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Teaching and Research: bridging the abyss for effective practice
Dr John Benseman
Copies of this presentation will be available
Also an article in Fine Print based on this presentation
Outline
What factors influenced us as teachers? How do we actually teach? What is the value of research for us as teachers? How can research improve our teaching? Where can we go for help? How do I go about becoming a research-informed
teacher?
How many of you are:
Currently teachers? Administrators or managers? Policy-makers? Researchers? Teach others how to teach?
Have been teachers at some point in your careers?
The bottom line of education:
Teachers teaching are at the core of what we do – and the main factor that brings about change in learners
We all know this
We all feel this
There is strong research to back this claim – what teachers do (and don’t do) matters in making learning happen compared with non-teaching factors (Hattie, 2009, 2012, 2016)
Who/what has influenced you most as a teacher?
Formal teacher training programme PD programmes Colleagues Mentor General educational writer (e.g. bell hooks, Skinner) Adult education writer (e.g. Newman, Knowles,
Brookfield) Adult literacy writer (e.g. Freire, Campbell) Researcher Policy or research report
Other influences? Hearsay Suggestions or advice from colleagues Observing other teachers ‘Common sense’ Cumulative personal experience ‘Gut feeling’ Tradition -‘We’ve always done it like this’
McGuirk’s study of 252 Australian adult literacy managers and teachers: few had any familiarity with major thinkers, writers or
researchers in the field “The results are somewhat disturbing as they reveal that
many supposedly well-known authors and researchers are unknown or have had little impact on many respondents. Many respondents ticked ‘Not known’ to the entire list” (p. 59).
US study of 208 adult literacy teachers also found low levels of knowledge of research about the teaching of reading based on the Knowledge of Teaching Adult Reading Skills test
The UK inspectorate Ofsted reports highly variable practices, often inconsistent with adult teaching principles or relevant research findings
The slip ‘twixt cup and lip There are often significant discrepancies between what
teachers say they do and how they actually teach Although teachers’ responses in their interviews
suggested they wanted to be learner-centered, our classroom observations quite clearly showed that instruction was highly teacher-directed (Beder and Medina, 2001, p. 110).
How do we teach?
Not a lot of research about how LN teachers teach – it is a fairly private activity
A small number of observational studies of adult LN teachers: Interactions are predominantly teacher-initiated Questions and responses are dominated by factual information (i.e. low-
level thinking) Predominantly teacher-initiated ‘question and answer’ format Not a lot of variation in teaching strategies (even when aware of them) Interaction with different students highly variable
One US study of LN teachers concluded that by and large, the teachers taught how they themselves were taught as learners, “with the assumption that what worked for them will work for anyone”
Observational research Benseman, J., Lander, J., & Sutton, A. (2005). Pedagogy in
practice: an observational study of literacy, numeracy and language teachers. Auckland: The University of Auckland & UniServices Ltd.
15 LN teachers observed for approx. 2000 minutes plus in-depth interviews
Detailed observation grids to record teacher’s activities
Dominance of generic teaching practices Few ‘deliberate acts of teaching’ focused on learners’ needs Wide variation in interaction patterns (in group of
3, one generated >70% of responses, one <20% and one <10%)
Teachers talked 50-65% of talk teachers generated 4 lines of text, learners
less than one – so who is doing the work? Most questions required yes/no answers Very short wait time with questions
answers not used for learning
Little use of ‘teaching moments’ Teachers chose adult-appropriate content, but little learner choice Reading: predominant strategy was learners
reading a piece of text (either silently or aloud) and the teacher asking questions about the content (usually about vocabulary rather than broader comprehension) or supplying additional information about the subject content.
Little explicit teaching of alphabetics, comprehension or reading fluency
Few could name their teaching methods/origins Strong on support, weak on challenge (Daloz)
High
Low High
SUPPORT
• C
HA
LL
EN
GE
Retreat Stasis
Growth Confirmation
Low
The role of research in what we do
Scenario 1 Me: Doctor, I have this problem with my tongue and cheek that
has been steadily getting worse since last week. Google says that it’s dyspepsia
Doctor: Hmm, I’m not sure that Dr. Google has got it right, but from what you say, I think you should take five of these pills twice a day. I’ve heard that they are quite good for this sort of condition
Me: Don’t you want to examine me? Who told you that they work?
