Tapshin Wordlist

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    The Sur (Tapshin) language

    of

    Central Nigeria and its affinities

    [DRAFT CIRCULATED FOR COMMENT -NOT FOR CITATION WITHOUT REFERENCE TO THE

    AUTHOR

    Roger BlenchMallam Dendo8, Guest RoadCambridge CB1 2ALUnited KingdomVoice/ Fax. 0044-(0)1223-560687Mobile worldwide (00-44)-(0)7967-696804E-mail [email protected]://www.rogerblench.info/RBOP.htm

    This printout: April 25, 2006

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    i

    TABLE OF CONTENTS

    1. Introduction 2

    2. Location, history and sociolinguistic situation 2

    2.1 Nomenclature 22.2 Location and settlements 22.3 Language status 32.4 Sur culture and history 3

    3. Phonology 3

    3.1 Vowels 33.2 Consonants 33.3 Tones 4

    4. Morphology 4

    5. Lexical comparison and the classification of Sur 6

    6. Sur wordlist 6

    7. The affinities of Sur 247.1 Links with Plateau 247.2 Relationship with Tarokoid 247.3 Influence of Chadic languages 257.4 Conclusion 25

    References 25

    TABLES

    Table 1. Fossil prefixes in Sur........................................................................................................................... 4

    Table 2. Principal sources of data for lexical comparison .................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

    FIGURES

    Figure 1. Location of Tapshin ................................................................................................................................2Figure 2. Internal structure of Tarokoid................................................................................................................25

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    1. Introduction

    This is an annotated wordlist of the Sur language, spoken in Tapshin village in Bauchi State, Nigeria. Tapshin issome 25 km. north of the Pankshin-Amper road and reached by a track leading off the main road some 5 km. eastof Pankshin. The wordlist was collected by Roger Blench with the assistance of Selbut Longtau from a group ofelders in Tapshin on the 21st of March 1998. We would like to thank the chief, Sale Sambo, for calling the meetingand John Tula Rabu for help with translation as well as all those who attended for their good-natured participation.

    The only published reference to this language is in Hansford et al. (1976) apparently based on some unpublishedobservations of Kiyoshi Shimizu, who may have claimed that Tapshin was related to Eloyi. The entry in Hansfordet al. (1976) is repeated in Crozier and Blench (1992) for lack of fresh information. In 1976, Eloyi was consideredto be a Plateau language, although Armstrong (1983) was later to point to its equal affinity with Idomoid. What

    basis, if any, there was for Shimizus reported claim is unclear. The principal source for Eloyi is Mackay (1964)which has been compared to the data presented here.

    The wordlist was collected as a one-shot exercise and the transcription must therefore be regarded as verypreliminary. In general, tones are not marked. In view of the problematic classificatory status of the languageemphasis was placed on obtaining the maximum number of lexical items. This analysis was prepared by Roger

    Blench, who added the comparative observations1

    . This document is being circulated to scholars for comment.

    2. Location, history and sociolinguistic situation

    2.1 Nomenclature

    The name Tapshin is locally considered to be Hausa, although it does not look like Hausa. At any rate, this is thename of the major settlement. The Tapshin call themselves nSr plural nSr and their language kSr and thereference name adopted here is Sur. The Ngas people call the Sur Dishili. The name Myet found in some earlierreferences is one version of the name Met, a settlement some distance west of Tapshin. The people of Tapshinclaim that the people of Met speak the same language as them, but this has yet to be directly confirmed.

    2.2 Location and settlements

    Tapshin can be reached byturning north off the main roadleading from Jos to Pankshin andLangtang, not long after Pankshintown. The road can only betraversed by a four-wheel driveand may well be cut offcompletely in the rainy season.Despite this, the area is densely

    populated with elaborate systemsof terraces. Figure 1 shows thelocation of Tapshin;

    Tapshin is one large dispersedsettlement with numerous wards.

    1 I am grateful to Selbut Longtau who accompanied me on the field trip and suggested the Tarok cognates, and KayWilliamson for general comments.

    Pankshin

    Amper

    PLATEAU STATE

    BAUCHI STATE

    To TafawaBalewa

    Tapshin

    Met

    Balang

    Jivir

    Nyeleng

    From the turn-off to Tapshinis approximately 25 km.

    Figure 1. Location of Tapshin

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    2.3 Language status

    On the face of it, Sur should be a prime candidate for language loss. All adults appear to be fluent in Ngas andHausa and Tapshin is an enclave within the Ngas, by whom they are culturally dominated. The number of speakerscannot be more than 3-4000, depending on the status of Met. The figure of 18,000 given in CAPRO (1995) wouldappear to be a serious over-estimate. However, it was apparent during the interviews that even young children arelearning the language and there is no evidence of a decline in competence. Even more surprisingly, but no doubtrelated, the language is by no means full of Hausa and Ngas loanwords, as is sometimes the case in such situations.

    2.4 Sur culture and history

    The only source for information on Sur culture is CAPRO (1995:323-327).

    3. Phonology

    The phonology of Sur is based on rapid observations and should therefore be regarded as tentative at this stage.

    3.1 Vowels

    Sur probably has seven phonemic vowels;

    Front Central Back

    Close i u

    Close-Mid e o

    Open-Mid

    Open a

    The status of the // is highly uncertain, as it appears at times to be simply a centralised allophone of /i/. For thepresent it is transcribed as heard.

    3.2 Consonants

    Sur consonants are as follows:

    Bilabial Labio-

    dental

    Alve-

    olar

    Alveopal

    atal

    Palatal Velar Labial

    -velar

    Glottal

    Plosive p b t d [c] j k g ()Nasal m n Trill [r]Fricative f v s z hApproximant y w

    Lateral Approximant lImplosive ()

    I have occasionally transcribed the implosive //, but it seems to be in free variation with its non-implosive

    counterparts. [r] and [l] seem to be in free variation as do [c] and [ky]; I have consistently transcribed the lattersound as ky.

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    Some words have /yy/ and /ww/ in initial position, at least phonetically. Their likely source is the merging of i- andu- prefixes with the following approximant. Similar processes occur in some Kainji and Plateau languages, e.g.Kambari and Jju. In a few cases clear u + w sequences seem to occur; why these have not merged is not yet clear.

