were held on February 7, 1986 .[1] The official election canvasser, the Commission onElections (COMELEC), declared Marcos the winner. The final tally of the COMELEC had Marcoswinning with 10,807,197 votes against Aquino's 9,291,761 votes. On the other hand, the final tally of theNational Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL), an accredited poll watcher, had Aquino winningwith 7,835,070 votes against Marcos' 7,053,068 points .[17] This electoral exercise was marred bywidespread reports of violence and tampering of election results, culminating in the walkout of 29COMELEC computer technicians to protest the deliberate manipulation of the official election results tofavor Ferdinand Marcos. The walkout was considered as one of the early "sparks" of the People PowerRevolution. The walkout also served as an affirmation to allegations of vote-buying, fraud, and tamperingof election results by the KBL .[18]

Because of reports of alleged fraud, the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) issued astatement condemning the elections. The United States Senate also passed a resolution stating the samecondemnation .[1] US president Ronald Reagan issued a statement calling the fraud reports as

"disturbing" .[19]

In response to the protests, COMELEC claimed that Marcos with 53 percent won overAquino. However, NAMFREL countered that the latter won over Marcos with 52 percent of votes .[20]

On February 15, Marcos was proclaimed by COMELEC and Batasang Pambansa as the winner amidstthe controversy. All 50 opposition members of the Parliament walked out in protest. The Filipino peoplerefused to accept the results, however, asserting that Aquino was the real victor. Both "winners" took theiroath of office in two different places, with Aquino gaining greater mass support. Aquino also called forcoordinated strikes and mass boycott of the media and businesses owned by Marcos's cronies. As a result,the crony banks, corporations, and media were hit hard, and their shares in the stock market plummeted torecord levels.

[edit] Events of the revolution

Appalled by the bold and apparent election irregularities, the Reform the Armed Forces Movement setinto motion a coup attempt against Marcos. The initial plan was for a team to assault Malacaang Palaceand arrest Ferdinand Marcos. Other military units will be taking over key strategic facilities, such as theairport, military bases, TV and radio stations, the GHQAFP in Camp Aguinaldo, and major highway

junctions to restrict counteroffensive by Marcos-loyal troops.

Lt.Col Gregorio Honasan was to lead the team that was going to assault Malacaang Palace.

However, after Marcos learned about the plot, he ordered their leaders' arrest ,[21] and presented to theinternational and local press some of the captured plotters, Maj. Saulito Aromin and Maj. EdgardoDoromal .[22][23]

Threatened with their impending imprisonment, Enrile and his fellow coup plotters decided to ask forhelp from then AFP Vice Chief of Staff Lt. Gen Fidel Ramos, who was also the chief of the PhilippineConstabulary (now the Philippine National Police). Ramos agreed to resign from his position and supportthe plotters. Enrile also contacted the highly influential Cardinal Archbishop of Manila Jaime Sin for hissupport.

At about 6:30pm, February 22, Enrile and Ramos held a press conference at Camp Aguinaldo, where theyannounced that they had resigned from their positions in Marcos's cabinet and were withdrawing supportfrom his government. Marcos himself later conducted his own news conference calling on Enrile andRamos to surrender, urging them to "stop this stupidity. "[24]

At about 9 p.m., in a message aired over Radio Veritas, Cardinal Sin exhorted Filipinos to come to the aidof the rebel leaders by going to EDSA between Camp Crame and Aguinaldo and giving emotionalsupport, food and other supplies. For many, this seemed an unwise decision since civilians would notstand a chance against a dispersal by government troops. Nevertheless, many people, especially priestsand nuns, trooped to EDSA .[24]

Radio Veritas played a critical role during the mass uprising. Former University of the Philippinespresident Francisco Nemenzo stated that: " Without Radio Veritas, it would have been difficult, if not
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impossible, to mobilize millions of people in a matter of hours ." Similarly, a certain account in the eventsaid that: " Radio Veritas, in fact, was our umbilical cord to whatever else was going on ."[25]

[edit] Rising mass support

During the height of the revolution, an estimated one to three million people filled EDSA from OrtigasAvenue all the way to Cubao. The photo above shows the area at the intersection of EDSA and BoniSerrano Avenue, just between Camp Crame and Camp Aguinaldo.

At dawn, Sunday, government troops arrived to knock down the main transmitter of Radio Veritas,cutting off broadcasts to people in the provinces. The station switched to a standby transmitter with alimited range of broadcast .[25] The station was targeted because it had proven to be a valuablecommunications tool for the people supporting the rebels, keeping them informed of government troopmovements and relaying requests for food, medicine, and supplies .[24]

Still, people came to EDSA until it swelled to hundreds of thousands of unarmed civilians. The mood inthe street was actually very festive, with many bringing whole families. Performers entertained thecrowds, nuns and priests led prayer vigils, and people set up barricades and makeshift sandbags, trees, andvehicles in several places along EDSA and intersecting streets such as Santolan and Ortigas Avenue.Everywhere, people listened to Radio Veritas on their radios. Several groups sang Bayan Ko (MyHomeland) ,[26] which, since 1980, had become a patriotic anthem of the opposition. People frequentlyflashed the LABAN (fight) sign ,[27] which is an "L" formed with their thumb and index finger.

Shortly after lunch on February 23, Enrile and Ramos decided to consolidate their positions. Enrilecrossed EDSA from Camp Aguinaldo to Camp Crame amidst cheers from the crowd .[24]

In the mid-afternoon, Radio Veritas relayed reports of Marines massing near the camps in the east andLVT-5 tanks approaching from the north and south. A contingent of Marines with tanks and armoredvans, led by Brigadier General Artemio Tadiar, was stopped along Ortigas Avenue, about two kilometersfrom the camps, by tens of thousands of people .[28] Nuns holding rosaries knelt in front of the tanks andmen and women linked arms together to block the troops .[29] Tadiar asked the crowds to make a clearingfor them, but they did not budge. In the end, the troops retreated with no shots fired .[24]

By evening, the standby transmitter of Radio Veritas failed. Shortly after midnight, the staff were able togo to another station to begin broadcasting from a secret location under the moniker "Radyo Bandido"(Bandit Radio). June Keithley, with Angelo Castro, was the radio broadcaster who continued RadioVeritas' program throughout the night and in the remaining days .[24]

[edit] More defections

At dawn on Monday, February 24, the first serious encounter with government troops occurred. Marinesmarching from Libis, in the east, lobbed tear gas at the demonstrators, who quickly dispersed. Some 3,000Marines then entered and held the east side of Camp Aguinaldo .[24]

Later, helicopters manned by the 15th Strike Wing of the Philippine Air Force, led by Colonel AntonioSotelo, were ordered from Sangley Point in Cavite (South of Manila) to head to Camp Crame .[30] Secretly,the squadron had already defected and instead of attacking Camp Crame, landed in it, with the crowdscheering and hugging the pilots and crew members. A Bell 214 helicopter piloted by Major Deo Cruz of
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