Doctor: No, I think that you are the best judge of what’s going on. A couple of my colleagues told me that they seem to work quite well. Now, what colour pills would you like? Green is quite popular
Scenario 2 Engineer 1: So what do you think of my latest bridge design? Engineer 2: It’s certainly a looker although you think it will
hold up in rough weather? Engineer 1: I think so. I made a balsa wood model in my bath and it seemed to work OK. I think I should be a contender for a major award with this one. I’ve had great feedback on the plans
Scenario 3
Teacher 1: Hey, I think that we should use that new grant to give all our students iPads so that they can become independent learners
Teacher 2: Sounds great. Do you think it will work?
Teacher 1: I think so. The students love anything technological and it’s the way the world’s going. They play with their phones all the time and they tell me that prefer it to being in a classroom
How can we become a research-informed profession?
RIT – possible paths 1. Using our own research to review and reform our
practice in order to identify discrepancies between agreed criteria and what we actually do – e.g. videoing and use of assessment results
2. Using others’ (high quality) research to inform our practice – my primary focus today
3. Combo of 1 and 2
The gulf between research and practice “Education has long struggled with the gap between the
methods that are best supported by systematic research and those that are most widely used” (Spencer, Detrich, & Slocum, 2012, p. 127).
Researchers argue that practitioners aren’t aware of research findings or don’t understand them
Practitioners retort that researchers don’t understand their everyday realities or that their findings are not readily available and when they are, are cloaked in mystique and obtuseness
Teaching Research
Teaching Research
Research Teaching
Clarifying terminology 1. Research-led: curriculum content is based on the research
interests of teachers
2. Research-oriented: the process of learning content is seen as important as the content itself and hence, an emphasis on learning inquiry skills
3. Research-based: curriculum is based on inquiry-based activities rather than acquisition of content
4. Research-informed teaching: draws on systematic inquiry into the teaching and learning process itself Krokfors et al. (2011, p. 2) . Also known as evidence-based teaching
Be careful to distinguish between ‘opinion pieces’, philosophical writing and original research
Always look for sampling and details of methodology
Malcolm Knowles – the andragogical saint of teaching adults Pioneered adult teaching principles in the 1960s and 1970s Many adult teachers were inspired by him and endeavoured
to follow his principles But is andragogy more effective than pedagogy?
Rachal’s study Andragogical and pedagogical methods compared: a review of the experimental literature
Found only 18 comparative studies Most found no difference between the two groups; 2
‘traditional’ groups performed better “the trend of the available empirical literature runs counter to
many of the anecdotal claims for andragogy superiority over pedagogical methods.”
Sacred cow research
Dyslexia Rice, M. & G. Brooks (2004). Developmental dyslexia in adults: a
research review. London, NRDC
Learning styles Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004).
Learning styles and pedagogy in post 16 learning. A systematic and critical review. London Learning and Skills Research Centre
Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Should we be using learning styles? What research has to say to practice. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre
How do we identify effective teaching practices?
Ask learners
Ask expert teachers
Practitioner wisdom
Relevant, rigorous research – as in other professions such as health, engineering
John Hattie - Visible Learning Based on the findings from:
800 meta-analyses 50,000 individual studies 250 million+ kids
Schools and RIT
RIT is integral to improving school performance
‘Systems that learn: creating an education evidence ecosystem’ Social Ventures Australia Quarterly, June 28, 2016
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sng4p3Vsu7Y https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lS_AackYwEo Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning. A synthesis of over 800 meta-
analyses relating to achievement. London: Routledge Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers. Maximising impact on
learning. Abingdon, England: Routledge Hattie, J., Masters, D., & Birch, K. (Eds.). (2016). Visible learning
into action. International case studies of impact. New York: Routledge
Caveats about RIT Identifying causation is always problematic (e.g. smoking and cancer)
Even within the apparent clinical, ‘laboratory-driven’ environment of medicine, considerable challenges about sampling, drug company sponsorship and the exclusion of non-conforming results (Goldacre, 2012).