    Only one word, gwaar black cobra, was heard with a glottal stop and the status of this phoneme is best regardedas doubtful.

    3.3 Tones

    4. Noun Morphology

    Sur has completely lost any functioning affix system, perhaps under the influence of Angas. Sur nouns simply addthe prefix - to mark pluralisation. No exceptions to this were recorded, even for persons. It does, however, retainclear traces of the former prefix system, as well as some suffixes which could possibly indicate a period ofinteraction with Adamawa languages.

    Table 1 shows the principal non-productive morphemes in Sur;

    Table 1. Possible fossil noun prefixes in Sur

    bi- bii firei- iyo flying ant, ium termite,ki- kii head, kilerem tongue, klaan blacksmith, kijiri tree-trunk, kita bow, kiler bed,mu- mutu hyna,n- ntap duiker, gafa frog, nykguinea-fowl, kw ladder, nwaksaltti- tii fonio, tisukhouse-bat, tikakala crab, tikat head-pad, tikan stonetu- tukwaki leg, tukurum knee, tukubi bone, tukum corpse, tukwalamushroom,u- urom husband, yyaleaf, wwa dog, wwl goat, yy hunger,

    Some of these can be clearly seen to be affixes by comparison with their external cognates. The single example andlack of parallels in other languages suggest that bi- and mu- were incorporated in the stem in pre-Tarokoid times.All of them occur in some form in neighbouring Plateau languages. Others may be disguised compounds. Awidespread ku- prefix seems to occur principally with back vowels and is probably an allomorph of the ki- prefixgiven above.

    5. Verb Morphology

    As with many Plateau languages, proto-Tarokoid probably had a rich system of verbal extensions. Tarok has atleast one that still functions in part as a singulative, to emphasis a single action when the unmarked form implies a

    plural. However, in other Tarokoid languages these seem to be unproductive and only recoverable bymorphological analysis and comparison with cognate forms in other Tarokoid or Plateau languages. It is true,however, that verbal extensions are not easily elicited in rapid survey work and Sur may in fact have functioningextensions.

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    -k(y)i

    The following verbs suggest a verbal extension k(y)i-

    byiki Break (stick) cf. Tarokkcgarki Grow (v.i.)

    kakyi Catch cf. Tarokkpn, Yakam kn, Pe komkrakyi Dreamkyirki Play (games)nyinki Bite cf. Taroknym, the first element is the word for toothreki Fold (e.g. Cloth)

    The word for break shows that the extension is not cognate with Tarok ci, but does suggest that final -k endingsin Tarokoid verbs may be the result of erosion.

    -ri

    -ri is a widespread verbal extension in Plateau, recorded in many other languages.

    deri Stay / remain cf. Ngas argri Uncover (pot)gwri Open (door) cf. Pe kulikwari Hoe (cultivate) cf. Hasha kwar, Berom kara (ex BCCW). A widespread East Benue-Congo #ka- rootkyari Cut (rope)kyari Divide (share out) a widespread #ka- root found throughout Benue-Congomari Lose (s.t.)puri Boil cf. Tarokfl,riri Be sharp cf. Tarokriri. This may be a reduplication and not an extension

    turyi Resemblewuri Blow ( mouth) cf. Yakam wurok, Horom wil, Berom wlmwuri Enteryari Be straight

    -i

    The following verbs appear to have the verbal extension i. bii call is the only one to have a clear cognate inanother Tarokoid language. lami lick is interesting because the cLela (Kainji) cognate suggest this extension can

    be reconstructed to a considerable historical depth.

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    bii Call(summon)

    cf. Pe bisi, Fyem sbwai

    Be rotten

    lami Lick cf. Buji lama, Kwanka lyam, cLela lms, Lamnso la. Forms with initial l- are verywidespread and there may be an ideophonic element.

    lki Pour =spit, ejectlki Spitnui Smell cf. Tarokni+, Yangkam nu, CB #-nk(C.S. 1386) reconstructing back at least to Proto-

    Benue-Congorki Dropii Fear This may be a reduplication and not an extensionwai Pluck (fruit)zki Shake6. Lexical comparison and the classification of Sur

    The classification of Sur is unclear from the existing published literature. In view of its previously uncertainclassificatory status I have sought to identify as many external cognates as possible.

    6. Sur wordlist

    Sur nouns have no plural alternations but simply add the prefix - to all nouns. No exceptions to this wererecorded, even for persons.

    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    No. Nouns

    1. tree kon cf. Pe kn, Yangkam koon, Tarok akn firewood. This root iswidespread in Niger-Congo, often meaning firewood.2. leaf yya cf. Tarokagwl, Yangkam ka, Pe w, Shall ya. Reconstructed as

    #(g)yaNa for EBC in Blench (ms). Also in Chadic e.g. Ngas ym3. root ryusu cf. Tarokal, Pe u-li, though this may go back to Mande4. branch baa kon cf. Yakam yala + tree5. trunk (of tree) kijiri6. grass pik cf. Tarok pp, Yangkam sepip forest, Pe upip forest, bush.

    Westerman (310) cites #-pi as a PWS root, but his evidence is restrictedto Benue-Kwa languages.

    7. mushroom tukwala

    8. seed/stone/pip gum9. bark (of tree) gwok cf. Tarokakkc, Pe u-kaguk, Yakam gwa, PLC *-kpk,10. thorn wu cf. Yakam wu11. charcoal tikal cf. Tarokakl, Bu ikla. Plateau terms often have a ti- prefix though

    not in a precisely comparable form. The kal element goes back toNiger-Saharan.

    12. Dust buru cf. Bu iwuru13. Ashes duri cf. Kwanka ndori although both these are probably local variants of the

    widespread #tu- root often with a final velar nasal in Plateau14. rubbish heap kuburi ku-prefix + cf. Horom abuk, Kwanka bura15. mud bwk cf. Ngas k, perhaps also Tarokaer+, Yakam bwaar, Pe a-bwatibe16. clay (for pots) kimi cf. Yakam mi earth, Tarokam

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    17. dew mya cf. Tarokmmy, Yakam mya, Pe inya Reflex of a Niger-Congoroot #me-

    18. stone tikan ? related to Nungu k-k, Aten k, unless forms such as Bu kita arerelated by metathesis.

