1.1 THE NATURE OF TASK BASED LEARNINGTraditional learning environments (for example, grammar translation and audio- lingual) are those where the language is taught to a group of foreign or second langu- age learners. In such cases, the focus is on the language itself, rather than on the infor- mation carried out by the language or the way it is processed and used. The teachers aim is to assure that students learn the new vocabulary and grammatical rules of the new language.Task-based learning was first developed by N. Prabhu in Bangladore, southern India. Prabhu believed that students may learn more effectively when their minds are focused on the task, rather than on the language they are using (Prabhu, 1987; as cited in Littlewood, 2004)Nunan (2006) defines task as a piece of classroom work involving learners in a understanding, directing, producing or interacting way in the target language while the students attention is focused on activating their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning, and in which the aim is to express meaning rather than to mani- pulate form. The task should also have a sense of wholeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, middle and an end. The topics discussed in communicative and task-based environments are generally topics of general interest to the learner. Task-based learning involves those instruc-tions in which classroom activities are tasks similar to those which learners may engage in outside the second language classroom. Tasks may be complex, for example, creating a school newspaper or easier such as making a hotel reservation (Lightbrown and Spada, 1999).There are not many published examples of complete language programs which claim that they are totally based on formulations of task-based language teaching. The literature contains mainly descriptions of examples of task-based activities. Breen (1987; as cited in Richards and Roberts, 2001: 233) makes a broad description of a task:

A language learning task can be regarded as a springboard for learning work. In a broad sense, it is a structured plan for the provision of opportunities for the refinement of knowledge and capabilities entailed in a new language and its use during communication. Such a work planwill have its own particular objective, appropriate content which is to be worked upon, and a working procedure A simple and brief exercise is a task, and also are more complex and comprehensive work plans which require spontaneous communication of meaning or the solving of the problems in learning and communicating. Any language test can be included within this spectrum of tasks. All materials designed for language teaching-through their particular organization of content and the working procedures they assume or propose for the learning of content- can be seen as compendia of task

Brown (2001) assumes that in task-based instruction, the main concern is not the small pieces of language, but rather the practical purposes for which language must be used. Whereas content based instruction focuses on subject matter content, task-based instruction focuses on a whole set of real-world tasks. And input for tasks may come from different sources such as speeches, conversations, narratives, public announcements, cartoon strips, interviews, oral descriptions, etc. He also states that task-based curricula are different from content-based, theme-based, and experiential instruction in that the course objectives are more language based. While in task-based instruction the focus is on communication, purpose and meaning, the goals are linguistics in nature. These goals are not in the traditional sense of just focusing on grammar or phonology, but they include preserving the centrality of functions like greeting, expressing opinions as well.

1.2 THE REASON OF TASK BASED LEARNINGWhy are many teachers around the world moving toward TBL? Why are they making the change to TBL? This shift is based on the strong belief that TBL facilitates second language acquisition (SLA) and makes L2 learning and teaching more principled and more effective. This belief is supported by theoretical as well as pedagogical considerations. Why choose TBL as language teaching method? We have to ask ourselves that question, because if we, as language teachers, dont know which method we are teaching according to or if we do not think about teaching methodology in relation to the different types of learners, to levels, to materials and last but not least to the learning processes of the individual learner, we might as well not teach. One clear purpose of choosing TBL is to increase learner activity; TBL is concerned with learner and not teacher activity and it lies on the teacher to produce and supply different tasks which will give the learner the opportunity to experiment spontaneously, individually and originally with the foreign language. Each task will provide the learner with new personal experience with the foreign language and at this point the teacher has a very important part to play. The teacher must take the responsibility of the consciousness raising process, which must follow the experimenting task activities. The consciousness raising part of the TBL method is a crucial for the success of TBL, it is here that the teacher must help learners to recognise differences and similarities, help them to correct, clarify and deepen their perceptions of the foreign language. (pools-m, www.languages.dk). All in all, TBL is language learning by doing.