Ideally we look for strong, cumulative correlational evidence – ‘stronger vs. weaker findings’ Kruidenier’s ‘principles’ (2+ experimental studies), ‘trends’ (< 2 experimental),
‘ideas’ (strong findings from K-12 research) & ‘comments’ (less conclusive from K-112)
In many cases, there may be no research rather than positive or negative findings
Many factors have an impact on learning – but some have much more than others (Hattie)
Important points Generalisability of findings
“Science progresses by convergence upon conclusions. The outcomes of one study can only be interpreted in the context of the present state of the convergence on the particular issue in question” Stanovich and Stanovich (2003, p. 18)
The design quality, number of studies and the rigour of the process
Qualitative research has an important role, esp. in exploring topics/issues and understanding why interventions do or don’t work
Hierarchy of research studies
• Experimental: two identical groups of participants randomly assigned to treatment and control groups.
• Quasi-experimental: employing treatment and comparison groups that are not randomly assigned but appear identical, though they may have unseen differences. Statistical controls allow researchers to compensate for the differences between the treatment and comparison groups.
• Correlational with statistical controls: employs treatment and comparison groups that are not identical, but researchers use statistical controls to compensate for differences that may be important.
• Correlational without statistical controls: employs treatment and comparison groups that are different, but researchers assume that the differences may not be important, since the sample is usually large.
• Case studies: may employ only a treatment group and assumes that differences among participants are not important or are obvious, since the sample is usually small.
Prior to the OECD IALS studies
Very few adult LN researchers Very little research; highly variable quality Research driven by individual researchers’ interests Few formal LN qualifications that included research
Studies like ‘No single measure’ and IALS had considerable impact: On politicians and policy-makers The broader public The LN sector
Adult literacy and numeracy research 1990-2015 emergence of strong research bodies and
research studies : NRDC in Britain NCSALL in US NALA in Ireland Center for Literacy in Canada VOX in Norway Government-sponsored reviews
Effective dissemination of research in ways that practitioners can use
Becoming an Research-informed teacher
Learn how to read and critique research Access the substantial body of relevant research
available – both LN-specific and generic studies Ask national advisory bodies for help
Assemble the research ‘translate’ it into practice notes
Make the most of meta-analyses: You don’t have to do the research You don’t have to find the research Someone else has assembled and critiqued the findings
Learn to read research Wolf & Evans (2009) findings on 567 learners in 53
workplaces: they had little impact on workplace practices no programmes continued after the research poor retention of learners showed a very small average gain in reading skills
between testing
But, reading the methodology…
‘…most were the result of the ‘provider’ contacting the employer and offering a free course, typically for 30 hours’ (i.e. a passive model of recruitment)
Employers organised facilities but only a few also offered paid study time, usually through government grants
Most of the courses were ‘pre-packaged’, not contextualised to the context or learners
Were predominantly IT courses
Other workplace programmes had much more effect – e.g. Measures of Success, Upskilling
Becoming RI-teachers Is an ideal focus for PD programmes
Can be done as an individual, a group of colleagues or as a whole organisation
Can inform current teaching and programmes or new ones
Can be done incrementally; you don’t have to have a perfect repertoire of strategies in order to become an RIT
Teaching as an art vs. a science
Don’t dichotomise your position – Dead Poets Society vs B F Skinner?
There are probably some aspects of teaching we will never fully understand – but there is much that we can
Remember what research is It involves the systematic collection of evidence in order
to better understand topics or issues that we want to improve
Don’t be intimidated by the white coat syndrome You may never fully come to grips with all the research
on a topic But using research as a basis for deciding how to teach
or develop programmes is inherently better than intuition, guesswork or hearsay
Use research as your guide in decision-making
Some examples Meta-analyses of findings:
Reading Brooks, G., et al. (2007). Effective teaching and learning: reading.