    19. sand ial cf. Tarokashshir, Pe aiei, Yakam yar, Vute sas, Kwanja Ndungs, Janganiu, Gaa ammta

    20. smoke ni cf. Horom ie, Pe ntsa21. fire bii Probably borrowed from Chadic ii forms and assigned a new prefix.

    Widespread in Bantoid. See discussion in Blench (1996)22. water rya23. rain rya wwt water + ?24. cloud leri cf. Tarokll25. lightning yaki26. rainy season yuwap27. dry season gii28. harmattan tuktur29. year kr cf. jkr.30. today lem =sun31. yesterday l ? cf. Taroklm32. tomorrow weni =morning. The same connection is made in Tarok, although with a

    different root.33. morning weni also tomorrow ()34. evening cirki35. darkness boobi cf. words for blindness, e.g. Berom bwk, Mambila bb, Nnakenyare

    bp,36. dawn pyaweni37. day vitlem vit [?] + lem sun38. night gutuk -tukis found throughout EBC. cf. Berom trk, but also tkday of 24

    hours. Also Izere k-tk, Cara kituk, Rukul atuk39. moon/month pyam cf. Tarokap, Yangkam ee. A Niger-Congo root. Also Chadic: Fyem

    fyl, Sha, Kulere fen40. sun lem cf. Tarokalum+, Pe u-lom, Yakam loom41. Star(s) mat42. Wind vivi cf. Tarokvvl whirlwind43. God Nen A widespread root in this region of Nigeria. cf. Angas Nen, Tarok, Pe

    Nan,44. sky kubut cf. Tarokaur [used in compounds],45. bush bel cf. Wukari Jukun by, and possibly other scattered forms with initial b-.

    ? cf. P- j46. lake deb rya cf. Bantu ? and j47. valley kita48. earth, soil mri cf. Cara mwel, Berom vwl, Pe mve world suggesting a proto-form

    #mvwl49. thunder yendet50. river bwndr51. hill/mountain dugl cf. Tarokaur+,

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    52. farm ram cf. Fyem rm, Horom rama, Tarok, Pe rm, Yakam ram. Ngas hasmr which looks like metathesis

    53. field seri54. compound dugor55. house gal cf. Tarokkl family, lineage,Pe ikala, Yakam lo, also Ngas lu56. room ku57. wall (of room) gai58. roof pir59. granary bes60. well gdgrn water-hole?61. road giel cf. Tarokasl, Pe u-tsel, Eggon o-en, ? Bo ma-tel (pl.), also E. j62. town mel63. village kwambel64. riverbank kwa

    bwndr ? + river. cf. Tarokakk65. swamp/wetland plr cf. Pe u-pn river,66. place ri cf. Pe uru pl. aru67. person nimbi cf. Tarokunim, Ekoid N -nm.68. man nukurum cf. Yakam nyirum, Fyem rm pl. arom. The #-rom- element is a

    very widespread Benue-Congo root for man/male, person (seediscussion in BCCW 59).

    69. woman eroryar cf. Tarokcr, Yakam ker, Doka o-sal, Lungu ku-tsar, Eggon -l70. child (general) mwana cf. Yakam children munda, Tesu amr, Tikar mw, Jaku mn,

    Bapi mwn, Degema m. Also PB, Yoruba,. Igbo etc. Also Chadic:Wangday min, Geji mil,71. old person garki

    72. husband urom u- prefix + -rom, a Niger-Congo root for male (see discussion inBCCW,II. See Fyem, Horom rom pl. barom

    73. wife eroryar see woman (Error! Reference source not found.)74. father ba cf. Yakam ba though this is a worldwide root75. mother naa cf. Tarok nna, Pe u-na, Yakam nan although this reconstructs to

    PMC level.76. son mwana Also child (Error! Reference source not found.)77. daughter maer child + woman78. youth mwana Also child (Error! Reference source not found.)

    79. ancestors (a)giet80. barren woman suur81. friend be cf. Yakam r, but also Mambiloid mbi82. guest/stranger in cf. Taroknmcn (where nm is person), Fyem cen. A root #kyin-

    goes back to Proto-Atlantic-Congo (PWN 129). cf. LC sn. Ijoid, Bantu83. chief ler84. hunter kplvwak85. thief la cf. Yakam la86. doctor (native) eni87. witch nan

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    88. corpse tukum cf. Tarok akm, Yangkam ku. The #-kum element is widespread inBenue-Congo and tu- is presumably an unproductive prefix. AlsoChadic: Mwaghavul km,

    89. blacksmith klaan la- element may be cognate with Tarokla+ to smith90. slave mwan cf. Ngas nfwan

    91. widow er kula92. anger byen93. fear (n) ii cf. Nindem sisip, Kadara u-i, Rindre cici94. shame kii bwagal95. bravery ryak fi96. truth kubwana97. wisdom kubari98. laughter uwal ? cf. Tarok-yil, Yangkam yil to laugh99. life yir-vari100. death ku cf. Tarokk, . A Niger-Congo root #ku

    101. name kyin cf. Pe ti-yin, PJ *gyin, CB #-g.n. All are probably versions of a PVCroot #iri

    102. grave kigyin103. song uwum widespread?104. language kuwar105. story tadi < H.106. word kusurmi107. lie ryaa cf. Tarokarwp (archaic)108. proverb kii kuwar109. prophesy kraki110. oath kunser111. news nugwalgwal112. insult garak113. hunger yy cf. Fyem y, Tarokay, Mangar (Chadic) yu and Hausa yunwa.114. thirst yy-rya hunger for water115. famine yyekwan116. horn dugwot117. tail kuol cf. Tarokaswl118. egg i cf. Tarokac, Pe ti-ci pl. a-ci, Yakam gy Common in Plateau in this

    form, but reflects a Niger-Congo root with g- initial (W. 214).119. wing gwanji the ji is likely to be a suffix and the gwan- element cognate with other

    forms with a labial velar. Thus: Mada gb, Nindem -gb Eggongba, Yashi kwen. (BCCW,101).

    120. beak kunu nyl mouth of bird121. nest (of bird) gal nyl house of bird122. feather dugur123. bundle bak cf. Tarokaakheap124. gum/glue korgi125. termite hill galum house of termite126. hole (in ground) guduk127. poison bwat128. war, fight gwm cf. Tarokkm, Pe ikom, Yakam gum. A weakening of the common

    Niger-Congo root #-kwan (see BCCW,99).