1.3 TEACHER AND LEARNER ROLES IN TASK-BASED LEARNINGBoth the students and the teachers have different roles during task-based learning. Although far from being exhaustive, Richards and Rogers (2001: 235-236) explains the roles of the teachers and the students in task-based learning:Teacher Roles:1. Selector and sequencer of tasks : The teacher has an effective role in selecting, adjusting, and creating tasks and then shaping these tasks in keeping with learner needs, interests, and language skill levels.2. Preparing learners for tasks : Some training for pre-task is important for learners. These training activities may contain topic introduction, describing task instructions, helpingstudents learn or recall useful words and phrases to make the task completion easy, andproviding partial display of task process.3. Consciousness-raising : The teacher uses a mixture of form-focusing techniques, whichinclude attention-focusing pre-task activities, studying the given text, guided exposure toparallel tasks, and use of highlighted material.

Learner Roles:1. Group Participant : The students complete many tasks in pairs or small groups. Pair or group work may require some adaptation for those who are more accustomed to whole-class activities and/or individual wor.

2. Monitor : In Task Based Learning, tasks are used as a means of making the learning easier. Classroom activities should be planned in order that students have the chance to observe how language is used in communication. Learners themselves need to attend not only to the message in task work, but also to the form in which such messages typically come packed.3. Risk-taker and innovator : Many tasks will require learners to create and interpret messages for which they lack full linguistic resources and prior experience. In fact, this is said to be the point of such tasks. The skills of guessing from linguistic and contextual clues, asking for clarification, and consulting with other learners may need to be developed.

1.4 THE STAGES OF TASK-BASED LEARNINGTask-based learning (TBL) is typically based on three stages. The first of these is the pre-task stage, during which the teacher introduces and defines the topic and the learners engage in activities that either help them to recall words and phrases that will be useful during the performance of the main task or to learn new words and phrases that are essential to the task. This stage is followed by what Willis calls the "task cycle". Here the learners perform the task (typically a reading or listening exercise or a problem-solving exercise) in pairs or small gro ups. They then prepare areport for the whole class on how they did the task and what conclusions they reached. Finally, they present their findings to the class in spoken or written form. The final stage isthe language focus stage, during which specific language features from the task and highlighted and worked on. Feedback on the learners performance at the reporting stage may also be appropriate at this point. (Tim Bowen)Frost (2004) shows these certain stages:1. Pre-task The teacher begins the topic and gives the students clear directions on what they need to do at the task stage and may help the students recall some language that may be useful for the task. The pre-task stage can also contain playing a recording of people doing the task. This gives the students a clear model of what will be expected from them. The students can take notes and spend time getting prepared for the task. Ellis (2006) states that the first phase is pre-task and explains the various activities that teachers and students can carry out before they start the task. The purpose of the pre-task phase is to prepare students to perform the task in ways that will help promoting acquisition.

2. Task The students complete a task in pairs or groups by using the language resources as the teacher monitors and offers support. This second phase includes a lesson that is essentially conversational in nature and the explicit formulation of messages, also includes opportunities for students to take risks. Another process in this phase includes the shared goals and effective scaffolding for the learners efforts for communication.3. Planning Students set up a short oral or written report to explain the class what happened during their task. They then practice what they are going to say in their groups. Meanwhile the teacher is available for the students to ask for recommendation to clear up any language questions they may have.4. Report Students then report back to the class orally or read the written report. The teacher chooses the order of when students will present their reports and may give the students some quick feedback on the content. At this stage the teacher may also play a recording of others doing the same task for the students to compare. This phase has some pedagogic goals such as providing a repeat performance of the task, encouraging reflection on how the task was performed, and lastly encouraging forms that are problematic to the learner during the task5. Analysis The teacher then highlights relevant parts from the text of the recording for the students to analyze. They may ask students to notice interesting features within this text. The teacher can also highlight the language that the students used during the report phase for analysis.6. PracticeFinally, the teacher selects language areas to practice based upon the needs of the students and what emerged from the task and report phases. The students then do practice activities to increase their self-confidence and make a note of useful language.

