Taylor, A.j.P. - The Origins of the Second World War (2nd Edition)

8/10/2019 Taylor, A.j.P. - The Origins of the Second World War (2nd Edition)

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Contents

ONE Forgotten Problem

TWO The Legacy of the First World War

THREE The Post-War Decade

FOUR The End of Versailles

FIVE The Abyssinian Affair and the End of Locarno


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SIX The Half-Armed Peace, !"#-"$

SEVEN Anschl%ss& the End of A%stria

EIGHT The Crisis o'er C(echoslo'a)ia

NINE Peace for *i+ onths

TEN The War of er'es

ELEVEN War for Dan(ig

PREFACE FOR THE AMERICAN READER

MOSTwars begin ragged!" In #$e %inds &' Engis$%en ( A)g)s#

*+*( is )ns$a,ab! 'i-ed as #$e da#e w$en #$e 'irs# W&rd war began. !e#

b! #$en Fran/e and Ger%an! $ad been a# war '&r #wen#!0'&)r $&)rs1

R)ssia and Ger%an! '&r #$ree da!s1 Serbia and A)s#ria0H)ngar! '&r

a%&s# a wee," T$e se/&nd W&rd war was 2ag)er s#i in i#s &3ening. #$e

R)ssians da#e i# 'r&% 44 5)ne *+(*1 #$e C$inese 'r&% N&2e%ber *+671 #$e

Ab!ssinians1 I s)33&se1 'r&% O/#&ber *+681 and #$e A%eri/ans 'r&% 7

De/e%ber *+(*" T$e A%eri/an da#e is #$e %&s# sensibe" T$e war be/a%e#r)! w&rd0wide 9 %)/$ %&re s& #$an #$e 'irs# W&rd war 9 &n! a'#er

Pear Harb&r" H&we2er1 #$a# is n $&w i# see%s #& Engis$ 3e&3e" We

da#e #$e se/&nd W&rd war 'r&% 6 Se3#e%ber *+6+1 #$e da! w$en Grea#

:ri#ain and Fran/e de/ared war &n Ger%an! ;n in/iden#a!1 'r&% *

Se3#e%ber1 #$e da! w$en Ger%an! a##a/,ed P&and A%eri/an 3&i/! $ad 2er! i##e #& d& wi#$ #$e :ri#is$ and

Fren/$ de/ara#i&n &' war &n Ger%an!" Per$a3s i# w&)d be #r)er #& sa!

#$a# w$a# i# $ad #& d& wi#$ #$eir de/ara#i&ns &' war was &' a nega#i2e ,ind1

i,e #$e signi'i/an# e3is&de &' #$e d&g in #$e nig$#1 #& w$i/$ S$er&/,

H&%es &n/e drew a##en#i&n" W$en Wa#s&n &b@e/#ed> :)# #$e d&g did

n$ing in #$e nig$#1 H&%es answered> T$a# was #$e signi'i/an#e3is&de" E2en s&1 #$e Uni#ed S#a#es /&)d n a2&id 3a!ing a grea#1

%a!be a de/isi2e1 3ar# in E)r&3ean a''airs" T$e Ger%an 3r&be%1 as i#

e-is#ed be#ween #$e wars1 was arge! #$e /rea#i&n &' A%eri/an 3&i/!" T$e

'irs# W&rd war w&)d &b2i&)s! $a2e $ad a di''eren# end i' i# $ad n been

'&r A%eri/an in#er2en#i&n> #$e Aies1 #& 3)# i# b)n#!1 w&)d n $a2e

w&n" E=)a!1 #$e 2i/#&r! &2er Ger%an! w&)d $a2e $ad a di''eren#

/$ara/#er i' #$e Uni#ed S#a#es $ad been an Aied1 n an Ass&/ia#ed1


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P&wer" E2er!&ne ,n&ws $&w #$e de#a/$%en# &' #$e Uni#ed S#a#es 'r&% #$e

E)r&3ean Aies was asser#ed w$en #$e Sena#e re')sed #& ra#i'! #$e #rea#!

&' Versaies and1 wi#$ i#1 A%eri/an %e%bers$i3 in #$e Leag)e &' Na#i&ns.

b)# #$is de#a/$%en# e-is#ed e2en in #$e da!s &' /&ses# /&0&3era#i&n1 and

ra#i'i/a#i&n &' #$e #rea#! w&)d n $a2e %ade a #$a# %)/$ di''eren/e"

W&&dr&w Wis&n regarded #$e Aies wi#$ a%&s# as %)/$ dis#r)s# as $eregarded Ger%an!1 &r 3er$a3s wi#$ %&re. and A%eri/an %e%bers$i3 in

#$e Leag)e1 as $e en2isaged i#1 w&)d $a2e been 'ar 'r&% an asse# #& #$e

Aied side"

N&r did #$e a/#i&n &' #$e Sena#e i%3! a re#rea# in#& is&a#i&n"

A%eri/an 3&i/! was ne2er %&re a/#i2e and ne2er %&re e''e/#i2e in regard

#& E)r&3e #$an in #$e nine#een0#wen#ies" Re3ara#i&ns were se##ed. s#abe

'inan/es were res#&red. E)r&3e was 3a/i'ied> a %ain! d)e #& #$e Uni#ed

S#a#es" T$is 3&i/! &' re/&2er! '&&wed #$e d&/#rine &' Be!nes ;and &'

$er e/&n&%is#s< #$a# E)r&3e /&)d be %ade 3r&s3er&)s &n! b! %a,ing

Ger%an! 3r&s3er&)s" T$e re/&2er! &' Ger%an! was A%eri/as d&ing" I#

was we/&%ed b! %&s# 3e&3e in Grea# :ri#ain and e2en b! a /er#ain

n)%ber in Fran/e" I# w&)d $a2e $a33ened1 #& a esser e-#en#1 in an! /ase"

Ne2er#$eess1 A%eri/an 3&i/! was a 3&wer') &bs#a/e agains# an!

a##e%3# #& re#ard #$e re/&2er! &' Ger%an! and a /&nsiderabe assis#an/e #&

#$&se w$& 3r&%ed i#" W$a# indeed 9 a #$&)g$# w$i/$ &//)rred #& %an!

Engis$%en as& 9 /an !&) d& wi#$ Ger%an! e-/e3# %a,e $er #$e

s#r&nges# P&wer in E)r&3e? S#i1 #$e 3r&/ess %ig$# $a2e #a,en &nger i'

A%eri/ans $ad n been s& insis#en# #$a# Ger%an! was #$e %ain 3iar &'

E)r&3ean 3ea/e and /i2iia#i&n" T$e #rea#! &' L&/arn& and #$e ad%issi&n

&' Ger%an! #& #$e Leag)e w&n A%eri/an a33r&2a. #$is was in 'a/# a

s#r&ng %i2e '&r #$e%" T$e sa%e a33ied #& disar%a%en#" E2er! s#e3

#&wards #rea#ing Ger%an! as an e=)a and #&wards dis%an#ing #$e s3e/ia

se/)ri#ies w$i/$ Fran/e &b#ained a# #$e end &' #$e 'irs# W&rd war re/ei2edA%eri/an ba/,ing1 #e%3ered &n! b! i%3a#ien/e #$a# #$e s#e3s were s&w

and $a#ing"

Un#i *+6* &r #$ereab&)#s1 #$e 3&i/! &' #$e Wes#ern P&wers1 Grea#

:ri#ain and Fran/e1 %e# br&ad! wi#$ A%eri/an a33r&2a" T$en #$ings

/$anged" T$is was 3ar#! be/a)se &' e2en#s in #$e Far Eas#" W$en 5a3an

a/#ed in Man/$)ria1 #$e Uni#ed S#a#es wis$ed #& enis# #$e Leag)e &'

Na#i&ns agains# $er. w$ie Grea# :ri#ain and Fran/e #$&)g$# #$a# #$e

Leag)e $ad en&)g$ #& d& in E)r&3e wi#$&)# a##e%3#ing #& e-#end i#s

3rin/i3es #& #$e Far Eas#" T$e di2ergen/e wen# dee3er" A%eri/ans

a##a/$ed grea# 2a)e #& n&n0re/&gni#i&n. wi#$ a 'ine &d0'as$i&ned

&!a#! #& nine#een#$0/en#)r! iberais%1 #$e! beie2ed #$a# %&radisa33r&2a w&)d be e''e/#i2e in i#se'" T$e beie' $ad aread! been

3r&2ed 'ase" T$e Uni#ed S#a#es $ad re')sed #& re/&gnie #$e S&2ie# Uni&n

e2er sin/e *+*7 wi#$&)# #$e sig$#es# e''e/# &n an!&ne" T$e :ri#is$

3ar#i/)ar! #$&)g$# #$a# #$e sa%e res)#1 &r a/, &' res)#1 w&)d '&&w i'

#$e! a33ied #$e 3rin/i3e &' n&n0re/&gni#i&n #& 5a3an" In #$eir &3ini&n1 i#

was %&re i%3&r#an# #& res#&re 3ea/e in #$e Far Eas# #$an #& 3reser2e #$eir

%&ra 2ir#)e" T$e! s)//eeded1 b)# a# #$e 3ri/e &' 3er%anen#! &''ending


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ibera sen#i%en# in #$e Uni#ed S#a#es" A #$is was dead s#)'' w$en

Re3)bi/an r)e was br&)g$# #& an end and Fran,in D" R&&se2e# be/a%e

Presiden#" His 2i/#&r! was1 a%&ng $er #$ings1 a 2i/#&r! '&r is&a#i&nis%

in A%eri/an '&reign 3&i/!. and #$ere is n& e2iden/e #$a# $e disa33r&2ed

&' #$e is&a#i&nis# egisa#i&n w$i/$ #$e De%&/ra#i/ %a@&ri#! 3)s$ed

#$r&)g$ C&ngress" T$e :ri#is$ and Fren/$ were #&d1 in e''e/#1 b! #$&sew$& $ad been #$eir /&ses# 'riends in #$e Uni#ed S#a#es #$a# #$e! %)s# 'a/e

#$e Ger%an 3r&be% )naided" M&re #$an #$a#1 A%eri/an 3&i/! /)# a/r&ss

#$eir e''&r#s" Presiden# R&&se2e#s 'irs# a/# in '&reign a''airs was #& wre/,

#$e W&rd E/&n&%i/ C&n'eren/e1 b! %eans &' w$i/$ #$e :ri#is$

g&2ern%en# $ad $&3ed #& %a,e Nai a)#ar/$! )nne/essar!"

A%eri/an is&a#i&nis% rein'&r/ed is&a#i&nis% esew$ere" :ri#is$

s#)den#s earned 'r&% A%eri/an $is#&rians #$a# #$e 'irs# W&rd war was a

b)nder and #$a# Ger%an! was a @)s#! aggrie2ed P&wer" :ri#is$ iberas

earned 'r&% 3r&gressi2e A%eri/an 3&i#i/ians #$a# wars were /a)sed b!

ar%a%en# %an)'a/#)rers" A%eri/ans1 $a2ing re3)dia#ed #$e #rea#! &'

Versaies #$e%se2es1 were n&w eager #$a# $ers s$&)d re3)dia#e i# as&"

T$e e''e/# &' A%eri/an is&a#i&nis% was 'e# in %&re 3ra/#i/a wa!s" I#

s)33ied a s#r&ng arg)%en# '&r #$&se w$& $esi#a#ed #& %a,e /&e/#i2e

se/)ri#! a reai#!" W$en i# was 3r&3&sed #& /)# &'' I#a!s s)33! &' &i

d)ring #$e Ab!ssinian /risis1 #$e &b@e/#i&n was a# &n/e raised #$a#

A%eri/an &i w&)d s)33! #$e de'i/ien/!. and n& ass)ran/e #& #$e

/&n#rar! /a%e1 &r /&)d /&%e1 'r&% #$e A%eri/an g&2ern%en#" Again1

w$en #$e :ri#is$ g&2ern%en# were )rged #& /&se #$e S)e /ana agains#

I#a!1 in brea/$ &' #$e C&ns#an#in&3e /&n2en#i&n &' *+1 #$e sa%e answer

was gi2en> #$e Uni#ed S#a#es w&)d n a&w i#" N& d&)b# #$ese &bs#a/es

/&)d $a2e been &2er/&%e i' :ri#is$ and Fren/$ s#a#es%en $ad been

s)''i/ien#! res&)#e. b)# w$ere %en $esi#a#ed1 A%eri/an abs#en#i&n $e3ed

#& #i3 #$e s/ae" In %)/$ #$e sa%e wa!1 #$e A%eri/an a##i#)de was in2&,ed#& @)s#i'! n&n0in#er2en#i&n in #$e S3anis$ /i2i war. an! a##e%3# #&

in#er'ere wi#$ Fran/&s s)33! &' ar%s w&)d1 i# was arg)ed1 %ee# wi#$

resis#an/e 'r&% #$e Uni#ed S#a#es as we as 'r&% Ger%an! and I#a!" e#1

a# #$e sa%e #i%e1 Grea# :ri#ain and Fran/e earned /ens)re in #$e Uni#ed

S#a#es '&r 'aiing #& d& #$ings w$i/$ A%eri/an is&a#i&nis% 3re2en#ed

#$e% 'r&% d&ing" In 3ar#i/)ar1 #$e! were /&nde%ned '&r re')sing #&

3r&&ng a barren n&n0re/&gni#i&n &n/e I#a! $ad /&n=)ered Ab!ssinia"

In #$e a)#)%n &' *+67 A%eri/an 3&i/! began #& /$ange" T$is was

%ain! d)e #& #$e &)#brea, &' war be#ween 5a3an and C$ina in #$e Far

Eas#1 w$ere A%eri/ans w&)d $a2e i,ed #& see a/#i&n b! #$e E)r&3ean

P&wers1 #$&)g$ #$e! /&)d 3r&%ise n&ne #$e%se2es" M&re #$an #$is1Presiden# R&&se2e# se# &)# #& ed)/a#e A%eri/an &3ini&n" As awa!s1 $e

3r&/eeded wi#$ grea# /a)#i&n1 an-i&)s n #& &)#r)n $is 3e&3e" His

'a%&)s =)aran#ine s3ee/$ agains# aggress&rs $in#ed a# s&%e#$ing %&re

#$an n&n0re/&gni#i&n" :)# $&w %)/$ %&re? W&)d #$e Uni#ed S#a#es e2en

n&w $a2e s)33&r#ed san/#i&ns agains# Ger%an! i' an! s)/$ $ad been

i%3&sed? In an! /ase1 #$e =)aran#ine s3ee/$ was i0re/ei2ed in #$e

Uni#ed S#a#es" R&&se2e# re#rea#ed1 e-3aining #$a# $e $ad %ean# n$ing in


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3ar#i/)ar" S&&n a'#erwards $e renewed $is a##e%3# a# ed)/a#i&n" His

3r&3&sa '&r a w&rd /&n'eren/e #& /&nsider #$e grie2an/es &' #$e

dissa#is'ied P&wers was %ade in #$e $&3e &' de%&ns#ra#ing #& A%eri/ans

#$e %&)n#ing dangers #$r&)g$&)# #$e w&rd. b)# i# /&n#ained n& 3r&s3e/#

#$a# #$e Uni#ed S#a#es w&)d a/#i2e! s)33&r# #$e P&wers w$& were #r!ing

#& %ain#ain s&%e s&r# &' 3ea/e') &rder in #$e w&rd" R&&se2e# see%s #&$a2e $&3ed1 s& 'ar as &ne /an '&&w #$e de2i&)s w&r,ings &' $is %ind1

#$a# e2en#s w&)d ed)/a#e A%eri/ans w$ere $e $ad 'aied #& d& s&" He

wan#ed 3)bi/ &3ini&n #& 3)s$ $i% in#& s)33&r#ing #$e Wes#ern P&wers"

W$en1 ins#ead1 #$ese P&wers #ried #& 3)s$ $i%1 be $ad #& rea/# in#&

is&a#i&nis% '&r #$e sa,e &' #$e 2er! 3)bi/ &3ini&n w$i/$ $e was see,ing

#& ed)/a#e" T$)s1 a# #$e $eig$# &' #$e M)ni/$ /risis1 $e re3)dia#ed s$ar3!