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    129. work m A form of the extremely widespread PMC root #tom-130. divination

    (generic)eni

    131. medicine (trad.) gal cf. Pe u-kali132. medicine (charm) lau < Hausa layi

    133. money giam = iron. cf. Fyem gym134. Shadow wuri cf. Pe wurok135. Thing ni cf. Yashi nina, Chawai nyen, Kegboid nu, Nupe enya136. land/country mel cf. Cara mwel, Berom vwl, Pe mve world suggesting a proto-form

    #mvwl137. sleep na the na- element is extremely common in East Benue-Congo, e.g. Wapan

    na, Hasha na, Lamnso n-r138. Gift nididi139. load kaya < H.140. market as Hausa141. soap (traditional) bwai142. stick mbya143. soul wuriwuri cf. shadow ()144. masquerade rum cf. Tarokrm145. time kubel146. world tukur147. firewood kon cf. tree An ancient Niger-Congo root going back at least to PAC.

    Discussed in BCCW.148. disease / illness wal ? cf. Pe iset149. smallpox s(p)pi150. diarrhoea ryak zuzuk cf. Tarokzkto pour out

    151. goitre blbl ? cf. Tarokmbukm152. sore / wound kinyet cf. Pe u-nat, Yakam n-not, Tarokannur153. cough fwaram154. fever yil body + ?155. boil (n) yiwuni body + fruit156. leprosy kwai157. dream (n) kraki158. funeral tukur159. running / race kya160. head kii The -i is a common root throughout Benue-Congo161. eye ki

    162. face ki = eye163. cheek aal164. forehead pinkii ? + head165. nose gvrum cf. Yangkam viram,166. ear koto cf. Tarokacw, Pe u-to, Yangkam to. The PVC root tu for ear

    with an assimilated ki- prefix. (PWN 556)167. mouth kunu cf. Tarokan, Pe unu, Yakam no. The Niger-Congo root nu for

    mouth with an assimilated ki- prefix.168. lips kyan kunu edge of the mouth the same term is used for riverbank169. tooth nyin cf. Taroknyin, Pe ti-yin. A Niger-Saharan root170. tongue kilerem

    ki- prefix + cf. Tarokailim+, Mabo de-rem, cLela d-rm, ultimatelyPNC #-lima

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    171. throat gwgl #goro forms are found throughout Africa (Blench 1996)172. neck mwak cf. Yakam mwak173. chin kidgl cf. Tarokgl,174. shoulder pakpal Despite the appearance of a labial-velar, these do not otherwise seem to

    occur in Sur and this probably arose at the morpheme boundary.

    However, #kpa- is a widespread root for shoulder in Niger-Congo.175. armpit alaklak

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    201. shit byi cf. Yakam iyo. #biN- is a widespread PAC root202. hair (head) yil203. beard od cf. Yakam ar204. liver nci cf. Ngas nki205. body yii

    cf. Yakam yit, Mambila Kb. yeli; PB #ytu206. heart turum cf. Yakam nrwo, Pe ntene. Blench (ms.) reconstructs #-duN- forProto-Benue-Congo which may well be related. Also Chadic: Ngas ur

    207. lungs fufwak Forms including fu- are very common and may include a phonaestheticelement. However, see Mambiloid, e.g. Somie ff

    208. meat nam cf. animal (209.). Niger-Congo root #nama-, widespread in Plateau,also in Chadic, e.g. Ngas nam

    209. animal nam cf. meat (208.). Niger-Congo root #nama-, widespread in Plateau,also in Chadic, e.g. Ngas nam

    210. cow nak cf. Yakam nak, Pe nak, Tarokn although widespread in Niger-Congo. Some forms may be borrowed from Fulfulde nagge

    211. goat wwl cf. Tarokil, Yangkam be, Pe wel, Fyem bwol. A Niger-Congo root#bok-

    212. he-goat bus < H. (?)213. castrated he-goat lukurum wwl214. sheep nta cf. Taroktam, Pe tamu, Yakam tam but also widespread in West

    Africa215. ram kunda216. dog wwa presumably a reduced form of the more common lexemes with initial b-

    such as Pe iwa, Yangkam gba, Tarokva. A Niger-Congo root217. cat* kyanwa < H.218. horse* too cf. Yakam too(k) but related to widespread West African soo219. donkey* as Hausa220. pig* as Hausa221. elephant nanina probably animal + a form cognate with Irigwe -, Mada ezi.222. hippopotamus baktukwa223. buffalo yyet cf. Yakam iyeet, Nupe eya. A root #ya reconstructed for Benue-

    Congo.224. lion bwar cf. Ngas mbwar225. leopard gwt cf. Piti o-kw, Nungu me-k and ultimately Westermanns PNC root,

    usually reconstructed with a labial velar226. duiker ntap cf. Taroktep. Widespread (KW)

    227. porcupine tumbul228. hyena2 mutu cf. Taroktu. Also in Chadic: Goemai tumu, Mwaghavul ndm229. wart-hog tki230. civet nda m231. baboon gwm232. patas monkey muni233. squirrel pala cf. Yakam pla234. rat (generic) bi cf. Tarokpi, Yakam pi, Igbo Etiti -p, Esimbi -fimbi235. cane rat eltem236. giant rat kwr cf. Tarokkpir, Pe -kot, Yakam ikot, Cara ki-gut2 (Crocuta crocuta)

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    237. hare3 kafwan cf. Tyap ??238. musk shrew abat239. mongoose luwan240. Fruit-bat gigyak241. House-bat tisuk ? Igboid

    242. crocodile gebi the ge- element is common in Bantoid, especially Bamileke meaningcrocodile. Also Mambiloid ga and the bi element presumably meansbad as in snake (below). it is curious there are no other nearby

    parallels. Or PB gubu ?243. agama lizard wari cf. Pe iali, Tarokoli244. skink gut245. gecko irkindi246. toad tubwalabwala cf. Pe-wap zhoi, Tarokmal atk247. frog gafa248. chameleon kudk cf. Pe i-ndapso, Taroktasum249. Boscs monitor

    lizard damotukwan cf. Tarokkun

    250. water monitor yyuwar251. tortoise guguri cf. Tarokkwkkri. #kul- is virtually a Pan-African root (Blench

    1997).252. snake (generic) nambi animal + bad. BCCW gives the examples of Ogbia and Degema

    where snake is bad thing253. spitting cobra namdm254. black cobra gwaar255. fish ywak cf. Yakam vyak. Connell (1991) reconstructs *-k/i-for PLC. Also

    Yoruba ja.