1.5 TBL ACTIVITIES - EXAMPLES1. Use the foreign language as much as possible. 2. Use only mother tongue when necessary for explanation of exercises. 3. The pre-task is meant to help create a good atmosphere for learning without anxiety. Give words and supporting sentences for students to use. 4. The pre-task must supply words, phrases, ideas to support the individual student in the main task.5. Remember that a pre-task can be anything from for example: audio text o a video clip, a brainstorm activity , a small exercise ( cloze, cross word etc. ) , photos (what do you see?) , webpage ( what do you see?) Anything that will promote the foreign language and set the minds of the students into a certain context and atmosphere. 6. The main task must facilitate a process where each student can activate and use his/her own strategies. 7. Teacher role in the main task: monitoring the processes of the students working with the main task. 8. Remember the importance of the last step, the consciousness raising activities. Students repeat their process and their work with the main task must be performed in class the process will make students realize that language is diverse and that many different structures and words give meaning and can be used for communication.Fiction short stories, example of: When you work with fiction and if a text has a straight forward plot, it is easy for you as a teacher to clip up the text and turn the text reading process itself into a common task between a group of students. The following example is meant to be a main task, but can be expanded with a task like the one described about, using a format for students to fill in. Obviously the following example should not stand alone, but should be included into a full TBL-cycle, like the one described above. 1. Divide the text into small sections logical in relation to the story plot. 2. Take a pair of scissors and cut up the text into the sections you have chosen. It should not be more than 4-6 sections. 3. Mark each section with letters or numbers. 4. Divide the class into groups that match the number of sections. 5. Lay the pieces of text (the different cut up sections) on the table, text down, in front of each group and let each student in a group pick up one of the pieces. 6. Ask the students to read their own piece of text by themselves. 7. When all students in a group have read their own piece of text, they must give tell the rest of the group what the text says. 8. Everybody in a group must tell about his/her piece of text. 9. The group must now try to put the story into the right sequence.

Short story Adjectives/descriptive languageMain character

Other characters

Setting 1

Setting 2

Problems/Themes

In a task-based approach, however, the practice is more likely to be structured in some way so that there is a recognizable context, purpose and outcome. This structuring may be achieved in a variety of ways. The common procedure is to use simple questionnaire surveys in which the information gap is created by the students own individual experiences and ideas. One example was the survey of students skills described earlier. Here is another task example:

Fill in this chart about your classmates preferences

NameFavorite male singerFavorite female singerFavorite TV actor or actressFavorite TV seriesFavorite place in Bali

As a written follow-up, students may be asked (individually or in groups) to write a short report on what they have found out about their classmates preferences.

1.6 THE ADVANTAGES OF TASK-BASEDA task-based lesson usually provides the learner with an active role in participating and creating the activities, and consequently increases their motivation for learning. A task-based lesson offers more opportunities for the students to display their thinking through their actions. The teacher can also be more open to the needs of the students. TBL allows students to use the knowledge they have learnt and apply it productively in the task context (procedural knowledge). This practical experience helps learners to appreciate why certain academic questions are important and provide an experiential substrate for the development of a further academic discourse. The task usually requires the selection of some objects as an outcome. This can provide a shared focus for which students can work together. In the process, different participants, including peer learners in the team and the tutor, can project different views on the same situation and develop meaningful discussion on the matter. The task will usually generate objects that are also open to cross group evaluation. The students can present their own products and evaluate others. Everyone can take part in evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of the work generated within the classroom community. This will induce reflection as well as the development of critical awareness in the students (Ki, 2000).