#$e a##e%3# b! :)i##1 A%eri/an a%bassad&r in Paris1 #& /&%%i# #$e

Uni#ed S#a#es &n #$e Fren/$ side. i# was1 $e said1 &ne $)ndred 3er /en#

wr&ng 9! e# $e se/re#! wis$ed i# was rig$#"

A%eri/an 3&i/! was n a#&ge#$er nega#i2e in #$e as# !ear &'

3ea/e" I# was %ade /ear #& Grea# :ri#ain and Fran/e #$a# #$e! w&)d be

abe #& b)! s)33ies in #$e Uni#ed S#a#es i' #$e! res&2ed &n war. a# #$e

sa%e #i%e1 sin/e #$ere was n& 3r&s3e/# &' a/#i2e A%eri/an s)33&r#1 #$e!

were e'# #& %a,e #$eir &wn de/isi&ns 9 @)s# as Sir Edward Gre! $ad

$esi#a#ed #& en/&)rage Fran/e and R)ssia be'&re *+*(" Un&''i/ia

A%eri/an &bser2ers were b)s! e-3&sing Ger%an and I#aian designs1

3er$a3s e2en in e-aggera#ing #$e%" T$e! s&)nded #$e aar% in &rder #&

r&)se A%eri/an 3)bi/ &3ini&n" In 3ra/#i/e #$e! s)//eeded %&re in

aar%ing 3e&3e in Grea# :ri#ain and Fran/e1 b)# n in #$e wa! #$e!

in#ended" T$e! %ade :ri#is$ and Fren/$ 3&i/! %&re 'ear') &' war1

ins#ead &' %&re res&2ed &n i#" N& &ne is i,e! #& )nderra#e #$e e''e/#

w$i/$ Lindberg$ $ad wi#$ $is in'a#ed 3i/#)re &' #$e Ger%an air '&r/e"

Li,e %&s# 3e&3e1 $e was #a,en in b! Hi#ers 3r&3aganda" T$e genera%&ra &' #$is b&&,1 s& 'ar as i# $as &ne1 is #$a# Grea# :ri#ain and Fran/e

di#$ered be#ween resis#an/e and a33ease%en#1 and s& $e3ed #& %a,e war

%&re i,e!" A%eri/an 3&i/! did %)/$ #$e sa%e" A res&)#e /&n#in)an/e

&' is&a#i&nis% %ig$# we $a2e /$&,ed Grea# :ri#ain and Fran/e &'' 'r&%

war a#&ge#$er. a res&)#e ba/,ing &' #$e%1 based &n rear%a%en# a)n/$ed

&ng be'&re1 %ig$# we $a2e /$&,ed &'' Hi#er" Hesi#a#i&n be#ween #$e #w&

$e3ed war &n" N& &ne is #& ba%e '&r #$is" I# is 2er! $ard '&r a de%&/ra/!

#& %a,e )3 i#s %ind. and w$en i# d&es s&1 &'#en %a,es i# )3 wr&ng"

I w&)d add &ne genera w&rd" S&%e Engis$ /ri#i/s &' #$is b&&,

/&%3ained #$a# I $ad a3&&gied '&r Hi#er &r '&r #$e a33easers"

N$ing /&)d be ')r#$er 'r&% %! #$&)g$#s" I $a2e a /ean re/&rd $ere" Iwas addressing 3)bi/ %ee#ings agains# a33ease%en# 9 and 2er! )3$i

w&r, i# was 9 w$en %! /ri#i/s were /&n'ining #$eir a/#i2i#ies #& #$e

se/)si&n &' O-'&rd /&%%&n r&&%s" :)# I d& n beie2e #$a# a $is#&rian

s$&)d ei#$er e-/)se &r /&nde%n" His d)#! is #& e-3ain" I $a2e #ried #&

e-3ain $&w Hi#er s)//eeded as %)/$ as $e did and w$! #$e :ri#is$ and

Fren/$ g&2ern%en#s 'ina! de/ared war &n Ger%an!" I' i# be &b@e/#ed

#$a# Grea# :ri#ain and Fran/e s$&)d $a2e /&)n#ed %&re 'ir%! &n


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A%eri/an ba/,ing1 i# is w&r#$ bearing in %ind #$a# #$e Uni#ed S#a#es was

n drawn in#& #$e war ei#$er b! #$e 'a &' Fran/e &r e2en b! Hi#ers

a##a/, &n R)ssia1 and #$a# we $ad #& wai# '&r #$e )ni,e! e2en# &' Hi#ers

de/aring war &n #$e Uni#ed S#a#es be'&re i# /a%e in"

CHAPTER ONEForgotten Problem

MORE#$an #wen#! !ears $a2e g&ne b! sin/e #$e se/&nd W&rd war

began1 'i'#een sin/e i# ended" T$&se w$& i2ed #$r&)g$ i# s#i 'ee i# as 3ar#

&' #$eir i%%edia#e e-3erien/e" One da! #$e! s)dden! reaie #$a# #$e

se/&nd W&rd war1 i,e i#s 3rede/ess&r1 $as 3assed in#& $is#&r!" T$is

%&%en# /&%es '&r a )ni2ersi#! #ea/$er w$en $e $as #& re%ind $i%se' #$a#

$is s#)den#s were n b&rn w$en #$e war s#ar#ed and /ann re%e%ber

e2en i#s end" T$e se/&nd W&rd war is as re%e #& #$e% as #$e :&er war

was #& $i%. #$e! %a! $a2e $eard ane/des &' i# 'r&% #$eir 3aren#s1 b)#

%&re i,e!1 #$e! $a2e #& earn &' i# 'r&% b&&,s i' #$e! earn a# a" T$e

grea# 'ig)res $a2e e'# #$e s/ene" Hi#er1 M)ss&ini1 S#ain1 and R&&se2e#

are dead. C$)r/$i $as wi#$drawn 'r&% eaders$i3. &n! de Ga)e is

$a2ing a se/&nd innings" T$e se/&nd W&rd war $as /eased #& be #&da!

and $as be/&%e !es#erda!" T$is %a,es new de%ands &n $is#&rians"

C&n#e%3&rar! $is#&r!1 in #$e s#ri/# sense1 re/&rds e2en#s w$ie #$e! are

s#i $ @)dging #$e% 'r&% #$e %&%en# and ass)%ing a read! s!%3a#$!

in #$e reader" N& &ne wi de3re/ia#e s)/$ w&r,s wi#$ #$e grea# e-a%3e &'

Sir Wins#&n C$)r/$i be'&re $i%" :)# #$ere /&%es a #i%e w$en #$e

$is#&rian /an s#and ba/, and re2iew e2en#s #$a# were &n/e /&n#e%3&rar!

wi#$ #$e de#a/$%en# #$a# $e w&)d s$&w i' $e were wri#ing &' #$e

In2es#i#)re /&n'i/# &r #$e Engis$ /i2i war" A# eas#1 $e /an #r!"

His#&rians a##e%3#ed #$is a'#er #$e 'irs# W&rd war1 b)# wi#$ adi''eren# e%3$asis" T$ere was rea#i2e! i##e in#eres# in #$e war i#se'" T$e

dis3)#e &2er grand s#ra#eg! be#ween Wes#erners and Eas#erners was

regarded as a 3ri2a#e war be#ween L&!d Ge&rge and #$e generas1 w$i/$

#$e a/ade%i/ $is#&rian 3assed b!" T$e &''i/ia :ri#is$ %ii#ar! $is#&r! 9

i#se' a 3&e%i/a /&n#rib)#i&n #& #$is 3ri2a#e war 9 3r&/eeded s& eis)re!

#$a# i# was &n! /&%3e#ed in *+(" T$ere was n& a##e%3# a# an &''i/ia

/i2i $is#&r!1 e-/e3# '&r #$e Minis#r! &' M)ni#i&ns" Hard! an!&ne

e-a%ined #$e a##e%3#s a# a negia#ed 3ea/e" N& &ne s#)died #$e

de2e&3%en# &' war ai%s" We $a2e $ad #& wai# a%&s# )n#i #$e 3resen#

da! '&r de#aied s#)d! &' s)/$ a de/isi2e #&3i/ as #$e 3&i/! &' W&&dr&w

Wis&n" T$e grea# s)b@e/# w$i/$ e/i3sed a ese and %&n&3&ied #$ein#eres# &' $is#&rians was $&w #$e war began" E2er! g&2ern%en# &' a Grea#

P&wer1 e-/e3# #$e I#aian1 %ade /&3i&)s re2ea#i&ns 'r&% i#s di3&%a#i/

ar/$i2es" T$e /&ns/ien#i&)s $is#&rian saw $is s$e2es 'iing wi#$ b&&,s in

e2er! %a@&r ang)age and regre##ed #$a# $e /&)d n read $ers"

Peri&di/as in Fren/$1 Ger%an1 and R)ssian were de2ed e-/)si2e! #&

#$e s)b@e/#" His#&rians es#abis$ed #$eir re3)#a#i&n as a)#$&ri#ies &n #$e

&rigins &' #$e 'irs# W&rd war 9 G&&/$ in Engand1 Fa! and S/$%i## in #$e


8/214

Uni#ed S#a#es1 Ren&)2in and Ca%ie :&/$ in Fran/e1 T$i%%e1

:randenb)rg1 and 2&n Wegerer in Ger%an!1 Pribra% in A)s#ria1

P&,r&2s,! in R)ssia1 #& na%e b)# a 'ew"

S&%e &' #$ese wri#ers /&n/en#ra#ed &n #$e e2en#s &' 5)! *+*(.

$ers ranged ba/, #& #$e M&r&//an /risis &' *+8 &r #& #$e di3&%a/! &'

:is%ar/," :)# a agreed #$a# $ere was #$e 'ied &' /&ns)%ing in#eres# '&r#$e re/en# $is#&rian" Uni2ersi#! /&)rses s#&33ed abr)3#! a# A)g)s# *+*(1

as s&%e s#i d&" T$e s#)den#s a33r&2ed" T$e! wan#ed #& $ear ab&)#

Wiia% II and P&in/are1 ab&)# Gre! and I2&s,i" T$e Br)ger #eegra%

see%ed %&re i%3&r#an# #& #$e% #$an Pass/$endaee1 #$e #rea#! &' :@&r,&

%&re i%3&r#an# #$an #$e agree%en# &' S#" 5ean de Ma)rienne" T$e grea#

e2en# w$i/$ $ad s$a3ed #$e 3resen# was #$e &)#brea, &' war" W$a#

$a33ened a'#erwards was %ere! a %)dded w&r,ing0&)# &' ine2i#abe

/&nse=)en/es1 wi#$&)# ess&ns &r signi'i/an/e '&r #$e 3resen#" I' we

)nders#&&d w$! #$e war began1 we s$&)d ,n&w $&w we g w$ere we

were 9 and &' /&)rse $&w n #& ge# #$ere again"

Wi#$ #$e se/&nd W&rd war i# $as been a%&s# #$e e-a/# &33&si#e"

T$e grea# s)b@e/# &' in#eres#1 '&r reader and wri#er ai,e1 $as been #$e war

i#se'" N %ere! #$e /a%3aigns1 #$&)g$ #$ese $a2e been des/ribed again

and again" T$e 3&i#i/s &' #$e war $a2e as& been e-a%ined1 3ar#i/)ar!

#$e rea#i&ns &' #$e Grea# aies" I# w&)d be di''i/)# #& /&)n# #$e b&&,s &n

#$e Fren/$ ar%is#i/e &' *+(1 &r &n #$e %ee#ings &' #$e :ig T$ree a#

Te$eran and a#a" T$e P&is$ =)es#i&n in rea#i&n #& #$e se/&nd W&rd

war %eans #$e dis3)#es be#ween S&2ie# R)ssia and #$e Wes#ern P&wers

wi#$ w$i/$ #$e war ended1 n #$e Ger%an de%ands &n P&and wi#$ w$i/$

i# began" T$e &rigins &' #$e war e-/i#e /&%3ara#i2e! i##e in#eres#" I# is

genera! 'e# #$a#1 w$ie new de#ais %a! e%erge1 #$ere is n$ing &'

genera signi'i/an/e #& 'ind &)#" We aread! ,n&w #$e answers1 and d& n

need #& as, ')r#$er =)es#i&ns" T$e eading a)#$&rs #& w$&% we #)rn '&ra//&)n#s &' #$e &rigins &' #$e se/&nd W&rd war 9 Na%ier1 W$eeer0

:enne##1 Wis,e%ann in Engis$1 :a)%&n# in Fren/$ 9 a 3)bis$ed #$eir

b&&,s s&&n a'#er #$e war ended. and a e-3ressed 2iews w$i/$ #$e! $ad

$ed w$ie #$e war was &n1 &r e2en be'&re i# began" Twen#! !ears a'#er #$e

&)#brea, &' #$e 'irs# W&rd war1 2er! 'ew 3e&3e w&)d $a2e a//e3#ed

wi#$&)# %&di'i/a#i&n #$e e-3ana#i&ns '&r i# gi2en in A)g)s# *+*(" Twen#!