    256. crab (water) tikakala cf. Tarokkm'gwl, Pe-gwal, Yangkam ngala. Niger-Congo #kala257. bird nyl cf. Taroknyil, Pe i-nol, Yakam noi258. chicken gwari The ri is a suffix, and a nasal has almost certainly been assimilated

    (see cock). Hence cognates are Horom kogo, Yakam gwoa,Berom coo

    259. cock gwanji see above260. guinea-fowl nyk cf. Tarokrusk, Eggon i-ugu, Kamanton ok. Widespread Plateau

    #wokforms are probably weakened versions of an initial #nk261. duck (domestic)* agwagwa < H.262. pigeon

    (domestic)

    baru perhaps shortened from Hausa tantabara

    263. vulture jinta264. village weaver4 gwal Reconstructed to Proto-Benue-Congo as #-gba in Blench (ms.)265. cattle-egret palago266. black kite wwar267. bush-fowl kwaal268. owl nyinyi cf. Ngas yiyi269. grey parrot kuler270. pied crow*5 gwak cf. Pe -gokra, Tarok grok, Ngas ngak though presumably

    ideophonic

    3 (lepus crawshayi)4 (ploceus cucullatus)

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    271. woodpecker nylb bird of hole272. swallow barklaat273. crowned crane akula274. insect (generic) mp

    275. scorpion na cf. Taroknyny, Pe i-na, Yakam na. This root is found scatteredthrough BC and reconstructs back as far as PVC276. butterfly prpl cf. Yakam pilipili. Also Chadic: Ngas purpul,277. mosquito bu cf. Yakam o, LC -b but a PWN root278. spider nen cf. Pe i-naan279. mason wasp6 iru280. bee yyk cf. Yakam vyak, Rukul a-y(k), PB #-yk281. bee-hive b yyk ? + bee282. sweatfly kpaen283. housefly nim cf. Pe i-tsi, Tarokcc, D)i, Mambiloid nd but probably part of

    the larger set reconstructed as #-ciN to Proto-Benue-Congo in Blench(ms.). Also in Chadic: Ngas ni, Mwaghavul nd, Tangale tn

    284. ant (generic) namburna animal + ?285. louse dani cf. PLC *-l, Nizaa lm, PB -d,286. millipede nagwanla287. cockroach mpyaman288. termite (generic) ium289. Flying ant iyo cf. Tarok-yeye, Hasha iyu,290. praying mantis kaltokri291. earthworm delele

    292. centipede nakabari293. sand-fly dd294. dragonfly kalwoni295. firefly nyalwus perhaps a compound including wus, the Ngas word for fire. The Pe

    word is nkili wus296. giant cricket nakaka cf. Pe u-kika,297. giant snail kr fada298. oil nyii cf. Pe nnye. Possibly related to the much more widespread Niger-

    Congo #no-, #nu-299. fat mbip cf. Tarok mpp animal fat, Yakam mbyep. East Benue-Congo

    #mbyep in Blench (ms.)300. salt nwak cf. Pe ntok,301. soup kuri cf. Tarokakri, Yangkam kuru302. food ri cf. to eat303. sorghum beer yya cf. Yakam iyam304. peelings gwami cf. Tarokakwkwa, Pe u-koko, Yakam gwa305. rag nap cf. Ngas nak306. handle (of tool) kupup cf. Pe u-pomni, Yangkam pp, Cara pop, Nupe ef, Mambila f, PB #-

    pni. Reconstructed to PBC as #-fu[pu] in Blench (ms.)307. cutlass ada < H.

    5 (corvus albus )6 (belenogasterspp.)

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    308. iron (metal) giam ? cf. Tarokacm, Yangkam gyim,309. axe pel310. adze duk cf. Pe iduk311. hoe (gen) nuwari312. hoes I nuwari dn313. hammer boro314. knife mbaram315. comb bayera316. broom kai317. fireplace kiar cf. Tarokacir, Pe iciri318. shoe tukwa ? < H. but see Tarokakwp, Yangkam taxap, Pe kap319. cloth (wrapper) lulu see cotton ()320. hat, cap tagya < H.321. grindstone

    (lower)dugwa cf. Yangkam gyamgwan

    322. grindstone(upper) mwadugwa child of lower grindstone

    323. mortar guzu gu + zu. cf. Tarokatm, Pe utu, Horom u-du. The two words seemto be reversed in Fyem, thus Fyem huu pestle and tun mortar.Also in Chadic: Ngas . This is likely to be a Niger-Congo rootderived from the verb to pound. Hausa trm may be from thissource.

    324. pestle bak gusu arm of the mortar325. pot (clay)

    (generic)biar cf. Yakam aara

    326. cooking pot dikel

    327. waterpot kubala ? cf. Kegboid ba, cf. Mamb/LC?328. head-pad tikat ti- prefix + #kata A Proto-Benue-Kwa root (PWN 199) cf. Pe ti-kat,

    Yangkam ka, Tarokakr,329. basket (general) mbandar cf. Tarok, Pe mbndar, Ngas bandar330. winnowing tray kuburi331. mat (gen) karam < Ngas karam332. mat (sleeping) pal333. bag ari cf. Tarokazhal+, Ngas nwal334. spear gai cf. Tarokgap, Yakam gs335. bow (weapon) kita ki- prefix + Niger-Congo #-ta-

    336. arrow dki337. quiver gwa ? cf. Tarokja, Pe i-gigya both for bow338. needle

    (thatching)mwalani

    339. rope et340. chain abta341. stool yiza342. bed kiler cf. Tarokalr,343. door pinpin cf. Yangkam nopya,344. fence ze

    345. ladder kw cf. Tarokgw, Pe-ko346. fish-net zarna < H. ?