1.7 THE DISADVANTAGES OF TASK-BASEDSwan (2005) states that the claim that Task-Based Learning is a advanced teaching approach, firmly based on the findings of current theory and research, can not be continuous. The hypotheses frequently associated with TBL, to the effect that second-language acquisition happens totally as a result of noticing during communicative activity, and are controlled by inflexible developmental sequences, are supported neither by convincing theoretical argument nor by experimental evidence, and are contradicted by common language-learning experience.TBL offers a different rationale for the use of tasks as well as different criteria for the design and use of tasks. It depends on tasks as a primary source of pedagogical input in teaching and lacks of a systematic grammatical or the type of syllabus that characterizes current versions of TBLT. Moreover, many aspects of TBLT have not been justified, such as proposed schemes for task types, task sequencing, and evaluation of task performance. Therefore, in line with what Swan (2005) suggested above, ac cording to Richards and Rogers (2001) the basic assumption of Task-Based Language Teaching, that it provides for a more effective basis for teaching than other language teaching approaches, remains in the domain of ideology rather than fact. While Task-Based Instruction may fruitfully develop learners authority of what is known, it is significantly less effective for the systematic teaching of new language. This is especially so where time is limited and out-of-class exposure is unavailable, such as in Turkey. This makes task-based programs inappropriate for most of the worlds language learners. According to Skehan (1996), task-based learning holds some dangers if implemented carelessly. Especially, it is likely to create pressure for instant communication rather than interlanguage change and growth. Speakers may resort to use some communication strategies such as paraphrase, repetition, word coinage, etc. Furthermore Norris, Brown, Hudson, and Bonk (2002) argue task-based learning does not provide any basis for making interpretations beyond the particular task/test context and it cannot simulate all of the factors that define actual language use situations. Moreover, the elicited performances may depend on abilities or knowledge rather than language itself.It should also be said that task-based interaction is a mainly narrow and learners put great emphasis on communicating meanings, but not necessarily worry about the exact form that they use. Therefore, the whole organization of the interaction is equipped for establishing a tight and selected focus on the achievement of the task. There are a large number of different varieties of interaction in the world outside the L2 classroom, where there is certainly a lot more to communication than performing tasks (Seedhouse, 1999).

CONCLUSION

To conclude this article, I would like to use a simple mnemonic, based on the word task itself, to summarise some of the aims and benefits that we can hope for task-based learning to achieve. Togetherspeaking or silently

Activatepurposefully

Skillscommunicative, cognitive and interpersonal

Knowledgefrom all domains of experience

The message is self-explanatory. Together, overcoming the isolation of the traditional classroom, students with their teacher activate their skills and knowledge. Often this togetherness may take the form of overt speaking, but even in silent tasks students may keep a sense of the classroom as a learning community. The activity that takes place is not unguided busy-work but purposeful movement towards targets and objectives (both in the overall direction of learning and in terms of specific learning activities). The skills which students perform and develop are communicative and also - particularly as they move into the second and third generations of tasks - cognitive and interpersonal. Finally, the boundary between the classroom and the outside world is increasingly reduced, as the tasks encourage students to relate learning to the whole domain of their experience.

REFERENCES:

Ali Shehadeh And Christine Coombe. Introduction: From Theory To Practice In Task-Based Learning

Breen, M. (1987). 1. Learner contribution to task design. In C. Candlin and D. Murphy (eds.), Language Learning Tasks (pp.23-46). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

Brown, H. D. (2001). 2. Teaching by Principles. An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.: NY.

Ellis, R. (2006). The Methodology of Task-Based Teaching. 4. Asian EFL Journal 8 (3)Online documents at URL http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/Sept_06_re.php

Frost, R. (2004). A Task-based Approach. On line Documents at http://www.teachin5. genglish.org.uk/think/methodology/task_based.shtml.