!ears and %&re a'#er #$e &)#brea, &' #$e se/&nd W&rd war near!

e2er!&ne a//e3#s #$e e-3ana#i&ns w$i/$ were gi2en in Se3#e%ber *+6+"

I# is &' /&)rse 3&ssibe #$a# #$ere rea! is n$ing #& 'ind &)#"

Ma!be #$e se/&nd W&rd war1 )ni,e a%&s# an! $er grea# e2en# in

$is#&r!1 $ad a si%3e and 'ina e-3ana#i&n w$i/$ was &b2i&)s #& e2er!&nea# #$e #i%e and w$i/$ wi ne2er be /$anged b! a#er in'&r%a#i&n &r

resear/$" :)# i# see%s )ni,e! #$a# $is#&rians a $)ndred !ears $en/e wi

&&, a# #$ese e2en#s e-a/#! as %en did in *+6+. and #$e 3resen#0da!

$is#&rian s$&)d see, #& an#i/i3a#e #$e @)dg%en#s &' #$e ')#)re ra#$er #$an

re3ea# #$&se &' #$e 3as#" T$ere are indeed 3ra/#i/a reas&ns w$! $is#&rians

$a2e nege/#ed #$is #$e%e" E2er! $is#&rian #ries #& be a de#a/$ed and

i%3ar#ia s/$&ar1 /$&&sing $is s)b@e/# and %a,ing $is @)dg%en#s wi#$&)#


9/214

#$&)g$# &' $is s)rr&)ndings" e#1 as a $)%an being i2ing in a /&%%)ni#!1

$e res3&nds e2en i' )n/&ns/i&)s! #& #$e needs &' $is #i%e" T$e grea#

Pr&'ess&r T&)#1 '&r e-a%3e1 w$&se w&r, #rans'&r%ed #$e s#)d! &'

%ediae2a $is#&r! in #$is /&)n#r!1 n& d&)b# /$anged $is e%3$asis 'r&%

3&i#i/s #& ad%inis#ra#i&n 3)re! '&r reas&ns &' abs#ra/# earning" A #$e

sa%e1 i# was n irree2an# #& #$e /$ange #$a# #$e #wen#ie#$ /en#)r!$is#&rian is #raining 3en#ia /i2i ser2an#s1 w$ereas #$e nine#een#$ /en#)r!

$is#&rian #rained s#a#es%en" S&1 #&&1 #$e wri#ers &n #$e #w& W&rd wars

were b&)nd #& /&nsider w$a# s#i raised 3r&be%s1 &r 3r&2ided answers '&r

#$e 3resen#" N& &ne is g&ing #& wri#e a b&&, #$a# wi n in#eres# s&%e

$ers. eas# &' a #& wri#e a b&&, #$a# d&es n in#eres# $i%se'"

T$e 'irs# W&rd war see%ed #& 3resen# 'ew 3r&be%s &n #$e

%ii#ar! side" M&s# 3e&3e1 3ar#i/)ar! in Aied /&)n#ries1 regarded #$e

war as a s&gging0%a#/$1 %)/$ i,e a nine#een#$0/en#)r! 3rie0'ig$#1

w$i/$ wen# &n )n#i &ne /&%ba#an# 'e d&wn 'r&% e-$a)s#i&n" On! w$en

%ens %inds were s$ar3ened b! e-3erien/e &' #$e se/&nd W&rd war did

#$e! begin #& deba#e seri&)s! w$e#$er #$e 'irs# war /&)d $a2e been ended

earier b! a s)3eri&r s#ra#eg! &r a s)3eri&r 3&i/!" :esides1 i# was genera!

ass)%ed a'#er #$e 'irs# W&rd war #$a# #$ere w&)d ne2er be an$er.

#$ere'&re s#)d! &' #$e as# war see%ed #& 3r&2ide n& ess&ns '&r #$e

3resen#" On #$e $er $and1 #$e grea# 3r&be% w$i/$ $ad /a)sed #$e war

s#i a! a# #$e /en#re &' in#erna#i&na a''airs w$en #$e war ended" T$is

grea# 3r&be% was Ger%an!" T$e Aies %ig$# /ai% #$a# #$e war $ad been

br&)g$# ab&)# b! Ger%an aggressi&n. #$e Ger%ans %ig$# answer #$a# i#

$ad been /a)sed b! #$eir re')sa #& gran# Ger%an! $er rig$#') 3a/e as a

Grea# P&wer" In ei#$er /ase1 i# was #$e 3a/e &' Ger%an! w$i/$ was in

dis3)#e" T$ere re%ained $er 3r&be%s #$an Ger%an! in #$e w&rd 'r&%

S&2ie# R)ssia #& #$e Far Eas#" :)# i# was reas&nabe #& ass)%e #$a# #$ese

w&)d be %anageabe and #$a# #$ere w&)d be a 3ea/e') w&rd i' &n! #$eGer%an 3e&3e were re/&n/ied #& #$eir '&r%er ene%ies" Hen/e #$e s#)d!

&' war0&rigins $ad an )rgen# and 3ra/#i/a i%3&r#an/e" I' #$e 3e&3es &'

Aied /&)n#ries /&)d be /&n2in/ed &' #$e 'asi#! &' Ger%an war0g)i#1

#$e! w&)d rea- #$e 3)ni#i2e /a)ses in #$e #rea#! &' Versaies1 and a//e3#

#$e Ger%an 3e&3e as 2i/#i%s1 i,e #$e%se2es1 &' a na#)ra /a#a/!s%"

A#erna#i2e!1 i' #$e Ger%ans were 3ers)aded &' #$eir war0g)i#1 #$e!

w&)d 3res)%ab! a//e3# #$e #rea#! as @)s#" In 3ra/#i/e1 re2isi&nis% #&&,

&n! #$e 'irs# /&)rse" :ri#is$ and A%eri/an $is#&rians1 #& s&%e e-#en#

Fren/$ $is#&rians as&1 ab&red #& s$&w #$a# #$e aied g&2ern%en#s were a

g&&d dea g)i#ier and #$e Ger%an g&2ern%en# %&re inn&/en# #$an #$e

3ea/e0%a,ers &' *+*+ s)33&sed" Few Ger%an $is#&rians a##e%3#ed #$e/&n#rar! de%&ns#ra#i&n" T$is was na#)ra en&)g$" E2en #$e %&s# a&&'

$is#&rian 'ees #$e #)g &' 3a#riis% w$en $is /&)n#r! $as been de'ea#ed in

war and $)%iia#ed a'#er i#" On #$e $er side1 '&reign 3&i/! $ad been #$e

s)b@e/# &' /&n#r&2ers! in e2er! Aied /&)n#r! be'&re #$e &)#brea, &' war"

T$e /ri#i/s &' Gre! in Engand1 &' P&in/are in Fran/e1 &' W&&dr&w Wis&n

in #$e Uni#ed S#a#es 9 #& sa! n$ing &' #$e :&s$e2i,s in R)ssia w$& $ad

a##a/,ed #$e g&2ern%en# &' #$e Tsar 9 n&w s#e33ed '&rward as #$e


10/214

s/$&ar! /$a%3i&ns &' a re2isi&nis# &)#&&," T$e rig$#s and wr&ngs &'

#$ese /&n#r&2ersies1 in#erna#i&na and d&%es#i/1 n& &nger %a##er" I# is

en&)g$ #$a# #$e! s#&,ed #$e 'ires &' in#eres# w$i/$ ed %en #& s#)d! #$e

&rigins &' #$e 'irs# W&rd war"

T$is ')e $as been a/,ing '&r #$e &rigins &' #$e se/&nd W&rd war"

On #$e in#erna#i&na side1 Ger%an!1 as a Grea# P&wer1 /eased #& be #$e/en#ra 3r&be% in w&rd a''airs a%&s# be'&re #$e war was &2er" S&2ie#

R)ssia #&&, $er 3a/e" Men wan#ed #& ,n&w ab&)# #$e %is#a,es #$a# $ad

been %ade in deaing wi#$ S&2ie# R)ssia d)ring #$e war1 n ab&)# #$&se

%ade in deaing wi#$ Ger%an! be'&re i# s#ar#ed" M&re&2er1 as b$ #$e

Wes#ern 3&wers and R)ssia were 3r&3&sing #& enis# di''eren# se/#i&ns &'

Ger%an! as #$eir a!1 #$e ess said ab&)# #$e war #$e be##er" T$e Ger%ans

se/&nded #$is nege/#" A'#er #$e 'irs# W&rd war1 #$e! insis#ed #$a# #$e!

%)s# s#i be #rea#ed as a Grea# P&wer" A'#er #$e se/&nd1 #$e! were #$e 'irs#

#& s)gges# #$a# E)r&3e $ad /eased #& de#er%ine w&rd e2en#s 9 wi#$ #$e

)ns3&,en i%3i/a#i&n #$a# Ger%an! /&)d ne2er again 3r&2&,e a grea#

war1 and /&)d #$ere'&re be e'# #& g& $er &wn wa! wi#$&)# in#er'eren/e &r

/&n#r&" I# was %)/$ #$e sa%e &n #$e d&%es#i/ side" T$ere $ad been 'ier/e

/&n#r&2ers! wi#$in Aied /&)n#ries be'&re #$e war 9 indeed 'ar 'ier/er

#$an an!#$ing ,n&wn be'&re *+*(" :)# #$e /&n#es#an#s %ade )3 #$eir

=)arre d)ring #$e war and were an-i&)s1 '&r #$e %&s# 3ar#1 #& '&rge# i#

a'#erwards" T$e '&r%er ad2&/a#es &' a33ease%en# /&)d renew #$eir &d

3&i/! wi#$ %&re @)s#i'i/a#i&n. #$e '&r%er ad2&/a#es &' resis#an/e ga2e )3

#$eir &d aar%s in regard #& Ger%an! wi#$ #$e need #& resis# S&2ie#

R)ssia"

T$e &rigins &' #$e se/&nd W&rd war $ad i##e a##ra/#i&n w$en %en

were aread! s#)d!ing #$e &rigins &' #$e #$ird" T$ere %ig$# s#i $a2e been

s&%e ,i/, in #$e s)b@e/# i' #$ere $ad re%ained grea# areas &' d&)b# and

=)es#i&n" :)# an e-3ana#i&n e-is#ed w$i/$ sa#is'ied e2er!b&d! andsee%ed #& e-$a)s# a dis3)#e" T$is e-3ana#i&n was> Hi#er" He 3anned

#$e se/&nd W&rd war" His wi a&ne /a)sed i#" T$is e-3ana#i&n &b2i&)s!

sa#is'ied #$e resis#ers 'r&% C$)r/$i #& Na%ier" T$e! $ad gi2en i# a

a&ng1 were aread! gi2ing i# be'&re #$e war br&,e &)#" T$e! /&)d sa!>

We #&d !&) s&" T$ere was n& a#erna#i2e #& resis#ing Hi#er 'r&% #$e 'irs#

$&)r" T$e e-3ana#i&n as& sa#is'ied #$e a33easers" T$e! /&)d /ai%

#$a# a33ease%en# was a wise1 and w&)d $a2e been a s)//ess')1 3&i/! i'

i# $ad n been '&r #$e )n3redi/#abe 'a/# #$a# Ger%an! was in #$e gri3 &' a

%ad%an" M&s# &' a1 #$is e-3ana#i&n sa#is'ied #$e Ger%ans1 e-/e3# '&r a

'ew )nre3en#an# Nais" A'#er #$e 'irs# W&rd war1 #$e Ger%ans #ried #&

s$i'# #$e g)i# 'r&% #$e%se2es #& #$e Aies1 &r #& %a,e &)# #$a# n& &newas g)i#!" I# was a si%3er &3era#i&n #& s$i'# #$e g)i# 'r&% #$e Ger%ans

#& Hi#er" He was sa'e! dead" Hi#er %a! $a2e d&ne a grea# dea &' $ar% #&

Ger%an! w$ie $e was ai2e" :)# $e %ade )3 '&r i# b! $is 'ina sa/ri'i/e in

#$e :)n,er" N& a%&)n# &' 3&s#$)%&)s g)i# /&)d in@)re $i%" T$e ba%e

'&r e2er!#$ing 9 #$e se/&nd W&rd war1 #$e /&n/en#ra#i&n /a%3s1 #$e gas0

/$a%bers 9 /&)d be &aded &n #& $is )n/&%3aining s$&)ders" Wi#$

Hi#er g)i#!1 e2er! $er Ger%an /&)d /ai% inn&/en/e. and #$e


11/214

Ger%ans1 3re2i&)s! #$e %&s# s#ren)&)s &33&nen#s &' war0g)i#1 n&w

be/a%e i#s 'ir%es# ad2&/a#es" S&%e Ger%ans %anaged #& gi2e Hi#ers

wi/,edness a 3e/)iar! e''e/#i2e #wis#" Sin/e $e was &b2i&)s! a %&ns#er

&' wi/,edness1 $e &)g$# #& $a2e been res&)#e! resis#ed" Hen/e an! g)i#

e'# &2er a'#er Hi#er $ad been /&nde%ned /&)d be 3assed &n #& #$e

Fren/$ '&r 'aiing #& e-3e $i% 'r&% #$e R$ineand in *+6 &r &n #&C$a%berain '&r 'in/$ing in Se3#e%ber *+6"

E2er!&ne was $a33i! agreed &n #$e /a)se &' #$e se/&nd W&rd

war" W$a# need #$en &' re2isi&nis%? A 'ew ne)#ras raised a 3ee3 &'

d&)b#1 3ar#i/)ar! 'r&% Ireand" :)# )s)a! 3ar#i/i3a#i&n in #$e /&d war

agains# S&2ie# R)ssia sien/ed e2en #$&se w$& $ad been ne)#ra in #$e war

agains# Ger%an!. and a si%iar /&nsidera#i&n #$e $er wa! r&)nd w&r,ed

wi#$ S&2ie# $is#&rians as&" A s/$&& &' 3ersis#en# re2isi&nis#s re%ains in

#$e Uni#ed S#a#es 9 s)r2i2&rs &' #$e /a%3aigners a'#er #$e 'irs# W&rd war1

w$& s#i regard #$eir &wn g&2ern%en# as %&re wi/,ed #$an an! $er"