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    347. snare kimbala348. one ana cf. Tarokzi, Che in, Jari zn, Hyam zn, cLela ci349. two barap The ba- element is extremely ancient and can probably be reconstructed

    back to Niger-Saharan. The p might be an affix for a count form orelse the Chadic #rop has been compounded with the ba-. Note Ngasbap

    350. three tat a PNC root351. four ni a PNC root352. five y cf. Yakam soo, Pe co. A weakening of the more common roots of

    the form #toon- widespread in Niger-Congo, e.g. Yakam soo, Nembesn, P-j sr. Discussed in KW Towards Niger-Congoreconstruction

    353. six itar connected with the root for three (and evidence for the duodecimalcounting system in Plateau). Cf. Horom taran, Aten taara, Jari gtr,Fyem trin, also Fyertn, which are connected with the widespreadPlateau root #taani and may have originally represented a reduplicated

    version of the word for three354. seven tk ai a compound whose elements are unclear355. eight kpakni perhaps from Ngas pkwun with deletable k- prefix (see nine)356. nine pakni a na eight + one357. ten zup ? originally a word for nine cf. Yakam zopi. For ten ? cf. Kona

    dup, Anaang dp358. eleven zup la na ten + one359. twelve zup l rm

    barap

    ten + two

    360. twenty im barap cf. Taroksm used in compounds for multiples of ten361. thirty im tat 10 x 3362. forty im ni 10 x 4363. hundred dari < H.364. black kibi bi- is an extremely widespread root for black in West-Central Africa

    (Blench 1996a).365. white kipya ki- + cf. Ngas pye. P-jpn366. red kza cf. Tarok -riza367. half kijeri368. hot (as fire) l cf. Yakam doozu369. cold rus cf. Tarokrusok370. sweet (tasty) nyim371. old (of person) goi372. new (of thing) pi cf. Tarokpipe, Pe mpe, Yakam pya.Niger-Congo #pi- Also Chadic:

    Ngas pwi.373. wet fyigur374. dry womi cf. Tarokwom, Pe nwoom, Yakam mwom, Takum Jukun wom+.375. all njyap376. good bwa cf. Tarokn377. bad bwatak378. deaf kotoda ear + x

    379. dumb war mitak380. blind rwak381. empty warna

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    382. full yilyil cf. Tarokyl383. many ri384. Abuse sksr385. Accompany adak kwula386. Add to ka cf. Pe kaa

    387. Arrive kwan388. Ask (question) byi(bu) cf. Yakam bip, Taroki@p, Pe gigyip but a Niger-Congo root, cf. PLC

    *bp, Gbari byibe, P-j, Reshe bp389. Awaken yem cf. Pe yemsel, Tarokyendl+, Yangkam yirak390. Be bitter nyl391. Be blunt ritk392. Be hard kwtar cf. be strong (400.)393. Be heavy sasa394. Be rotten bwai395. Be round lyeklyek cf. Pe rik,396. Be sharp riri cf. Tarokriri (a.)397. Be short gyeri398. Be small derwet399. Be straight yari400. Be strong kwtar cf. be hard (Error! Reference source not found.)401. Be tall lulu402. Beat (drum) rk403. Beat (s.o.) cip cf. Pe c404. Beg bip see under ask question405. Begin mwaru cf. Tarokr,

    406. Bite nyinki cf. Taroknym, the first element is the word for tooth407. Blow (mouth,

    wind)wuri cf. Tsu wuri, Yakam wurok, Horom wil, Berom wlm, Len

    Mambila wl`,408. Boil (v) puri cf. Tarokfl,409. Break (stick) byiki cf. Taroki@kc410. Breathe yi vri cf. Tarokyi411. Build (house) mi see mould (Error! Reference source not found.). cf. Pe, Tarokme+,

    Mada m, cLela ma. Widespread in Plateau but also Niger-Congo.412. Burn pyegel413. Bury lu cf. Tarok li+ but a common Benue-Congo root, also found in I.jo. .

    Discussed in Williamson (1992:393) and reconstructed as d to PP4(Gerhardt 1983).414. Buy rup =sell. Surrup, Fyem rp, PLC #-lp, PB #dip. but widespread in BC

    and reconstructed as #-rp- in Blench (ms.). cf. PLC #-lep. Discussedin Gerhardt (1983) and also found in some neighbouring Chadiclanguages.

    415. Call (summon) bii cf. Pe bisi, Fyem s416. Carry (child on

    back)b

    417. Carry (load) ya cf. Tarokyr,418. Carve (wood) gwa cf. Tarokg carve calabash, Mbembe gw, Tiv gb, Yala gba, Mama

    gbagba. The Jukunoid forms #hwa could well be weakenings of this.419. Catch kakyi cf. Tarokkpn, Yakam kn, Pe kom

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    420. Chew taal cf. Pe tadi but the ta- element is an ancient Niger-Congo root421. Choose tul422. Climb fw A scattered root in Plateau, cf. Yakam fwm, ? Tarokf(pl. of climb

    down), Fyem f, Yeskwa f, Hyam f-r, and Che hu423. Close (door)

    gwk cf. Tarokkk424. Come man425. Continue (to do

    s.t.)rim bala

    426. Count kr cf. Tarokk, Pe kumdi, Kwanka kori, Abuan -kl and Rindrekla.All these are versions of a more ancient root #-kaLa widespread in

    Niger-Congo. Also Chadic: Kofyarkwan, Zaarkunaan,427. Cover (pot) gk cf. Tarokkk428. Cut (cloth) kyak cf. Tarokca+,429. Cut (rope) kyari430. Cut down (tree) kyak

    431. Cut off (headetc.)

    kyak

    432. Dance bw presumably related to the Mambila bene and Proto-Bantu #bin- thoughit is strange to find it so isolated. Igbo b.

    433. Defecate taa434. Descend zur435. Die ku cf. Tarok, Sur, Yangkam k, Pe pu, Eggon kp, Tesu kwe, Kenyi kie,

    Surubu kee. Niger-Congo root #-ku.436. Dig in cf. Pe sum, Yakam su, Fyem cin, Horom sim, Tesu umu, Kulu cem,

    Berom ci437. Divide (share

    out)kyari if the ri is a fossil extension, as in other Plateau languages, then this is

    cognate with the widespread #ka- root found throughout Benue-Congo438. Do/make i439. Drag, pull nap ? Tarokdpci, Pe dapti,440. Draw (water) nap cf. Kwanka nap441. Dream krakyi442. Drink w cf. Yakam, Tarok, Arum w, Pe wu, perhaps reduced from Ngas

    mwak? See also Mambiloid, LC, Igboid443. Drop rki444. Dry in sun yan perhaps Anaang st, almost certainly Bamileke languages, e.g.