London, NRDC McShane, S. (2005). Applying research in reading instruction for adults.
First steps for teachers. Washington DC: National Institute of Literacy, The Partnership for Reading
Kruidenier, J. (2002). Research-based principles for adult basic education reading instruction. Portsmouth, NH, RMC Research Corporation
Kruidenier, J., et al. (2010). Adult education literacy instruction: a review of the research. Washington DC, National Institute for Literacy
Formative assessment Wiliam, D. (2011). Embedded formative assessment. Bloomington IN:
Solution Tree Press Looney, J. (2008). Teaching, learning and assessment for adults.
Improving foundation skills. Paris: CERI/OECD
Teaching writing Very little research available
Excellent resources:
Nielsen, K. (2015). Teaching writing in adult literacy. Practices to foster motivation and persistence and improve learning outcomes. Adult Learning, XX, No. X, 1-8. [DOI: 10.1177/1045159515594178]
Kelly, S., et al. (2004). Teaching and learning writing: a review of research and practice. London, NRDC.
Benseman, J. (2016). Effective workplace literacy and numeracy programmes: a research-based reader. [DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29062.78408 – also other reports & articles at researchgate.net ]
Benseman, J. (2013). Recruiting and retaining learners in workplace literacy programs in New Zealand. Australian Journal of Adult Education. 53/1 : 7-25 [http://hdl.handle.net/10652/2613]
Benseman, J., & Sutton, A. (2011). Understanding the needs of adult literacy, language and numeracy learners with very low skills: Insights from the research. Journal of Adult Learning in Aotearoa New Zealand, 39(1), 7-18 [http://hdl.handle.net/10652/2050]
Benseman, J. (2010). Transferring literacy skills in the workplace. Reflect, 13 (Summer), 9-11 [http://hdl.handle.net/10652/2055]
Ways to develop learners’ vocabulary include:
Pre-teach words in the text being taught. Teaching the meaning of those words before the learners read the text improves comprehension of the material and builds vocabulary.
Ensure multiple exposures to new words. To be sure learners encounter new words frequently, teach vocabulary they will use.
Keep learners actively engaged. Be sure they use the new words they are learning.
Teach word-learning strategies. Give learners tools for discovering the meanings of words they encounter during independent reading. Introduce common prefixes and suffixes (e.g., un, post, ful, ly) and
demonstrate how they alter the meaning and function of base words. Teach specific strategies for using context clues to derive the meaning of
unknown words (e.g., noticing a definition or explanation following the word and set off by commas).
Teach learners how to use a dictionary.
Benseman, J. (2012). Teaching research-based literacy skills in training courses. Training and Development, 39(5), 24-27 [http://hdl.handle.net/10652/2399]
Carlton Neighbourhood Learning Centre Resource Hub
Early in the 17th century, two astronomers competed to describe the nature of our solar system. Galileo built a telescope and found new planets and moons.
Francesco Sizi ridiculed Galileo’s findings. There must be only seven planets, Sizi said. After all, there are seven windows in the head—two nostrils, two ears, two eyes, and a mouth. There are seven known metals. There are seven days in a week, and they are already named after the seven known planets. If we increase the number of planets, he said, the whole system falls apart.
Finally, Sizi claimed, these so-called satellites being discovered by Galileo were invisible to the eye. He concluded they must have no influence on the Earth and, therefore, do not exist (National Institute for
Literacy, 2010, p. 2).
Sub-titles:
Why do this, rather than that?
On what basis do we decide to teach the way we do?
Practitioners’ views of research 1. Research is not useful. Researchers don’t
understand my teaching context, and the only way to improve my teaching is through my own experience with students.
2. Research can be useful, if it is presented in the form of specific and practical strategies, techniques, and approaches I can readily use in the classroom.
3. Research is useful, but I don’t need it to give me practical strategies. I want it to challenge my assumptions and help me build my theories about teaching. Zeuli (1991)