Exposure Of :Task-Based Learning. Granda Zoila, Lechon Marjory, Leon Karla, Merino Yesenia (2014)

Ken Lackman . Introduction To Task-Based Learningthe Willis Model And Variations

Ki, W. W. (2000). ICT Applications in Task-Based Learning. In N. Law and et. al. 6. Changing Classrooms & Changing Schools: A Study of Good Practices in Using ICT in Hong Kong Schools (pp: 79-91). Hong Kong, Friendship Printing Co., Ltd.

Nunan, D. (2006). Task-based language teaching in the Asia context: Defining task. 10. Asian EFL Journal 8 (3). Online documents at URL http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/Sept_06_dn.php.

Norris, J. M., Brown, J. D., Hudson, T. D., Bonk, W. (2002). Examinee abilities and task 9. difficulty in task-based second language performance assessment. Language Testing 19 (4), 395-418.

Lightbrown, P. M. and Spada, N. (1999). 7. How Languages are Learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Prabhu, N. (1987). 11. Second language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Richards, J. and Rodgers, T. (2001). 12. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Seedhouse, P. (1999). Task-Based Interaction. 13. ELT Journal 53(3), 149-156.

Skehan, P. (1996). A Framework for the Implementation of Task-Based Instruction14. . Applied Linguistics 17 (1), 38-62

Swan, M. (2005). Legislation by Hypothesis: The Case of Task-Based Instruc16. tion. Applied Linguistics 26 (3), 376401.William Littlewood. Task Based Learning of Grammar. Language Centre, Hong Kong Baptist University

II. COMPETENCY-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

2.1 The Nature of the Method (What)Before considering competency-based language teaching, it is necessary to clarify what is meant by competency. Mrowicki (1986) defines competencies as follows;Competencies consist of a description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors required for effective performance of a real-world task or activity. These activities may be related to any domain of life, though have typically been linked to the field of work and to social survival in a new environment.Richards and Rodgers (2001) also defines competency as;An element of competency can be defined as any attribute of an individual that contributes to the successful performance of a task, job, function, or activity in an academic setting and/or a work setting. This includes specific knowledge, thinking processes, attitudes, and perceptual and physical skills.Therefore, competency might be a task, a role, a function which changes over time, and will vary from context to context.According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), Competency-Based Approach (CBA) is a teaching approach which focuses on outcomes of learning. It emphasizes what the learners are expected to do rather than what they are expected to learn about. This approach emerged in the United States in the 1970s and can be described as defining educational goals in terms of precise measurable descriptions of the knowledge, skills, and behaviors students should possess at the end of a course of study.Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT) is an application of the principles of Competency-Based Approach (CBA) to language teaching. It sees outputs are very important than the learning process (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). This means, starting with a clear picture of what is important for students to be able to do, then organising curriculum, instruction, andassessment to make sure this learning ultimately happens. The keys to having a competency-based system include developing a clear set of learning outcomes around which all of the systems components can be focused, and establishing the conditions and opportunities within the system that enable and encourage all students to achieve those essential outcomes.CBLT especially applies to situations in which the learner has to fulfill a particular role with language skills which can be predicted or determined for the relevant context (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). The language used is seen as a medium of interaction and communication between people who want to achieve specific goals and purposes (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). In other words, without the language used as a means of interaction and communication, the students cannot achieve their goals in learning. It shows how important the language to be performed by students rather than to be understood by them.According to Auerbach (1986) there are eight characteristic features to distinguish the Competency-Based Language Teaching, such as:1) It focuses on society related issues. The goal is to teach the language in order to prepare students for the diverse needs of the world.2) It focuses on life skills to underline that language is still taught as a means of communication in practical tasks.3) The focus is on what students can do with language, as well as with certain behaviours.4) The skills taught in the programme should be separated into modules and or into manageable parts, so that the teacher and the students can manage the content and fulfil their objectives.5) The student tests results are of public domain, known and shared by both the students and the teacher. Therefore, students can see their mistakes, correct them and know clearly what behaviours and skills are expected of them.6) Evaluation is continuous and permanent, meaning that students are tested before the course to determine what skills they lack, and are tested again after receiving instructions to check if they have achieved the necessary skills or not.7) Mastery is demonstrated through the achievement of objectives. The evaluation is based on the results obtained from the specific behaviour of the students, rather than by traditional assessment.8) Individualised and focused attention are given to each student, the instructions given by the teacher are not based on time but on the progress that each student makes. Therefore, the teacher needs to focus on each individual student in order to help in those areas where skills are lacking. CBLT is also considering another key aspect of both language and learning theory is called mosaic approach to language learning (Richards & Rodgers, 2001), which assumes that language can be divided into appropriate parts and subparts. Communicative competence is then constructed from these subparts put together in the correct order (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). CBLT is in some respects similar to Communicative Language Teaching (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).The syllabus of CBLT is designed not around the notion of subject knowledge but around the notion of competency (Richards & Rodgers, 2001,). Therefore, the focus is how the students can use the language instead of their knowledge about the language. Schenck (1978) points out that the teacher provides a list of competencies which the course is going to deal with, and these are typically required of students in life role situations. The fact that CBLT is an outcome-based approach also influences the syllabus, especially the kind of assessment which is used. In contrast to norm-referenced assessment, which is used in many other teaching approaches and methods, criterion-based assessment is essential for CBLT. Students have to perform specific language skills which they have already learned during the course. The competencies tested consist of a description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors required for effective performance of a real-world task or activity. These performance-criteria form the basis for the assessment.