    Bamenjinda sa and Bamenyam si

    445. Dry up womi cf. Tarokwm to be dry, Yangkam wom, Pe wom.446. Dwell, live ar447. Eat ri cf. Tarok, Pe r, Fyem d, Horom ye, linked to the widespread ri, -di

    roots found in Niger-Congo448. Enter wuri449. Extinguish ku =die450. Fall (rain) wt (man) cf. Yangkam bowot,451. Fall gu Proto-Bantu #-gwa, but also Yala gwo452. Fear ii453. Feel (cold etc.) gwl454. Fight gwn cf. Pe kom, Tarokkm fight,455. Filter (e.g. Beer) iak cf. Tarokkto sieve

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    456. Finish (a task) sr457. Flow (water) zur458. Fly yel also stand (541.). cf. Fyem yila, Horom yala, Pe yel, Tarok yel+

    float459. Fold (e.g. Cloth) reki

    460. Follow (behind) yal klm461. Forget yelye ye + think462. Fry (in oil) wum cf. Yakam wu463. Gather (things) o ? cf. Pe com464. Get (obtain) pit465. Give dyu466. Give birth kibyel467. Go out/exit tur cf. Yakam turuk, ?Tarok tur+ to remove, Nindem doru, Mada

    dorwe, and possibly also Ribina sr and Ekoid M d but also inChadic, Bokkos u, Fyeroo

    468. Greet (salute) yemna469. Grind (vt) gwak cf. Yakam gba, Tarokkp Also Chadic: Ngas gwak470. Grow (v.i.) garki471. Hatch (egg) bwaa cf. Pe, Tarokpwk472. Have myanana473. Hear gwl cf. Tarok kol+ listen to every detail Reconstructed to Proto-Benue-

    Congo as #gb in Blench (ms.)474. Hide wak475. Hoe (cultivate) kwari cf. Hasha kwar, Berom kara (ex BCCW). Perhaps the more widespread

    East Benue-Congo #ka- root with a fossil extension476. Hunt bar cf. Pe bai, Tarokabr hunting expedition. Also in Chadic: cf. Bokkos

    faar, Tangale para (n.), Ngizim br and Hausa frwt477. Jump (1) dam478. Jump (2) yur cf. Pe yel479. Kill wl cf. Pe wel, Yangkam wyu, Fyem, Horom wol, Pe wel, Kwanka won,

    Olulomo wl although as #wu this is widespread in Niger-Congo480. Kneel zugwl481. Know yk cf. Tarokny, Pe yi, Yangkam yakwi,482. Laugh wal cf. Tarokwal+ to jeer at483. Learn kwasal484. Leave gat cf. Tarokg go485. Lick lami cf. Buji lama, Kwanka lyam, cLela lms, Lamnso la. Forms with

    initial l- are very widespread and there may be an ideophonic element.The -i is probably a verbal extension

    486. Lie (down) zura cf. Tarok, Pe r, A widespread Niger-Congo root, often meaning sleep487. Like, want pala < Ngas488. Listen dak koto probably a recent calque489. Live (exist) yivri =breathe490. Look at a491. Lose (s.t.) mari492. Make a mistake lar493. Marry rm A widespread root related to Niger-Congo #rom man494. Mix ka cf. Pe kaa, Tarokgwa+495. Mould (pot) mi see build (Error! Reference source not found.).

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    496. Move (sth.) gwp497. Open (door) gwri cf. Pe kuli498. Pass (by) nambal499. Pierce/stab bor500. Plait (hair) I

    lk cf. Taroklkto weave, but widespread501. Plait (hair) II pap502. Plant (tubers) nyer503. Play (games) kyirki504. Pluck (fruit) wai505. Pound (mortar) sa506. Pour (vt) lki =spit, eject507. Push tksul508. Quarrel 509. Receive ga cf. Tarokkm

    510. Refuse (request) nyi ruwa This root (nyi-) appears in CB, but not elsewhere in EBC511. Remember lye =think. cf. Tarokri+, Pe lekat, Yakam rya512. Reply (question) gamtu513. Resemble turyi514. Return kaman cf. Yakam kom515. Ride (horse etc.) fn516. Roast v cf. Yakam va, Tarok w, Pe mva, Eggon vm, Kohumono v,

    Obolo f and some Grassfields. But perhaps see also fry517. Rub gwarkat518. Run kyekwul519. Say wwar cf. Yakam wur520. Scratch kwal521. Search for pyarimi522. See a523. Sell rup =buy. See commentary under buy524. Send (s.o. To do

    s.t.)m a reflex of the Niger-Congo for work #tom-

    525. Sew ar526. Shake zki527. Sharpen ryu cf. Taroklw,528. Shoot tat cf. Tarok, Yangkam, Pe tat+. A Niger-Congo root often found as #-ta

    bow529. Show er530. Sing bwum The b element is probably connected with the widespread Plateau

    #bom-. But see also dance531. Sit (down) zuza532. Skin (v), flay wt533. Slaughter

    (animal)kal

    534. Sleep gudna see discussion under sleep (noun) (137.).535. Smash (pot) aa cf. Yakam nam, Taroknyp,536. Smell

    nui cf. Tarokni+, Yangkam nu, CB #-n.k (C.S. 1386) reconstructingback at least to Proto-Benue-Congo

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    537. Sneeze tiim538. Sow (seeds in

    holes)i

    539. Speak (alanguage)

    wwar (kunu)

    540. Spit lki541. Stand (up) yel se under fly (458.).542. Stay / remain deri cf. Ngas ar543. Steal rila cf. Yakam la544. Stir (soup) zmi545. Suck wa see under drink (442.).546. Surpass nambal547. Swallow mrk cf. Tarokmkn+, Yakam mr548. Sweep byak549. Swell (as boil) ff ? cf. Tarokfl,550. Swim kuwa551. Take ya cf. Tarokyr,552. Take off

    (clothes)tul cf. Taroktur+,

    553. Talk wwar554. Taste yam555. Tear su556. Thank dabu dn557. Think lye see under remember ().558. Throw rk559. Tie (animal with

    rope) it560. Tie (e.g. Bundle) it561. Touch zk cf. Tarokdk,562. Trap (set a) kbalak cf. Taroklwk,563. Turn round gsl564. Twist (rope etc.) myerkat cf. Yakam, Tarokmyar+, Pe mande565. Uncover (pot) gri566. Untie pun cf. Tarokfin567. Uproot (g. Nuts) in =dig. cf. Yakam su, Horom sim568. Urinate lk burm spit urine569. Vomit gwaksa570. Walk en cf. Tarokcn, Nindem sen, Yashi in, Tiv, dznd, Common Ekoidjn,

    Legbo s, LC s. These forms are probably related to a wider serieswith a stop in C1, reflecting CB #-gnd-. Discussed in Williamson

    (1992: 393)571. Want pala =like probably a loan from Ngas572. Wash gal cf. Taroknl, Pe nyali, Yangkam nwi,573. Wear nyak574. Weave (e.g.