T$eir w&r,s are n i%3ressi2e 'r&% a s/$&ar! 3&in# &' 2iew" M&re&2er

#$is re2isi&nis% is %ain! /&n/erned wi#$ #$e war agains# 5a3an1 and '&r a

g&&d reas&n" Hi#er de/ared war &n #$e Uni#ed S#a#es1 n #$e $er wa!

r&)nd. and i# is di''i/)# #& see $&w R&&se2e# /&)d e2er $a2e g $is

/&)n#r! in#& #$e E)r&3ean war1 i' Hi#er $ad n gra#)i#&)s! d&ne i# '&r

$i%" T$ere is n %)/$ r&&% '&r /&n#r&2ers! e2en in regard #& 5a3an" T$e

'ig$# $as g&ne &)# &' #$e iss)e" On/e #$ere was a 3ra/#i/a =)es#i&n a#

s#a,e> w$e#$er #$e Uni#ed S#a#es s$&)d /&0&3era#e wi#$ 5a3an &r wi#$

C$ina? T$e =)es#i&n $as n&w been answered b! e2en#s1 %)/$ #& #$e

disarra! &' A%eri/an 3&i/!" I# is )ni2ersa! agreed #$a# 5a3an is

A%eri/as &n! reiabe 'riend in #$e Far Eas#. and #$e war agains# $er

#$ere'&re a33ears as a %is#a,e &n s&%eb&d!s 3ar# 9 #$&)g$ 3er$a3s &'

/&)rse &n #$e 3ar# &' #$e 5a3anese"

T$ese /&nsidera#i&ns &' 3resen#0da! 3&i#i/s $e3 #& e-3ain w$!#$e &rigins &' #$e se/&nd W&rd war are n a s)b@e/# &' s#r&ng

/&n#r&2ers!" A #$e sa%e1 #$e! are $ en&)g$ #& e-3ain #$e a%&s#

)ni2ersa agree%en# a%&ng $is#&rians" E2en #$e %&s# engaged s/$&ar is

a''e/#ed b! a/ade%i/ s#andards. and %an! s/$&ars are n $ea2i!

engaged" I' #$e e2iden/e $ad been s)''i/ien#! /&n'i/#ing1 s/$&ars w&)d

s&&n $a2e been '&)nd #& dis3)#e #$e 3&3)ar 2erdi/#1 $&we2er genera!

a//e3#ed" T$is $as n $a33ened. and '&r #w& a33aren#! /&n#radi/#&r!

reas&ns 9 #$ere is a# &n/e #&& %)/$ e2iden/e and #&& i##e" T$e e2iden/e

&' w$i/$ #$ere is #&& %)/$ is #$a# /&e/#ed '&r #$e #rias &' war0/ri%inas

in N)re%berg" T$&)g$ #$ese d&/)%en#s &&, i%3&sing in #$eir endess

2&)%es1 #$e! are danger&)s %a#eria '&r a $is#&rian #& )se" T$e! were/&e/#ed1 $as#i! and a%&s# a# rand&%1 as a basis '&r aw!ers brie's" T$is

is n $&w $is#&rians w&)d 3r&/eed" T$e aw!er ai%s #& %a,e a /ase. #$e

$is#&rian wis$es #& )nders#and a si#)a#i&n" T$e e2iden/e w$i/$ /&n2in/es

aw!ers &'#en 'ais #& sa#is'! )s. &)r %e#$&ds see% sing)ar! i%3re/ise #&

#$e%" :)# e2en aw!ers %)s# n&w $a2e =)a%s ab&)# #$e e2iden/e a#

N)re%berg" T$e d&/)%en#s were /$&sen n &n! #& de%&ns#ra#e #$e war0

g)i# &' #$e %en &n #ria1 b)# #& /&n/ea #$a# &' #$e 3r&se/)#ing P&wers" I'


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an! &' #$e '&)r P&wers w$& se# )3 #$e N)re%berg #rib)na $ad been

r)nning #$e a''air a&ne1 i# w&)d $a2e #$r&wn #$e %)d %&re wide!" T$e

Wes#ern P&wers w&)d $a2e br&)g$# in #$e Nai0S&2ie# Pa/#. #$e S&2ie#

Uni&n w&)d $a2e re#aia#ed wi#$ #$e M)ni/$ /&n'eren/e and %&re

&bs/)re #ransa/#i&ns" Gi2en #$e '&)r0P&wer #rib)na1 #$e &n! 3&ssibe

/&)rse was #& ass)%e #$e s&e g)i# &' Ger%an! in ad2an/e" T$e 2erdi/#3re/eded #$e #rib)na. and #$e d&/)%en#s were br&)g$# in #& s)s#ain a

/&n/)si&n w$i/$ $ad aread! been se##ed" O' /&)rse #$e d&/)%en#s are

gen)ine" :)# #$e! are &aded. and an!&ne w$& reies &n #$e% 'inds i#

a%&s# i%3&ssibe #& es/a3e 'r&% #$e &ad wi#$ w$i/$ #$e! are /$arged"

I' we see, ins#ead '&r e2iden/e asse%bed in a %&re de#a/$ed and

s/$&ar! wa!1 we dis/&2er $&w %)/$ w&rse &'' we are #$an &)r

3rede/ess&rs w$& s#)died #$e &rigins &' #$e 'irs# W&rd war" A genera#i&n

&r s& a'#er #$e 'irs# war e2er! Grea# P&wer e-/e3# I#a! $ad %ade an

a%&s# /&%3e#e re2ea#i&n 'r&% i#s di3&%a#i/ re/&rds '&r #$e i%%edia#e

3re0war /risis" In addi#i&n1 #$ere were 2as# series &' 3)bis$ed d&/)%en#s

ranging 'ar ba/, wi#$ %&re &r ess in#ensi#! 9 A)s#r&0H)ngarian

d&/)%en#s g&ing ba/, #& *+1 :ri#is$ #& *+1 Ger%an and Fren/$ #&

*7*. #$e R)ssian 3)bi/a#i&ns1 #$&)g$ %&re s3as%&di/1 were as&

2&)%in&)s" T$ere were s&%e &b2i&)s ga3s" We /&)d /&%3ain ab&)# #$e

a/, &' I#aian d&/)%en#s1 w$i/$ is n&w being re%edied. we /&)d

/&%3ain1 as we s#i d&1 ab&)# #$e a/, &' Serbian d&/)%en#s" In #$e

3)bis$ed /&e/#i&ns #$ere %a! $a2e been s&%e deibera#e &%issi&ns. and

n& /&ns/ien#i&)s $is#&rian w&)d be /&n#en# )n#i $e $as seen #$e ar/$i2es

'&r $i%se'" S#i1 br&ad! s3ea,ing1 i# was 3&ssibe #& '&&w #$e

di3&%a/! &' 'i2e &)# &' #$e si- Grea# P&wers in )n3araeed de#ai and

range" T$e e2iden/e $as n !e# been ')! diges#ed" As we g& &2er i#1 we

'ind new #&3i/s #& e-3&re1 new in#er3re#a#i&ns #& %a,e"

T$e /&n#ras# wi#$ #$e %a#eria a2aiabe '&r s#)d!ing #$e !earsbe'&re *+6+ is a%en#abe indeed" A)s#ria0H)ngar! $ad disa33eared 'r&%

#$e ran,s &' #$e E)r&3ean Grea# P&wers" O' #$e re%aining 'i2e1 #$ree $ad

3r&d)/ed )n#i re/en#! n& ine &r sen#en/e &' e2iden/e 'r&% #$eir

ar/$i2es" T$e I#aians $a2e beg)n #& re3air #$is &%issi&n> #$e! $a2e

3)bis$ed #$eir d&/)%en#s 'r&% 44 Ma! *+6+ )n#i #$e &)#brea, &' war1

and #$e! wi in #i%e &)#d& e2er!&ne b! /arr!ing #$eir 3)bi/a#i&n ba/, #&

**" Fren/$ and R)ssian 3&i/! re%ains #a! wi#$&)# i)%ina#i&n 'r&%

#$eir ar/$i2es" T$e Fren/$ $a2e s&%e e-/)se" M&s# &' #$eir re/&rds '&r #$e

!ears be#ween *+66 and *+6+ were b)rn# &n * Ma! *+(1 a# #$e aar% &'

a Ger%an brea,#$r&)g$ a# Sedan" D)3i/a#es are n&w being ab&ri&)s!

reasse%bed 'r&% #$e Fren/$ 3&s#s abr&ad" T$e reas&ns '&r S&2ie# sien/eare1 i,e e2er!#$ing ese in S&2ie# 3&i/!1 a %a##er &' /&n@e/#)re" Has #$e

S&2ie# g&2ern%en# s&%e#$ing 3e/)iar! disgra/e') #& $ide? D&es i#

s$rin, 'r&% s)b%i##ing i#s /&nd)/#1 $&we2er re%e1 #& genera s/r)#in!?

Are #$ere 3er$a3s n& re/&rds 9 #$e /&%%issaria# &' '&reign a''airs $a2ing

been #&& in/&%3e#en# #& %a,e an!? Or $as #$e S&2ie# g&2ern%en# earned

#$e ess&n &' %an! 3as# dis3)#es &2er $is#&ri/a #&3i/s 9 #$a# #$e &n!

wa#er#ig$# wa! &' s)s#aining a /ase is ne2er #& s)b%i# e2iden/e in i#s


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s)33&r#? W$a#e2er #$e 2aried reas&ns '&r #$is sien/e &n #$e 3ar# &' #$ree

Grea# P&wers1 #$e res)# is #$a# we /an #)rn &n! #& Ger%an and :ri#is$

d&/)%en#s '&r a /&n#in)&)s re/&rd &' di3&%a#i/ #ransa/#i&ns be#ween #$e

wars" Hen/e1 #$e 3er$a3s %iseading i%3ressi&n #$a# in#erna#i&na

rea#i&ns be#ween #$e wars were an Ang&0Ger%an d)&&g)e"

E2en $ere #$e %a#eria is ess ade=)a#e #$an i# was '&r #$e 3eri&dbe'&re *+*(" T$e Aies /a3#)red #$e Ger%an ar/$i2es in *+(8. and

&rigina! in#ended #& 3)bis$ a /&%3e#e series 'r&% *+* #& *+(8" La#er

#$is was /)# d&wn &n gr&)nds &' e-3ense #& #$e !ears sin/e Hi#ers

a//essi&n #& 3&wer in *+66" E2en #$is 3an is n /&%3e#e> #$ere is s#i a

!awning ga3 be#ween *+68 and *+67" T$e ar/$i2es $a2e n&w been

res#&red #& #$e Ger%an g&2ern%en# a# :&nn. and #$is %a! we ead #&

')r#$er dea!s" M&re&2er #$e Aied edi#&rs1 /&ns/ien#i&)s as #$e! were1

s$ared #$e N)re%berg &)#&&, &n war0g)i# a# &ne re%&2e" As an

addi#i&na /&%3i/a#i&n1 #$e Ger%an '&reign %inis#r!1 w$&se re/&rds #$ese

are1 &'#en /ai%ed #& be w&r,ing agains# Hi#er1 n &n $is be$a'. and we

/an ne2er be s)re w$e#$er a 3ar#i/)ar d&/)%en# re3resen#s a seri&)s

#ransa/#i&n &r w$e#$er i# was /&%3&sed in &rder #& 3r&2ide e2iden/e '&r

#$e inn&/en/e &' i#s a)#$&r" T$e :ri#is$ 3)bi/a#i&n wi )#i%a#e! /&2er

#$e en#ire 3eri&d 'r&% #$e signing &' #$e 3ea/e &' Versaies )n#i #$e

&)#brea, &' war in *+6+" :)# i# is a s&w 3r&/ess" A# #$e %&%en#1 we $a2e

2ir#)a! n$ing &n #$e nine#een0#wen#ies1 and an$er ga3 be#ween #$e

%idde &' *+6( and Mar/$ *+6" T$e 2&)%es are res#ri/#ed #& :ri#is$

3&i/! in a/#i&n" T$e! d& n re2ea i#s %i2es1 as #$e 2&)%es rea#ing #&

#$e 3eri&d be'&re #$e 'irs# W&rd war #ried #& d&" T$ere are 'ew %in)#es #&

s$&w #$e 3r&/ess &' deba#e wi#$in #$e '&reign &''i/e1 and n& re/&rds &'

%inis#eria deibera#i&ns1 #$&)g$ i# is n&ri&)s #$a# #$e 3ri%e %inis#er and

#$e /abine# /&)n#ed '&r %&re1 #$e '&reign &''i/e '&r ess1 #$an in #$e earier

3eri&d"We are as& %)/$ w&rse &'' in regard #& ess &''i/ia re/&rds" M&s#

&' #$&se w$& %ade #$e 'irs# W&rd war s)r2i2ed #& wri#e a# eng#$

a'#erwards in a3&&g! &r @)s#i'i/a#i&n" In #$e se/&nd W&rd war1 s&%e

eaders died w$ie #$e war was &n. s&%e were ,ied a# #$e end1 wi#$ &r

wi#$&)# #ria. $ers were #&& 3r&)d1 &r #&& /a)#i&)s #& wri#e" I# %a,es a

s#ar#ing /&n#ras# #& se# d&wn #$e s)bs#an#ia 2&)%es 3r&d)/ed a'#er ea/$

W&rd war b! #$&se w$& were in #$e de/isi2e 3&si#i&ns w$en i# s#ar#ed"

Here is #$e1 is# '&r #$e 'irs# W&rd war>

Grea# :ri#ain> 3ri%e %inis#er"

'&reign se/re#ar!"Fran/e> 3residen#"

3ri%e %inis#er w$& was as& '&reign %inis#er"

R)ssia> '&reign %inis#er"

I#a!> 3ri%e %inis#er"

Ger%an!> /$an/e&r"

'&reign %inis#er"


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T$e is# '&r #$e se/&nd W&rd war reads #$)s>

Fran/e> '&reign %inis#er"

T$e I#aian '&reign %inis#er1 w$& was s$ e'# diaries" T$e Ger%an

'&reign %inis#er wre a 'rag%en#ar! de'en/e w$ie wai#ing #& be $anged"T$ere are a 'ew s/ra3s &' /&rres3&nden/e b! #$e :ri#is$ 3ri%e %inis#er. a

'ew 3ages &' a)#&bi&gra3$! b! #$e :ri#is$ '&reign se/re#ar!" Fr&% #$e

#$ree di/#a#&rs 9 Hi#er1 M)ss&ini1 and S#ain 9 and 'r&% #$e R)ssian

'&reign %inis#er1 n a ine1 n a w&rd" We $a2e #& %a,e d& wi#$ g&ssi3

'r&% se/&ndar! 'ig)res 9 in#er3re#ers1 '&reign &''i/e /er,s1 @&)rnais#s.