2.2 The Role of the Method (Why)

2.3 The Techniques How to Teach (How)The learning activities used in CBLT can be described as systematically designed activities to achieve a certain competence. These activities are real-world tasks which may be related to any domain of life but especially to survival-oriented and work-related situations in a new environment. Typical areas, for which such competency-based activities have been developed, are for example Job Application, Job Interview, or Work Schedules. All these areas can be described as a collection of units of competencies which consist of specific knowledge, thinking processes, attitudes, and perceptual and physical skills.The materials the teacher chooses are mainly sample texts and assessment tasks that provide examples of texts and assessment tasks that relate to the competency (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). These materials are used to provide the students with the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors required for effective performance of a real-word task or activity. A great variety of competencies should be improved by these tasks. On the one hand, knowledge and learning competencies as well as oral competencies are dealt with. On the other hand, the materials include tasks to improve the reading and writing competencies.At the beginning of conducting a course in a competency-based framework the students have to go through an initial assessment, in which the teacher determines the current proficiency level of the individual student. After this the students are grouped on the basis of their current English proficiency level, their learning pace, their needs, and their social goals for learning English (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).Furthermore, a course based on CBLT is divided into three stages, which the students have to go through in order to successfully finish the course. At Stages 1 and 2 the learners deal with competencies which are related to general language. At Stage 3 the students are grouped on the basis of their learning goals and competencies are defined according to the three syllabus strands of Further Study, Vocational English, and Community Access (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).

2.4 The Strengths and Weaknesses

2.5 The ConclusionCBLT is a method based on functional interaction of language to improve the quality in term of assessment. And a focussed on the outputs to learning. But on the other hand, CBLT is gaining popularity in the whole world. It is argued that through the clearly defined outcomes and the continuous feedback in CBLT, the quality of assessment as well as the students learning and the teaching are improved. These improvements can be seen on all educational levels, from primary school to university, and from academic studies to workplace training. The students can teach each other and help their peers and themselves to achieve more in physical education. By giving students responsibility, it can promote higher learning outcomes.

References UsedAuerbach, E. R. (1986). Competency-based ESL: One step forward or two steps back? TESOL Quarterly 20(3): 411 415. Mrowicki, L. (1986). Project Work English Competency-Based Curriculum. Portland, Oreg.: Northwest Educational Cooperative. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (Second Edition). Cambridge: CUP. Schenke EA. (1978). A Guide to Identifying High School Graduation Competencies. Portland OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.