    Cloth)lk see under plait. An ancient Niger-Congo root

    575. Weep (cry) mwa576. Wipe byak cf. Tarokgbk

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    Gloss Kisur Commentary

    577. Work im A reduplicated form of the ancient Niger-Congo root #tom-. See alsounder send

    578. Worry lyelye think reduplicated579. Wring (clothes) yerkat580. Write war

    581. Yawn aaa ideophonic?582. I mi cf. Tarokmi+583. you u cf. Taroku584. he/she/it neme585. we yiyi cf. Tarokyi586. you nyinyin587. they bami588. here roma589. there yina590. this mam591. that ma

    592. who? wa593. which? mina594. what? iya cf. Pe iyaa,595. where? wana

    No. Gloss Singular Commentary

    596. Guinea yam girki597. aerial yam grt598. taro7 mwlm599. new cocoyam8 wl < H.600. cassava rg < H.

    601. sweet potato lwr < H.602. sorghum yeri cf. Mambiloid603. 3-month sorghum didar ?

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    No. Gloss Singular Commentary

    617. onion alabasa

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    No. Gloss Singular Commentary

    647. Faidherbia albida wukipiya

    7. The affinities of Sur

    The present study suggests that Sur is certainly a Plateau language. It shares a numerous common lexical items,and there is evidence for a fossilised system of classprefixes in accord with those in nearby languages. Theexisting suggestion, that it is related to Eloyi, is so far from the truth as to make it likely this was an erroneouslytranscribed remark. No single common lexical item between the two languages was identified that was not alsocommon to numerous other languages. The sections below consider the links with Plateau, Tarokoid and the sharedvocabulary with Chadic.

    7.1 Links with Plateau

    Sur shows a number of classic Niger-Congo roots, whose sources can be consulted in Westermann (1927) andMukarovsky (1976-1977) (e.g. ).

    7.2 Relationship with Tarokoid

    Sur people do not know of any language that resembles their own, and given their Ngas orientation would probablybe surprised that its closest relatives are Tarokoid. This is not all that surprising, given the enclaving of Tapshinamong the Ngas, which is similar to the position of Pe, further down the road toward Langtang. The Tarokoidgroup consists of Tarok, Pe and Yakam but excludes Turkwam and Arum-Chessu, formerly listed as members(Blench 1996b).

    Items shared with all members of

    TarokoidItems shared with Yangkam Error! Reference source not found.,

    Error! Reference source not found.,Error! Reference source not found.,Error! Reference source not found.,Error! Reference source not found.,Error! Reference source not found.,Error! Reference source not found., 236.,Error! Reference source not found., 277.

    Items shared with PeItems shared with Tarok

    As the data tables show, Sur shares more lexical items with the Tarok group than any other branch of Plateau.Impressionistically, the language closest to Sur is Yakam, and the two share a number of lexical items not foundelsewhere in Tarokoid (e.g.).

    Error! Reference source not found. presents a tentative structure for the Tarokoid group based on presentevidence. A full reconstruction will be undertaken in due course.

    26 (Diospyros )

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    Figure 2. Internal structure of Tarokoid

    *Proto-Tarokoid

    Pe Yangkam Sur Tarok

    The evidence presented here seems to further the suspicion that Tarokoid should not have the distinctive status ithas acquired in recent classifications (see also Blench in press).

    7.3 Influence of Chadic languages

    Apart from recent Hausa borrowings, the cognate list shows substantial mutual influence with Ngas. In some casesthis is simply the borrowing of material culture items, such as baskets and mats (Error! Reference source notfound., Error! Reference source not found., Error! Reference source not found.). The direction of borrowingis harder to determine in other cases, for example bird names (Error! Reference source not found., Error!Reference source not found.). In the case of house-fly (Error! Reference source not found.) the widespreadpresence of the root in Benue-Congo languages suggests that the word was borrowed by Ngas, though notnecessarily from Sur, of course. Why words such as thigh (Error! Reference source not found.) should beborrowed is hard to imagine.

    7.4 Conclusion

    To summarise these results;

    a) Sur is a Plateau languageb) Sur is part of the Tarokoid group and is probably most closely related to Yakam.c) There has been substantial mutual influence with the Ngas language, and Ngas is in some cases clearly the

    receptor language, despite its present-day numerical importanced) Despite virtual bilingualism in Hausa there has been very limited influence except for recent items of

    material culture.

    References

    Abraham, R.C. 1962.Dictionary of the Hausa language. London: University of London Press.Angas Language Committee 1978. Shk nkarn k shktok mwa nn Ngas. Ngas -Hausa-English dictionary.

    NBTT, Jos.Armstrong, R.G. 1983. The Idomoid languages of the Benue and Cross River valleys. Journal of West African

    Languages, XIII,1:91-149.Bendor-Samuel, J. ed. 1989. The Niger-Congo languages. Lanham: University Press of America.Blench, R.M. 1996a. Is Niger-Congo simply a branch of Nilo-Saharan? In:Proceedings of the Fifth Nilo-Saharan

    Linguistics Colloquium, Nice, 1992. ed. R. Nicolai and F. Rottland. 68-118. Kln: Rudiger Kppe.Blench, R.M. 1996b. Report on the Tarokoid languages.Iatiku, 3:14-15.

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    R.M. Blench Sur (Tapshin) Wordlist Circulated for commentBlench, R.M. in press. Rethinking Plateau: recent research on the languages of central Nigeria. (in press) Paper

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