%en w$& &'#en ,new i##e %&re #$an #$e genera 3)bi/"

H&we2er1 $is#&rians ne2er $a2e en&)g$ e2iden/e #& sa#is'! #$e%" I

d&)b# w$e#$er %)/$ wi be gained b! wai#ing an$er #en &r 'i'#een !ears.

and %)/$ %ig$# be &s#" T$e 'ew s)r2i2&rs &' /i2iia#i&n %a! $a2e gi2en

)3 reading b&&,s b! #$en1 e# a&ne wri#ing #$e%" I $a2e #$ere'&re

a##e%3#ed #& #e #$e s#&r! as i# %a! a33ear #& s&%e ')#)re $is#&rian1

w&r,ing 'r&% #$e re/&rds" T$e res)# %a! be #& de%&ns#ra#e $&w %)/$

$is#&rians %iss &r %is)nders#and" We %)s# g& &n wri#ing $is#&r! a #$e

sa%e" Li,e %! i%aginar! s)//ess&r1 I $a2e &'#en $ad #& /&n'ess ign&ran/e"

I $a2e as& '&)nd #$a# #$e re/&rd1 /&nsidered in de#a/$%en#1 &'#en 3)s$ed

%e #&wards in#er3re#a#i&ns di''eren# 'r&% #$&se w$i/$ %en ;in/)ding

%!se'< ga2e a# #$e #i%e" T$is $as n weig$ed wi#$ %e &ne wa! &r #$e

$er" I a% /&n/erned #& )nders#and w$a# $a33ened1 n #& 2indi/a#e &r #&

/&nde%n" I was an an#i0a33easer 'r&% #$e da! #$a# Hi#er /a%e #& 3&wer.

and n& d&)b# s$&)d be again )nder si%iar /ir/)%s#an/es" :)# #$e 3&in#

$as n& ree2an/e in #$e wri#ing &' $is#&r!" In re#r&s3e/#1 #$&)g$ %an! were

g)i#!1 n&ne was inn&/en#" T$e 3)r3&se &' 3&i#i/a a/#i2i#! is #& 3r&2ide

3ea/e and 3r&s3eri#!. and in #$is e2er! s#a#es%an 'aied1 '&r w$a#e2erreas&n" T$is is a s#&r! wi#$&)# $er&es. and 3er$a3s e2en wi#$&)# 2iains"

CHAPTER TWO

The Legacy of the First, World War

THEse/&nd W&rd war was1 in arge 3ar#1 a re3ea# 3er'&r%an/e &'

#$e 'irs#" T$ere were &b2i&)s di''eren/es" I#a! '&)g$# &n #$e &33&si#e side1

#$&)g$ s$e /$anged ba/, again be'&re #$e end" T$e war w$i/$ began in

Se3#e%ber *+6+1 was '&)g$# in E)r&3e and N&r#$ A'ri/a. i# &2era33ed in

#i%e1 #$&)g$ n in s3a/e1 wi#$ #$e Far Eas#ern war1 w$i/$ began in

De/e%ber *+(*" T$e #w& wars re%ained dis#in/#1 #$&)g$ #$e Far Eas#ernwar /rea#ed grea# e%barrass%en#s '&r Grea# :ri#ain and #$e Uni#ed S#a#es"

Ger%an! and 5a3an ne2er in,ed '&r/es. #$e &n! rea &2era3 was w$en

#$e 5a3anese a##a/, &n Pear Harb&r 3r&2&,ed Hi#er1 2er! %is#a,en!1 #&

de/are war &n #$e Uni#ed S#a#es" O#$erwise #$e E)r&3ean war and i#s

&rigin /an be #rea#ed as a s#&r! in i#se'1 #$e Far Eas# 3r&2iding &//asi&na

dis#ra/#i&ns &''0s#age" In #$e se/&nd W&rd war a33r&-i%a#e! #$e sa%e

E)r&3ean aies '&)g$# a33r&-i%a#e! #$e sa%e ad2ersaries as in #$e 'irs#"


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T$&)g$ #$e #ide &' ba##e sw)ng %&re 2i&en#! #& and 'r&1 #$e war ended

in %)/$ #$e sa%e wa! 9 wi#$ #$e de'ea# &' Ger%an!" T$e in, be#ween

#$e #w& wars wen# dee3er" Ger%an! '&)g$# s3e/i'i/a! in #$e se/&nd war

#& re2erse #$e 2erdi/# &' #$e 'irs# and #& des#r&! #$e se##e%en# w$i/$

'&&wed i#" Her &33&nen#s '&)g$#1 #$&)g$ ess /&ns/i&)s!1 #& de'end #$a#

se##e%en#. and #$is #$e! a/$ie2ed 9 #& #$eir &wn s)r3rise" T$ere was%)/$ U#&3ian 3r&@e/#ing w$ie #$e se/&nd war was &n. b)# a# #$e end

2ir#)a! e2er! 'r&n#ier in E)r&3e and #$e Near Eas# was res#&red

)n/$anged1 wi#$ #$e e-/e3#i&n 9 ad%i##ed! a arge e-/e3#i&n 9 &'

P&and and #$e :a#i/" Lea2ing &)# #$is area &' n&r#$0eas#ern E)r&3e1 #$e

&n! seri&)s /$ange &n #$e %a3 be#ween #$e Engis$ C$anne and #$e

Indian O/ean was #$e #rans'eren/e &' Is#ria 'r&% I#a! #& )g&sa2ia" T$e

'irs# war des#r&!ed &d E%3ires and br&)g$# new s#a#es in#& e-is#en/e" T$e

se/&nd war /rea#ed n& new s#a#es and des#r&!ed &n! Es#$&nia1 La#2ia1 and

Li#$)ania" I' &ne as,s #$e ra#$er /r)de =)es#i&n1 w$a# was #$e war

ab&)#?1 #$e answer '&r #$e 'irs# is> #& de/ide $&w E)r&3e s$&)d be

re%ade1 b)# '&r #$e se/&nd %ere!> #& de/ide w$e#$er #$is re%ade

E)r&3e s$&)d /&n#in)e" T$e 'irs# war e-3ains #$e se/&nd and1 in 'a/#1

/a)sed i#1 in s& 'ar as &ne e2en# /a)ses an$er"

T$&)g$ #$e &)#/&%e &' #$e 'irs# W&rd war was #$e re%a,ing &'

E)r&3e1 #$is was 'ar 'r&% being i#s &rigina /a)se &r e2en i#s /&ns/i&)s

3)r3&se" T$e war $ad /er#ain i%%edia#e /a)ses &n w$i/$ %en are n&w

%&re &r ess agreed" T$e assassina#i&n &' #$e Ar/$d),e Fran Ferdinand

3r&2&,ed A)s#ria0H)ngar! #& de/are war &n Serbia. #$e R)ssian

%&biia#i&n in s)33&r# &' Serbia 3r&2&,ed Ger%an! #& de/are war &n

R)ssia and &n Fran/e1 R)ssias a!. #$e Ger%an re')sa #& res3e/# #$e

ne)#rai#! &' :egi)% 3r&2&,ed Grea# :ri#ain #& de/are war &n Ger%an!"

:e$ind #$ese a! dee3er /a)ses ab&)# w$i/$ $is#&rians s#i di''er" S&%e

3&in# #& #$e /&n'i/# be#ween Te)#&n and Sa2 in Eas#ern E)r&3e. $ers/a i# #$e war &' #$e T)r,is$ s)//essi&n" S&%e ba%e I%3eriais# ri2ar!

&)#side E)r&3e. $ers #$e brea,d&wn &' #$e :aan/e &' P&wer &n #$e

E)r&3ean /&n#inen#" M&re 3re/ise #&3i/s &' dis3)#e $a2e been s#ressed> #$e

Ger%an /$aenge #& :ri#is$ na2a s)3re%a/!. #$e Fren/$ desire #& re/&2er

Asa/e0L&rraine. R)ssias a%bi#i&n #& /&n#r& C&ns#an#in&3e and #$e

S#rai#s" T$is 2er! &3)en/e &' e-3ana#i&ns s)gges#s #$a# n&ne a&ne is #$e

rig$# &ne" T$e 'irs# war was '&)g$# '&r a #$ese reas&ns 9 and '&r n&ne &'

#$e%" A# an! ra#e1 #$is is w$a# a #$e /&n#es#ing P&wers dis/&2ered &n/e

#$e! were in" W$a#e2er 3ans1 3r&@e/#s1 &r a%bi#i&ns #$e! %ig$# $a2e $ad

be'&re #$e war1 #$e P&wers '&)g$# si%3! '&r 2i/#&r!1 #& de/ide H)%3#!

D)%3#!s =)es#i&n> w$&s #& be %as#er? T$e /&%ba#an#s s&)g$# #&i%3&se #$eir wi &n #$e ene%! 9 in #$e %ii#ar! 3$rase &' #$e da! 9

wi#$&)# an! /ear idea w$a# #$a# wi w&)d be" :$ sides '&)nd i#

di''i/)# #& de'ine #$eir war ai%s" W$en #$e Ger%ans 3)# '&rward 3ea/e

#er%s1 as #$e! did in *+*7 #& R)ssia and1 ess s3e/i'i/a!1 #& #$e Wes#ern

P&wers1 #$eir &n! /&n/ern was #& i%3r&2e #$eir s#ra#egi/a 3&si#i&n '&r #$e

ne-# war. #$&)g$ in reai#! a se/&nd war w&)d n be ne/essar! i' #$e

Ger%ans w&n #$e 'irs#" T$e Aies $ad1 in s&%e wa!s1 an easier #i%e &' i#>


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#$e! /&)d si%3! de%and #$a# #$e Ger%ans s$&)d s)rrender #$e 'r)i#s &'

#$eir ear! 2i/#&ries" :e!&nd #$is #$e Aies grad)a! '&r%)a#ed a series

&' ideais#i/ war0ai%s1 wi#$ A%eri/an assis#an/e &r )nder A%eri/an

3r&%3#ing" T$ese /er#ain! did n re3resen# #$e &b@e/#s wi#$ w$i/$ #$e

Aies $ad s#ar#ed #$e war. #$e! did n e2en re3resen# #$e &b@e/#s '&r

w$i/$1 '&r #$e %&s# 3ar#1 #$e! were n&w 'ig$#ing i#" T$e ideais#i/ 3r&gra%s3rang ra#$er 'r&% #$e /&n2i/#i&n #$a# a war1 '&)g$# &n s)/$ a s/ae and

wi#$ s)/$ sa/ri'i/es1 &)g$# #& $a2e a grea#1 enn&bing &)#/&%e" T$e ideas

were a b!03r&d)/#1 a g&ss &n #$e basi/ s#r)gge1 #$&)g$ #$e! were n

wi#$&)# in')en/e &n a#er e2en#s" Essen#ia!1 2i/#&r! re%ained #$e war0

ai%" Vi/#&r! w&)d 3r&2ide #$e s)bse=)en# 3&i/!" Faiing #$is1 2i/#&r!

w&)d1 a# an! ra#e1 3r&2ide #$e res)#" And s& i# did" T$e se/&nd W&rd war

grew &)# &' #$e 2i/#&ries in #$e 'irs#1 and &)# &' #$e wa! in w$i/$ #$ese

2i/#&ries were )sed"

T$ere were #w& de/isi2e 2i/#&ries in #$e 'irs# W&rd war1 a#$&)g$

a# #$e #i%e &ne was &bs/)red b! #$e $er" In N&2e%ber *+* Ger%an!

was de/isi2e! de'ea#ed b! #$e Wes#ern P&wers &n #$e Wes#ern 'r&n#. b)#

be'&re #$a# Ger%an! $ad de/isi2e! de'ea#ed R)ssia in #$e Eas#1 and #$is

$ad a 3r&'&)nd e''e/# &n #$e 3a##ern &' #$e in#er0war !ears" :e'&re *+*(

#$ere $ad been a :aan/e1 in w$i/$ #$e Fran/&0R)ssian aian/e was se# &''

agains# #$e Cen#ra P&wers" T$&)g$ Grea# :ri#ain was &&se! ass&/ia#ed

wi#$ Fran/e and R)ssia in #$e Tri3e En#en#e a 'ew s)33&sed #$a# $er

weig$# was essen#ia #& #)rn #$e s/ae" T$e war1 w$en i# s#ar#ed1 was a

/&n#inen#a war1 '&)g$# &n #w& 'r&n#s> ea/$ /&n#inen#a P&wer 3)# in#& #$e

'ied %ii&ns &' %en1 #$e :ri#is$ a %ere $)ndred #$&)sand" F&r #$e Fren/$

in 3ar#i/)ar1 R)ssian /&0&3era#i&n see%ed #$e 2i#a ne/essi#!1 and :ri#is$

s)33&r# an agreeabe e-#ra" A #$is /$anged as #$e war 3r&/eeded" T$e

:ri#is$ as& b)i# )3 a %ass ar%! and 3)# #$eir %ii&ns &n #$e Wes#ern

'r&n#" T$ese were se/&nded b! #$e 3r&s3e/# &' %&re %ii&ns w$en #$eUni#ed S#a#es en#ered #$e war in *+*7" T$is s#reng#$ening &' #$e Wes#ern

'r&n# /a%e #&& a#e #& sa2e R)ssia" T$e #w& re2&)#i&ns &' *+*71 /&%bined

wi#$ %ii#ar! /a#as#r&3$e1 dr&2e $er &)# &' #$e war" In 5an)ar! *+* #$e

new :&s$e2i, r)ers %ade a 3ea/e &' s)rrender a# :res#0Li#&2s,"

S)bse=)en# de'ea# in #$e Wes# /&%3eed Ger%an! #& aband&n #$e gains

w$i/$ s$e #$en %ade" T$e arger res)# /&)d n be )nd&ne" R)ssia 'e

&)# &' E)r&3e and /eased #& e-is#1 '&r #$e #i%e being1 as a Grea# P&wer"

T$e /&ns#ea#i&n &' E)r&3e was 3r&'&)nd! /$anged 9 and #& Ger%an!s

ad2an#age" W$ere #$ere $ad '&r%er! been a Grea# P&wer &n $er Eas#ern

'r&n#ier1 #$ere was n&w a N& Mans and &' s%a s#a#es and be!&nd i# an

&bs/)ri#! &' ign&ran/e" N& &ne /&)d #e1 '&r &ng !ears a'#er *+*1w$e#$er R)ssia $ad an! 3&wer and1 i' s&1 w$a# )se s$e w&)d %a,e &' i#"

A# #$e /&se &' *+* #$is did n see% %)/$ #& %a##er" T$e

signi'i/an# #$ing #$en was #$a# Ger%an! $ad been de'ea#ed wi#$&)#

R)ssias assis#an/e1 and de'ea#ed 3red&%inan#! 9 i' n e-/)si2e! 9

&n #$e Wes#ern 'r&n#" Vi/#&r! in #$is narr&w1 /&nges#ed area de#er%ined #$e

'a#e &' a E)r&3e1 i' n &' a #$e w&rd" T$is )ne-3e/#ed &)#/&%e ga2e

E)r&3e a di''eren# /$ara/#er 'r&% w$a# i# $ad be'&re *+*(" T$en #$e Grea#


17/214

P&wers were Fran/e1 Ger%an!1 I#a!1 A)s#ria0H)ngar!1 and R)ssia1 wi#$

Grea# :ri#ain &n! $a'0in2&2ed" T$e /en#er &' E)r&3e was :erin" N&w

#$e Grea# P&wers were Fran/e1 Ger%an!1 and Grea# :ri#ain 9 I#a!

in/)ded b! /&)r#es!1 and #$e Uni#ed S#a#es &//)3!ing #$e '&r%er :ri#is$

3&si#i&n &n #$e /ir/)%'eren/e" T$e /en#re &' #$is new E)r&3e a! &n #$e

R$ine &r1 &ne %ig$# e2en sa!1 a# Gene2a" R)ssia $ad /eased #& /&)n# as aGrea# P&wer. #$e Habsb)rg M&nar/$! $ad /eased #& e-is#" E)r&3e as a

3&i#i/a /&n/e3#i&n %&2ed b&di! wes#wards" In *+*1 and '&r %an! !ears

a'#erwards 9 indeed )n#i #$e s3ring &' *+6+ 9 %en ass)%ed #$a# #$e

s$a3ing &' #$e w&rd a! in #$e $ands &' #$&se w$& $ad '&r%er! been #$e

Wes#ern P&wers"

T$&)g$ b$ R)ssia and Ger%an! were de'ea#ed in *+*1 #$e

res)#s &' #$e #w& de'ea#s were 2er! di''eren#" R)ssia disa33eared 'r&%

2iew 9 $er re2&)#i&nar! g&2ern%en#1 $er 2er! e-is#en/e1 ign&red b! #$e

2i/#&ri&)s P&wers" Ger%an! $&we2er re%ained )ni#ed1 a/,n&wedged b!

#$e 2i/#&rs" T$e de/isi&n w$i/$ )#i%a#e! ed #& #$e se/&nd W&rd war

was #a,en1 'r&% #$e $ig$es# and %&s# sensibe %i2es1 a 'ew da!s be'&re

#$e 'irs# war ended" T$is was #$e de/isi&n #& gran# an ar%is#i/e #& #$e

Ger%an g&2ern%en#" T$e de/isi&n was #a,en 3ri%ari! &n %ii#ar!

gr&)nds" T$e Ger%an ar%! $ad been bea#en in #$e 'ied" I# was in re#rea#"

:)# i# $ad n been r&)#ed &r des#r&!ed" T$e :ri#is$ and Fren/$ ar%ies1

a#$&)g$ 2i/#&ri&)s1 were as& near e-$a)s#i&n" I# was di''i/)# #& ga)ge

'r&% &)#side #$e e-#en# &' Ger%an!s /&a3se" On! Pers$ing1 #$e

A%eri/an /&%%ander0in0/$ie'1 $ad n& 'ears &' a 'res$ /a%3aign" His

'&r/es were 'res$1 a%&s# )nb&&ded" He w&)d $a2e i,ed #& 3)s$ &n #&

:erin" I# was an addi#i&na a##ra/#i&n '&r $i% #$a# b! *+*+ #$e A%eri/ans

w&)d be /arr!ing #$e br)n# &' #$e war and /&)d #$en di/#a#e #& #$e Aies

a%&s# as %)/$ as #& #$e Ger%ans1 in a wa! #$a# #$e! /&)d n d& in

*+*" F&r #$e E)r&3ean P&wers1 $&we2er1 #$is was a reas&n '&r ending #$ewar =)i/,! i' i# were a# a 3&ssibe #& d& s&"

T$e A%eri/ans $ad n& /&n/re#e war ai%s1 n& 3re/ise #erri#&ria

de%ands" T$is1 #&&1 %ade #$e%1 3arad&-i/a!1 ess eager '&r an ar%is#i/e"

T$e! wan#ed &n! #$e )n/&ndi#i&na s)rrender &' Ger%an!1 and were

read! #& g& &n )n#i #$is was a/$ie2ed" T$e Aies as& wan#ed #$e de'ea# &'

Ger%an!. b)# #$e! $ad )rgen# 3ra/#i/a desires as we" :$ Grea# :ri#ain

and Fran/e wan#ed #$e ibera#i&n &' :egi)%. #$e Fren/$ wan#ed #$e

ibera#i&n &' n&r#$0eas#ern Fran/e. #$e :ri#is$ wan#ed #$e ei%ina#i&n &'

#$e Ger%an 'ee#" A #$ese /&)d be se/)red b! an ar%is#i/e" H&w #$en

/&)d #$e #w& g&2ern%en#s @)s#i'! ')r#$er b&&ds$ed #& #$eir war0wear!

3e&3es? E2en a3ar# 'r&% #$is1 an ar%is#i/e1 as s&)g$# b! #$e Ger%ang&2ern%en#1 w&)d sa#is'! #$e %&re genera ai%s &' #$e Aies" T$e! $ad

awa!s insis#ed #$a# #$e! did n desire #$e des#r)/#i&n &' Ger%an!. #$e!

were 'ig$#ing #& 3r&2e #& #$e Ger%ans #$a# aggressi2e war /&)d n

s)//eed" T$is 3r&&' w&)d n&w be gi2en" I# was &b2i&)s #& #$e Aies and

#& #$e Ger%an %ii#ar! eaders #$a# Ger%an! $ad been de'ea#ed. &n! a#er

did i# a33ear #$a# #$is was ess &b2i&)s #& #$e Ger%an 3e&3e" In

N&2e%ber *+* i# see%ed ra#$er #$a# #$e Ger%an 3e&3e1 #&&1 $ad %ade


18/214

#$eir /&n#rib)#i&n #& ending #$e war" T$e Aies $ad genera! /ai%ed1

#$&)g$ n wi#$ )nbr&,en )nani%i#!1 #$a# #$e! were 'ig$#ing #$e Ger%an

e%3er&r and $is %ii#ar! ad2isers1 n #$e Ger%an 3e&3e" N&w Ger%an!

$ad be/&%e a /&ns#i#)#i&na %&nar/$!1 and be/a%e a re3)bi/ be'&re #$e

ar%is#i/e was signed" T$e Ger%an g&2ern%en# was de%&/ra#i/. i#

a/,n&wedged de'ea#. i# was read! #& s)rrender a Ger%an!s /&n=)es#s.and i# a//e3#ed1 as basis '&r a ')#)re 3ea/e1 #$e ideais#i/ 3rin/i3es aid

d&wn b! Presiden# Wis&n in #$e F&)r#een P&in#s 9 3rin/i3es w$i/$ #$e

Aies as& a//e3#ed1 $&we2er gr)dging!1 wi#$ #w& reser2a#i&ns" T$)s

e2er!#$ing arg)ed in 'a2&)r &' an ar%is#i/e. and i##e agains# i#"

T$e ar%is#i/e was %&re #$an a /essa#i&n &' 'ig$#ing" I#s #er%s were

/are')! 'ra%ed #& ens)re #$a# Ger%an! /&)d n renew #$e war" T$e

Ger%ans $ad #& s)rrender arge s#&/,s &' war0%a#eria. #& wi#$draw #$eir

'&r/es be$ind #$e R$ine. and #& $and &2er #$eir 'ee# '&r in#ern%en#" T$e

Aies &//)3ied #$e e'# ban, &' #$e R$ine and #$e bridge$eads be!&nd i#"

T$ese #er%s s)//eeded in #$eir 3)r3&se> in 5)ne *+*+1 w$en #$e Ger%ans

were deba#ing w$e#$er #& sign #$e 3ea/e #rea#!1 #$eir Hig$ C&%%and $ad

#& /&n'ess1 $&we2er re)/#an#!1 #$a# renewa &' #$e war was i%3&ssibe"

:)# #$e ar%is#i/e $ad an$er side" I# #ied #$e Ger%ans in #$e i%%edia#e

3resen#. i# #ied #$e Aies '&r #$e ')#)re" T$e! were an-i&)s #& ens)re #$a#

#$e Ger%an na#i&n a/,n&wedged de'ea#. and #$ere'&re #$ear%is#i/e was

/&n/)ded wi#$ re3resen#a#i2es &' #$e Ger%an g&2ern%en#1 n wi#$ a

%ii#ar! deega#i&n" T$e Ger%ans d)! a/,n&wedged de'ea#. in re#)rn 9

and a%&s# wi#$&)# reaiing i# 9 #$e Aies a/,n&wedged #$e Ger%an

g&2ern%en#" En#er3rising Fren/$%en %ig$# #r! a#er #& s%)gge in

se3ara#is% b! #$e ba/,d&&r. $ig$'!ing $is#&rians %ig$# a%en# #$a# #$e

w&r, &' :is%ar/, $ad n been )nd&ne" I# was in 2ain" T$e ar%is#i/e

se##ed #$e =)es#i&n &' Ger%an )ni#! s& 'ar as #$e 'irs# W&rd war was

/&n/erned" T$e Habsb)rg M&nar/$! and #$e O##&%an E%3ire 2anis$ed"T$e Ger%an Rei/$ re%ained in e-is#en/e" M&re #$an #$is1 #$e Aies n

&n! re/&gnied #$e Ger%an Rei/$. i#s /&n#in)ed e-is#en/e n&w be/a%e

essen#ia #& #$e% i' #$e ar%is#i/e were #& be %ain#ained" T$e Aies were

#rans'&r%ed1 wi#$&)# /&ns/i&)s in#en#1 in#& aies &' #$e Rei/$ agains#

an!#$ing w$i/$ #$rea#ened #& des#r&! i# 9 agains# 3&3)ar dis/&n#en#1

agains# se3ara#is%1 agains# :&s$e2is%"

T$is was /arried ')r#$er b! #$e 3ea/e #rea#!1 again wi#$&)#

deibera#i&n" T$e #rea#! /&n#ained %an! $ars$ 3r&2isi&ns 9 &r s& i#

a33eared #& %&s# Ger%ans" T$e Ger%an /&nsen# #& i# was gi2en

gr)dging! and )nwiing!1 a'#er &ng deba#e w$e#$er i# w&)d n be

be##er #& re')se #& sign" C&nsen# was gi2en be/a)se &' #$e wea,ness &' #$eGer%an ar%!1 #$e e-$a)s#i&n &' #$e Ger%an 3e&3e1 #$e 3ress)re &' #$e

Aied b&/,ade1 and n 'r&% an! /&n2i/#i&n #$a# #$e #er%s were @)s# &r

e2en #&erabe" Ne2er#$eess1 #$e Ger%an g&2ern%en# a//e3#ed #$e #rea#!.

and1 b! d&ing s&1 a/=)ired a 2a)abe asse#" T$e #rea#! was designed #&

3r&2ide se/)ri#! agains# a new Ger%an aggressi&n1 !e# i# /&)d w&r, &n!

wi#$ #$e /&0&3era#i&n &' #$e Ger%an g&2ern%en#" Ger%an! was #& be

disar%ed. b)# #$e Ger%an g&2ern%en# w&)d arrange #$is 9 #$e Aies


19/214

&n! 3r&2ided a C&n#r& /&%%issi&n #& see #$a# #$e disar%a%en# $ad been

/arried &)#" Ger%an! was #& 3a! re3ara#i&ns. again1 #$e Ger%an

g&2ern%en# w&)d /&e/# #$e %&ne! and 3a! i# &2er 9 #$e Aies %ere!

re/ei2ed i#" E2en #$e %ii#ar! &//)3a#i&n &' #$e R$ineand de3ended &n

Ger%an /&0&3era#i&n" T$e /i2i ad%inis#ra#i&n re%ained in Ger%an $ands.

and a Ger%an re')sa #& /&0&3era#e w&)d 3r&d)/e a s#a#e &' /&n')si&n '&rw$i/$ #$e 3ea/e #rea#! %ade n& 3r&2isi&n" In #$e i%%edia#e si#)a#i&n &'

*+*+ #$e 3ea/e #rea#! see%ed /r)s$ing and 2indi/#i2e. aDi)tat &r a sa2e0

#rea#! as #$e Ger%ans /aed i#" In a &nger 3ers3e/#i2e1 #$e %&s# i%3&r#an#

#$ing in #$e #rea#! is #$a# i# was /&n/)ded wi#$ a )ni#ed Ger%an!"

Ger%an! $ad &n! #& se/)re a %&di'i/a#i&n &' #$e #rea#!1 &r #& s$a,e i# &''

a#&ge#$er. and s$e w&)d e%erge as s#r&ng1 &r a%&s# as s#r&ng1 as s$e $ad

been in *+*("

T$is was #$e de/isi2e1 'a#e')1 &)#/&%e &' #$e ar%is#i/e and #$e

3ea/e #rea#!" T$e 'irs# W&rd war e'# #$e Ger%an 3r&be% )ns&2ed1

indeed %ade i# )#i%a#e! %&re a/)#e" T$is 3r&be% was n Ger%an

aggressi2eness &r %ii#aris%1 &r #$e wi/,edness &' $er r)ers" T$ese1 e2en

i' #$e! e-is#ed1 %ere! aggra2a#ed #$e 3r&be%. &r 3er$a3s a/#)a! %ade i#

ess %ena/ing b! 3r&2&,ing %&ra resis#an/e in $er /&)n#ries" T$e

essen#ia 3r&be% was 3&i#i/a1 n %&ra" H&we2er de%&/ra#i/ and

3a/i'i/ Ger%an! %ig$# be/&%e1 s$e re%ained b! 'ar #$e grea#es# P&wer &n

#$e /&n#inen# &' E)r&3e. wi#$ #$e disa33earan/e &' R)ssia1 %&re s& #$an

be'&re" S$e was grea#es# in 3&3)a#i&n 9 8 %ii&n agains# ( %ii&n in

Fran/e1 #$e &n! $er s)bs#an#ia P&wer" Her 3re3&nderan/e was grea#er

s#i in #$e e/&n&%i/ res&)r/es &' /&a and s#ee w$i/$ in %&dern #i%es

#&ge#$er %ade )3 3&wer" A# #$e %&%en# in *+*+1 Ger%an! was d&wn0and0

&)#" T$e i%%edia#e 3r&be% was Ger%an wea,ness. b)# gi2en a 'ew !ears

&' n&r%a i'e1 i# w&)d again be/&%e #$e 3r&be% &' Ger%an s#reng#$"

M&re #$an #$is1 #$e &d baan/e &' 3&wer1 w$i/$ '&r%er! did s&%e#$ing #&res#rain Ger%an!1 $ad br&,en d&wn" R)ssia $ad wi#$drawn. A)s#ria0

H)ngar! $ad 2anis$ed" On! Fran/e and I#a! re%ained1 b$ in'eri&r in

%an03&wer and s#i %&re in e/&n&%i/ res&)r/es1 b$ e-$a)s#ed b! #$e

war" I' e2en#s '&&wed #$eir /&)rse in #$e &d 'ree wa!1 n$ing /&)d

3re2en# #$e Ger%ans 'r&% &2ers$ad&wing E)r&3e1 e2en i' #$e! did n

3an #& d& s&"

Men b! n& %eans ign&red #$e Ger%an 3r&be% in *+*+" A 'ew1 i#

is #r)e1 denied i#s e-is#en/e" T$ese were #$e %en 9 a #in! %in&ri#! in

e2er! /&)n#r! 9w$& $ad &33&sed #$e war as )nne/essar!1 %en w$& $ad

awa!s regarded #$e Ger%an danger as i%aginar!" E2en s&%e &' #$&se

w$& $ad s)33&r#ed #$e war and /&nd)/#ed i# wi#$ 2ig&r were n&w in/ined#& #$in, #$a# Ger%an! was wea,ened '&r a &ng #i%e" A :ri#is$ s#a#es%an

%ig$# be '&rgi2en '&r s)33&sing #$a# $is #r&)bes were &2er1 w$en #$e

Ger%an na2! san, benea#$ #$e wa2es" Ger%an! was #$rea#ened wi#$

re2&)#i&n1 ra/,ed b! s&/ia dis/&n#en#. and i# was genera! $ed1 e-/e3#

b! re2&)#i&naries1 #$a# s)/$ e-3erien/es des#r&!ed a /&)n#r!s s#reng#$"

M&re&2er %en1 reared in #$e s#abe e/&n&%i/ w&rd &' #$e a#er nine#een#$

/en#)r!1 ass)%ed #$a# a /&)n#r! /&)d n '&)ris$ wi#$&)# a baan/ed


20/214

b)dge# and a g&d /)rren/!" On s)/$ a #es# Ger%an! $ad a &ng wa! #& g&.

and i# see%ed %&re i%3&r#an#1 '&r e2er!&nes sa,e1 #& raise $er )3 #$an #&

$&d $er d&wn" E2en #$e %&s# aar%is# Fren/$%en did n /ai% #$a# #$e!

were #$rea#ened wi#$ a new Ger%an in2asi&n #$ere and #$en" T$e danger

a! in a $!3$e#i/a ')#)re. and w$& /&)d #e w$a# #$e ')#)re w&)d

$&d? E2er! grea# war $ad been '&&wed b! #$e %)r%)r #$a# i# was b)# a#r)/e and #$a# #$e de'ea#ed P&wer w&)d s#ri,e again" I# rare! did s&1 &r

wi#$ $a'0$ear#ed e''e/#" Fran/e1 '&r ins#an/e1 wai#ed &2er '&r#! !ears

be'&re a/#ing agains# #$e se##e%en# &' **8. and #$en wi#$ n& #erribe

res)#" Men w$& #$&)g$# i,e #$is g)essed wr&ng. b)# #$e! $ad $is#&r! &n

#$eir side" Ger%an!s re/&2er!1 #$&)g$ dea!ed1 was )n3re/eden#ed in i#s

s3eed and s#reng#$"

T$ere was an a#erna#i2e wa! &' den!ing #$e Ger%an 3r&be%"

Ger%an 3&wer /&)d be ad%i##ed. b)# i# /&)d be added #$a# #$is did n

%a##er" Ger%an! w&)d again gr&w s#r&ng1 w&)d again ran, a%&ng #$e

Grea# P&wers" :)# #$e Ger%ans $ad earn# n #& 3r&%e #$eir ai%s b!

war" I' #$e! /a%e #& d&%ina#e #$e esser s#a#es &' E)r&3e b! e/&n&%i/

3&wer and 3&i#i/a 3res#ige1 #$is 9 'ar 'r&% being danger&)s 9 was #& be

we/&%ed" T$e Grea# War $ad 3r&d)/ed inde3enden# na#i&na s#a#es

#$r&)g$&)# E)r&3e. s#range! en&)g$1 #$is was n&w de3&red b! %an!

ideais#s w$& $ad &n/e been /$a%3i&ns &' na#i&nais%" T$e na#i&na s#a#es

were regarded as rea/#i&nar!1 %ii#aris#i/1 e/&n&%i/a! ba/,ward" T$e

s&&ner Ger%an! 3)ed #$e% #&ge#$er1 #$e be##er '&r e2er!&ne /&n/erned"

T$is 2iew was ear! 3r&3&)nded b! #$e enig$#ened Ca%bridge e/&n&%is#

5" M" Be!nes. and L&!d Ge&rge $i%se' was n a#&ge#$er $&s#ie #& i#"

T$e i%3&r#an# #$ing was n #& 3re2en# Ger%an re/&2er!1 b)# #& ens)re

#$a# i# w&)d #a,e a 3ea/e') '&r%" Pre/a)#i&ns s$&)d be #a,en agains#

Ger%an grie2an/es1 n agains# Ger%an aggressi&n"

In *+*+ #$is 2iew s#i a! benea#$ #$e s)r'a/e" T$e 3ea/e #rea#!was in arge 3ar# s$a3ed b! #$e desire #& 3r&2ide se/)ri#! agains# Ger%an!"

T$is was eas# #r)e &' #$e #erri#&ria 3r&2isi&ns" T$ese were de#er%ined b!

3rin/i3es &' na#)ra @)s#i/e1 as #$en in#er3re#ed" Ger%an! &n! &s# and #&

w$i/$ s$e was n en#i#ed &n na#i&na gr&)nds" E2en #$e Ger%ans did n

/&%3ain ab&)# #$e &ss &' Asa/e and L&rraine &r n&r#$ Seswig 9 &r a#

eas# did n /&%3ain &3en!" T$e! /&%3ained ab&)# #$e &ss &' and #&

P&and. b)# #$is &ss '&&wed ine2i#ab! &n/e #$e e-is#en/e &' P&and was

re/&gnied1 and1 #$&)g$ P&and was #rea#ed gener&)s!1 #$is s3rang 'r&%

an e-aggera#i&n &' $er na#i&na /ai%s1 n 'r&% /&nsidera#i&ns &' s#ra#eg!"

On &ne 3&in# L&!d Ge&rge /arried #$e da! in 'a2&r &' Ger%an! agains#

$is &wn Aies" T$e Fren/$ and #$e A%eri/ans 3r&3&sed #$a# Danig1 a /i#!in$abi#ed b! Ger%ans #$&)g$ e/&n&%i/a! essen#ia #& P&and1 s$&)d be

in/&r3&ra#ed in P&and" L&!d Ge&rge insis#ed #$a# i# be/&%e a Free Ci#!

)nder a Hig$ C&%%issi&ner a33&in#ed b! #$e Leag)e &' Na#i&ns" In #$is

&dd wa! #$e Ger%an grie2an/e w$i/$ &s#ensib! 3r&d)/ed #$e se/&nd

W&rd war was a/#)a! se# )3 '&r Ger%an!s bene'i#" One #erri#&ria

3r&2isi&n &' a nega#i2e na#)re wen# agains# #$e na#i&na 3rin/i3e '&r

reas&ns &' se/)ri#!" Ger%an0s3ea,ing A)s#ria1 #$e r)%3 &' #$e Habsb)rg


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M&nar/$!1 was '&rbidden #& )ni#e wi#$ Ger%an! wi#$&)# #$e 3er%issi&n

&' #$e Leag)e &' Na#i&ns" T$is was a grie2an/e '&r %&s# A)s#rians1

in/)ding #$e Ger%an /&r3&ra Hi#er1 w$& was a# #$is #i%e s#i an

A)s#rian /i#ien" I# was n a grie2an/e '&r %&s# Ger%ans &' #$e Rei/$"

T$e! $ad gr&wn )3 in :is%ar/,ian Ger%an!1 and regarded A)s#ria as a

'&reign /&)n#r!" T$e! $ad n& wis$ n&w #& add $er #r&)bes #& #$eir &wn"T$is was s#i %&re #$e /ase wi#$ #$e Ger%an0s3ea,ing 3e&3es esew$ere

9 in Ce/$&s&2a,ia1 H)ngar!1 and R)%ania" T$e! %ig$# be aggrie2ed a#

be/&%ing /i#iens &' aien na#i&na s#a#es" T$e Ger%ans &' #$e Rei/$ ,new

i##e ab&)# #$e%1 and /ared ess"

One $er #erri#&ria 3r&2isi&n was s#ri/#! &' a s#ra#egi/a na#)re in &rigin"

T$is was #$e &//)3a#i&n &' #$e R$ineand b! Aied '&r/es" T$e :ri#is$ and

A%eri/ans 3r&3&sed i# as a #e%3&rar! %eas)re &' se/)ri#!1 and aid d&wn

#$a# i# s$&)d as# &n! '&r 'i'#een !ears" T$e Fren/$ wan#ed i# #& be

3er%anen#. and1 sin/e #$e! 'aied #& ge# #$is b! #$e 3ea/e #rea#!1 $&3ed #&

a/$ie2e #$e sa%e res)# b! #!ing e2a/)a#i&n #& a sa#is'a/#&r! 3a!%en# &'

re3ara#i&ns b! #$e Ger%ans" Re3ara#i&ns be/a%e #$e d&%inan# 3r&be% &'

#$e ne-# 'ew !ears. and #$e %&re in#ra/#abe 'r&% being #w& 3r&be%s 9

s&&n indeed #$ree" Os#ensib!1 re3ara#i&ns s3rang 'r&% #$e sensibe

de%and #$a# #$e Ger%ans s$&)d 3a! '&r #$e da%age #$e! $ad /a)sed" T$e

Fren/$1 $&we2er1 re#arded an! se##e%en# in #$e $&3e &' re%aining &n #$e

R$ine" War deb#s be#ween #$e Aies added a ')r#$er /a)se &' /&n')si&n"

W$en #$e :ri#is$ were /aed )3&n #& re3a! #$eir deb# #& #$e Uni#ed S#a#es1

#$e! de/ared in *+44 #$a# #$e! w&)d /ai% 'r&% #$eir Aies &n! en&)g$

#& %ee# #$e A%eri/an &biga#i&n" T$e Aies in #$eir #)rn 3r&3&sed #& 3a!

#$eir deb# #& Grea# :ri#ain wi#$ w$a# #$e! re/ei2ed 'r&% Ger%an! as

re3ara#i&ns" T$e 'ina de/isi&n $ad #$)s 3assed1 )n3er/ei2ed1 #& #$e

Ger%ans" T$e! $ad signed #$e #rea#!. #$e! $ad ad%i##ed an &biga#i&n.

#$e! a&ne /&)d dis/$arge i#" T$e! /&)d agree #& 3a! re3ara#i&ns1 and in#$is wa! a 3ea/e') w&rd w&)d be a/$ie2ed. #$e R$ineand w&)d be

e2a/)a#ed1 #$e =)es#i&n &' war0deb#s w&)d &se i#s s#ing" A#erna#i2e!1

#$e! /&)d re')se #& 3a!1 &r 3ead #$eir inabii#! #& d& s&" T$en #$e Aies

were 3resen#ed wi#$ #$e =)es#i&n> w$a# se/)ri#! did #$e! 3&ssess $er

#$an #$e signa#)re &' #$e Ger%an g&2ern%en#?

T$e sa%e =)es#i&n was raised b! Ger%an disar%a%en# T$is ai%ed

a# se/)ri#! and n$ing ese1 des3i#e #$e rider #$a# i# was ins#i#)#ed #& %a,e

3&ssibe #$e disar%a%en# &' $ers" Ger%an disar%a%en# w&r,ed i' #$e

Ger%ans /$&se #& %a,e i# w&r," And i' n? On/e %&re #$e Aies were

'a/ed wi#$ #$e 3r&be% &' en'&r/e%en#" T$e Ger%ans $ad #$is %eas)reess

ad2an#age #$a# #$e! /&)d )nder%ine #$e s!s#e% &' se/)ri#! agains# #$e%%ere! b! d&ing n$ing. b! n 3a!ing re3ara#i&ns and b! n disar%ing"

T$e! /&)d be$a2e as an inde3enden# /&)n#r! n&r%a! be$a2es" T$e

Aies $ad #& )se /&ns/i&)s e''&r#1 ar#i'i/ia e-3edien#s1 i' #$e s!s#e% &'

se/)ri#! were #& be %ain#ained" T$is ran agains# #$e /&%%&n sense &'

%an,ind" T$e war $ad been '&)g$# #& se##e #$ings" W$a# was #$e g&&d &'

i# i' n&w #$ere $ad #& be new aian/es1 %&re ar%a%en#s1 grea#er

in#erna#i&na /&%3e-i#ies #$an be'&re #$e war s#ar#ed? T$e =)es#i&n $ad


22/214

n& eas! answer. 'ai)re #& answer i# /eared #$e wa! '&r #$e se/&nd W&rd

war"

T$e 3ea/e &' Versaies a/,ed %&ra 2aidi#! 'r&% #$e s#ar#" I# $ad

#& be en'&r/ed. i# did n as i# were1 en'&r/e i#se'" T$is was &b2i&)s! #r)e

in regard #& #$e Ger%ans" N& Ger%an a//e3#ed #$e #rea#! as a 'air

se##e%en# be#ween e=)as wi#$&)# 2i/#&rs &r 2an=)is$ed" A Ger%ans%ean# #& s$a,e &'' a# an! ra#e s&%e 3ar# &' #$e 3ea/e #rea#! as s&&n as i#

was /&n2enien# #& d& s&" T$e! di''ered as #& #i%ing 9 s&%e wan#ing #&

re3)dia#e a# &n/e1 $ers ;3er$a3s #$e %a@&ri#!< wis$ing #& ea2e #$is #& a

')#)re genera#i&n" :)# #$e Ger%an signa#)re in i#se' /arried n& weig$# &r

&biga#i&n" T$ere was i##e res3e/# '&r #$e #rea#! in $er /&)n#ries" Men in

*+*+ were /&ns#an#! as3iring #& d& be##er #$an #$e 3ea/e%a,ers a# Vienna

a /en#)r! be'&re. and #$e gra2es# /$arge agains# #$e C&ngress &' Vienna

was i#s a##e%3# #& ri2e# a s!s#e% &n #$e ')#)re" T$e grea# ibera 2i/#&ries

&' #$e nine#een#$ /en#)r! $ad been w&n agains# #$is #rea#! s!s#e%. $&w

/&)d ibera!0%inded %en de'end a new #rea#! s!s#e%1 a new rigidi#!?

S&%e iberas n&w ad2&/a#ed a s!s#e%1 b)# &ne 2er! di''eren# 'r&% #$e

se/)ri#! &' #$e 3ea/e #rea#!" Ha2ing 3re2i&)s! ad2&/a#ed na#i&na

inde3enden/e '&r a1 #$e! sw)ng r&)nd #& beie' in an &2erriding

in#erna#i&na &rder1 #$e &rder &' #$e Leag)e &' Na#i&ns" T$ere was n& r&&%

in #$is &rder '&r dis/ri%ina#i&n be#ween '&r%er ene%ies and '&r%er Aies.

a were #& @&in in a s!s#e% '&r ens)ring and en'&r/ing 3ea/e" Presiden#

Wis&n $i%se'1 w$& /&n#rib)#ed as %)/$ as an! %an #& #$e dra'#ing &' #$e

3ea/e #rea#!1 a/=)ies/ed in #$e /a)ses dire/#ed agains# Ger%an! s&e!

'r&% #$e beie' #$a# #$e Leag)e &' Na#i&ns w&)d ge# rid &' #$e% &r %a,e

#$e% )nne/essar! 9 &n/e i# was es#abis$ed"

En'&r/ing #$e 3ea/e #rea#! ran agains# 3ra/#i/a di''i/)#ies =)i#e

a3ar# 'r&% #$ese %&ra &b@e/#i&ns" T$e Aies /&)d #$rea#en. b)# ea/$

#$rea# was ess e''e/#i2e and ess weig$#ed #$an #$e &ne be'&re" I# $ad beeneasier #& #$rea#en #& /&n#in)e #$e war in N&2e%ber *+* #$an #& #$rea#en

i#s renewa in 5)ne *+*+" I# was easier #& #$rea#en renewa in 5)ne *+*+

#$an in 5)ne *+4. easier #$en #$an in *+46. and 'ina! 2ir#)a!

i%3&ssibe #& #$rea#en renewa a# a" Men be/a%e in/reasing! re)/#an#

#& ea2e #$eir $&%es in &rder #& 'ig$# a war w$i/$ #$e! were #&d #$e! $ad

aread! w&n. #a-3a!ers were in/reasing! re)/#an# #& 3a! '&r a new war

w$en #$e! were aread! gr&aning )nder #$e /&s# &' #$e as# &ne" :esides1

e2er! #$rea# br&,e &n #$e =)es#i&n> i' i# $ad n been w&r#$ w$ie

/&n#in)ing #$e war #& se/)re )n/&ndi#i&na s)rrender1 $&w /&)d i# %a,e

sense #& renew i# '&r s&%e esser &b@e/#? P&si#i2e 3edges /&)d be

#a,en. #$e R)$r &r $er ind)s#ria regi&ns &' Ger%an! &//)3ied" :)# w$a#w&)d be a/$ie2ed? On! a new signa#)re b! #$e Ger%an g&2ern%en#1

w$i/$ /&)d be $&n&red &r dis$&n&red as be'&re" S&&ner &r a#er1 #$e

&//)3!ing '&r/es w&)d $a2e #& /&%e awa!" T$en #$e '&r%er si#)a#i&n

w&)d be res#&red> #$e de/isi&n w&)d res# in Ger%an $ands"

T$ere were $er %eas)res &' /&er/i&n #$an #$e renewa &' #$e war

and &//)3a#i&n &' Ger%an #erri#&r!" T$ese %eas)res were e/&n&%i/ 9

s&%e '&r% &' #$e b&/,ade w$i/$ was beie2ed #& $a2e /&n#rib)#ed


23/214

de/isi2e! #& Ger%an!s de'ea#" T$e b&/,ade $e3ed #& 3)s$ #$e Ger%an

g&2ern%en# in#& a//e3#ing #$e 3ea/e #rea#! in 5)ne *+*+" On/e re%&2ed1 i#

/&)d n be res#&red in i#s war#i%e rig&r1 i' &n! '&r 'ear &' i#s being #&&

e''e/#i2e" F&r i' Ger%an! were red)/ed #& e/&n&%i/ /$a&s and $er

g&2ern%en# /&a3sed1 w$& #$en w&)d &3era#e #$e #er%s &' #$e #rea#!?

T$e negia#i&ns be#ween Ger%an! and #$e Aies be/a%e a /&%3e#i#i&nin ba/,%ai1 sensa#i&na e3is&des in a gangs#er 'i%" T$e Aies1 &r s&%e

&' #$e%1 #$rea#ened #& /$&,e Ger%an! #& dea#$. #$e Ger%ans #$rea#ened #&

die" Nei#$er side dared /arr! i#s #$rea# #& e-#re%i#!" In/reasing!1 #$rea#s

dwinded. and ind)/e%en#s #&&, #$eir 3a/e" T$e Aies &''ered #& res#&re

Ger%an! #& $er rig$#') 3a/e in #$e w&rd i' #$eir de%ands were ')'ied.

#$e Ger%ans answered #$a# #$ere w&)d n be a 3ea/e') w&rd )n#i #$ese

de%ands were red)/ed" I# was an a%&s# )ni2ersa beie'1 e-/e3# in

:&s$e2i, /ir/es1 #$a# #$e &n! se/)re ')#)re '&r %an,ind a! in a re#)rn #&

#$e ibera e/&n&%i/ s!s#e% &' a 'ree w&rd0%ar,e# w$i/$ $ad been

aband&ned 9 #e%3&rari!1 i# was s)33&sed 9 d)ring #$e war" T$e Aies

$ad a 2a)abe bargaining wea3&n in &''ering #& read%i# Ger%an! #& #$is

w&rd0%ar,e#" :)# #$e Ger%ans $ad i# #&&1 '&r a s#abe w&rd /&)d n be

res#&red wi#$&)# #$e%" T$e Aies were #$)s ed1 b! #$eir &wn 3&i/!1 in#&

#rea#ing Ger%an! as an e=)a. and wi#$ #$is #$e! were ba/, a# #$e &d1

in#ra/#abe 3r&be%" I' Ger%an! were 3)# &n an e=)a '&ing wi#$ $ers1

s$e w&)d be #$e s#r&nges# P&wer in E)r&3e. i' s3e/ia 3re/a)#i&ns were

#a,en agains# $er1 s$e w&)d n re/ei2e e=)a #rea#%en#"

W$a# #$e Aies rea! wan#ed was a #rea#! s!s#e% dire/#ed agains#

Ger%an! w$i/$ #$e Ger%ans w&)d 2&)n#ari! a//e3#" I# is s#range #$a#

an!&ne e2er #$&)g$# #$is 3&ssibe. b)# #$is was a %&%en# &' $is#&r! w$en

abs#ra/#i&ns 3)ed $ard in in#erna#i&na rea#i&ns" T$e &d %&nar/$ies $ad

2a)ed #rea#ies in s& 'ar as #$ese /&n'erred rig$#s. #$e! $ad ne2er #r&)bed

%)/$ ab&)# #rea#ies w$i/$ in2&2ed &biga#i&ns" T$e new a##i#)de/&rres3&nded #& #$e san/#i#! &' /&n#ra/# w$i/$ is #$e ')nda%en#a

ee%en# in b&)rge&is /i2iia#i&n" Bings and aris#&/ra#s d& n 3a! #$eir

deb#s1 and rare! ,ee3 #$eir w&rd" T$e /a3i#ais# s!s#e% w&)d /&a3se

)ness i#s 3ra/#i#i&ners $&n&red1 wi#$&)# =)es#i&n1 #$eir %&s# /as)a n&d.

and #$e Ger%ans were n&w e-3e/#ed #& &bser2e #$e sa%e e#$i/" T$ere

were %&re 3ra/#i/a reas&ns '&r #$e reian/e &n #rea#ies. #$e %&s# 3ra/#i/a

being #$e a/, &' an!#$ing ese" Here a! #$e grea# /&n#ras# be#ween #$e

3eri&d a'#er #$e 'irs# W&rd war and 3re2i&)s e3&/$s &' a si%iar na#)re"

T$e 3r&be% &' &ne grea# P&wer in E)r&3e being %ar,ed! s#r&nger #$an

#$e res# was b! n& %eans new" On #$e /&n#rar!1 i# $ad &//)rred again and

again d)ring #$e 3as# '&)r $)ndred !ears" Men $ad n reied &n #rea#!3r&2isi&ns &r &n 3r&%ises b! #$e s#r&nger n #& )se $is s#reng#$" T$e

wea,er1 %&re 3a/i'i/ P&wers1 $ad gra2i#a#ed #&ge#$er1 a%&s#

)n/&ns/i&)s!" T$e! $ad '&r%ed aian/es and ass&/ia#i&ns w$i/$ $ad

de'ea#ed &r de#erred #$e aggress&r" S& i# $ad been agains# S3ain in #$e

si-#een#$ /en#)r!. agains# :&)rb&n Fran/e in #$e se2en#een#$ /en#)r!. and

agains# Na3&e&n in #$e nine#een#$" S& i# $ad been1 '&r #$a# %a##er1 in #$e

'irs# W&rd war"


24/214

T$is &d1 #ried s!s#e% 'aied #& w&r, a'#er *+*+" T$e grea# /&ai#i&n

diss&2ed" T$ere was a reas&n &' $ig$ 3rin/i3e '&r #$is" T$&)g$ #$e

2i/#&rs $ad a/#ed a//&rding #& #$e d&/#rine &' #$e :aan/e &' P&wer1 #$e!

were as$a%ed #& $a2e d&ne s&" Man! %en beie2ed #$a# #$e :aan/e &'

P&wer $ad /a)sed #$e war1 and #$a# ad$eren/e #& i# w&)d /a)se an$er"

On a %&re 3ra/#i/a e2e1 #$e :aan/e &' P&wer see%ed )nne/essar!" T$eAies $ad $ad a grea# 'rig$#. b)# #$e! $ad as& a/$ie2ed a grea# 2i/#&r!"

T$e! si33ed easi! in#& #$e ass)%3#i&n #$a# i# w&)d be 'ina" T$&se w$&

$a2e w&n &ne war 'ind i# di''i/)# #& /&n/ei2e #$a# #$e! /an &se #$e ne-#"

Ea/$ &' #$e 2i/#&ri&)s P&wers 'e# 'ree #& 3)rs)e i#s &wn 3&i/!1 #& '&&w

i#s &wn in/ina#i&ns. and #$ese did n $a33en #& /&in/ide" T$ere was n&

deibera#e re@e/#i&n &' #$e war#i%e 3ar#ners$i3" E2en#s 3)ed #$e Aies

a3ar#. and n&ne &' #$e% s#r&2e $ard en&)g$ #& a2er# #$e 3r&/ess"

T$e )ni#ed 'r&n# a%&ng #$e Aies did n &ng s)r2i2e #$e 3ea/e

/&n'eren/e1 n&r indeed /&n#in)e wi#$&)# /$aenge d)ring #$e /&n'eren/e

i#se'" T$e Fren/$ 3ressed '&r se/)ri#!. #$e A%eri/ans and1 #& s&%e e-#en#1

#$e :ri#is$ were in/ined #& #$in, #$a# #$e! $ad d&ne #$eir w&r," T$e

2i/#&rs %anaged #& agree &n a 3ea/e #rea#!1 b)# Presiden# Wis&n

'aied #& se/)re i#s /&n'ir%a#i&n b! #$e A%eri/an Sena#e" T$&)g$ #$is was

a b&w agains# #$e new &rder1 i# was n s)/$ a de/isi2e b&w as was a#er

%ade &)#" A%eri/as rea#i&ns wi#$ E)r&3e were de#er%ined %&re b!

ge&gra3$! #$an b! 3&i/!" W$a#e2er #$e #rea#! arrange%en#s1 #$e Uni#ed

S#a#es were 'ar awa! 'r&% E)r&3e a/r&ss #$e A#an#i/ O/ean" A%eri/an

#r&&3s w&)d $a2e been wi#$drawn 'r&% E)r&3e e2en i' #$e Sena#e $ad

end&rsed #$e #rea#! &' Versaies" As i# was1 s&%e re%ained &n #$e R$ine"

I# w&)d n& d&)b# $a2e in/reased #$e 3res#ige &' #$e Leag)e &' Na#i&ns i'

#$e Uni#ed S#a#es $ad been a %e%ber. b)# :ri#is$ 3&i/! a# Gene2a

s)gges#s #$a# %e%bers$i3 &' a se/&nd Ang&0Sa-&n P&wer w&)d n

ne/essari! $a2e #rans'&r%ed #$e Leag)e in#& #$e e''e/#i2e ins#r)%en# &'se/)ri#! w$i/$ #$e Fren/$ desired" M)/$ was %ade b$ in *+*+ and a#er

&' #$e A%eri/an 'ai)re #& i%3e%en# #$e #rea#! &' g)aran#ee wi#$ w$i/$

Wis&n and L&!d Ge&rge 3ers)aded Ce%en/ea) #& ren&)n/e anne-a#i&n

&' #$e R$ineand" T$is ab&r#i2e #rea#!1 #&&1 &''ered &n! a 3a3er se

Documents

Taylor, A.j.P. - The Origins of the Second World War (2nd Edition)