TANATOLOGY Danuta Deboa. INTRODUCTION Forensic Medicine is concerned with the investigation of living and deceased persons by the study of the circumstances

TANATOLOGYTANATOLOGY

Danuta DeboaDanuta Deboa

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

Forensic Medicine is concerned with the investigation of living Forensic Medicine is concerned with the investigation of living and deceased persons by the study of the circumstances of the and deceased persons by the study of the circumstances of the case and the origin and results of injury. In some cases this case and the origin and results of injury. In some cases this might necessitate for consultation with experts: might necessitate for consultation with experts: A Forensic Toxicologist is frequently required to analyze A Forensic Toxicologist is frequently required to analyze

body fluids for toxic substances, body fluids for toxic substances, A Forensic Serologist may be requested to provide A Forensic Serologist may be requested to provide

information about a blood stain on a victim's clothing, about information about a blood stain on a victim's clothing, about the blood types of the assailant's blood, secretor status in the blood types of the assailant's blood, secretor status in seminal fluid stains or in paternity exclusion cases. seminal fluid stains or in paternity exclusion cases.

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

A Dentist (Odontologist) may be called in to compare teeth of A Dentist (Odontologist) may be called in to compare teeth of an unidentified disaster victim or the bitemarks an unidentified disaster victim or the bitemarks on a murder victim. on a murder victim.

The Anthropologist may also be consulted for identification The Anthropologist may also be consulted for identification of skeletal remains or facial reconstruction techniques. of skeletal remains or facial reconstruction techniques.

The Botanist, entomologist and geologist are required in The Botanist, entomologist and geologist are required in occasional forensic cases.occasional forensic cases.

In our department of forensic medicine all experts work In our department of forensic medicine all experts work together as a “teamtogether as a “team”. ”.

The pathologist is required to determine The pathologist is required to determine the manner of death, mechanism of an the manner of death, mechanism of an injury,the resulting disability and the injury,the resulting disability and the circumstances of the case. circumstances of the case.

General Objectives of Forensic InvestigationGeneral Objectives of Forensic Investigation

A forensic investigation is the application of scientific A forensic investigation is the application of scientific knowledge and expertise to support the investigation of criminal knowledge and expertise to support the investigation of criminal or civil cases which eventually reach legal proceedings.or civil cases which eventually reach legal proceedings.

The pathologist's contribution to an overall forensic The pathologist's contribution to an overall forensic investigation may range from that of routine documentation investigation may range from that of routine documentation of trace evidence such as blood or semen to the detailed-of trace evidence such as blood or semen to the detailed-dissection and documentation of a major crime which involves dissection and documentation of a major crime which involves the application of basic pathologic techniques and the application of basic pathologic techniques and complementary tests. complementary tests.

General Objectives of Forensic InvestigationGeneral Objectives of Forensic Investigation

The pathologist plays an important role as he must perform a The pathologist plays an important role as he must perform a postmortem examination. postmortem examination.

The forensic toxicologist works in direct support of a The forensic toxicologist works in direct support of a pathologist's investigation by examining blood, urine, bile and pathologist's investigation by examining blood, urine, bile and organs including liver, kidney and brain which are helpful in organs including liver, kidney and brain which are helpful in analysis of acute and chronic poisoning. Their activity is mostly analysis of acute and chronic poisoning. Their activity is mostly analytic but in combination with the expertise of the pathologist, analytic but in combination with the expertise of the pathologist, their results have a major role in interpretation of the degree their results have a major role in interpretation of the degree and state of intoxication or poisoning of an individual.and state of intoxication or poisoning of an individual.

ROUTINE PROCEDURESROUTINE PROCEDURES

Objectives of Scene Investigation Objectives of Scene Investigation by the Medico-Legal Investigatorby the Medico-Legal Investigator

The medico-legal investigative agency of a The medico-legal investigative agency of a jurisdiction may be notified of a death by the local jurisdiction may be notified of a death by the local police or a hospital emergency room. A physician-police or a hospital emergency room. A physician-medical examiner who will establish the first record medical examiner who will establish the first record of the case in the form of an official recording of the of the case in the form of an official recording of the basic data on the death report. basic data on the death report.

This should contain victim information: This should contain victim information: the deceased's name, the deceased's name, sex, sex, race, race, age, age, date of birth, date of birth, date and time of discovery of the body, date and time of discovery of the body, date and time of death (if known), date and time of death (if known), name of local physician, name of local physician, name and location of last treating physician, name and location of last treating physician, identifying person, identifying person, narrative account of the circumstances of death.narrative account of the circumstances of death.

The death report should include information about the condition The death report should include information about the condition of the body including temperature, livor mortis (livid postmortem of the body including temperature, livor mortis (livid postmortem blotch), rigor mortis (postmortem rigidity) and state of blotch), rigor mortis (postmortem rigidity) and state of decomposition. decomposition.

The temperature of the environment including the air The temperature of the environment including the air temperature, water temperature if the victim was immersed, temperature, water temperature if the victim was immersed, and the temperature of the body should all be recorded.and the temperature of the body should all be recorded.

The investigator should consider the possibility of movement The investigator should consider the possibility of movement of the victim after receiving a lethal injury or movement of the of the victim after receiving a lethal injury or movement of the body after death. Evidence of a struggle and spattering of body after death. Evidence of a struggle and spattering of blood should be carefully documented by photograph and blood should be carefully documented by photograph and detailed diagram and narrative account.detailed diagram and narrative account.

Forensic Autopsy Forensic Autopsy - External Body Examination.- External Body Examination.

CLOTHINGCLOTHING

The external examination should be considered as an The external examination should be considered as an extremely important feature of the forensic autopsy. extremely important feature of the forensic autopsy. This is the opportunity to gather large amounts of This is the opportunity to gather large amounts of significant information which may be the key to significant information which may be the key to understanding the circumstances surrounding the death of understanding the circumstances surrounding the death of the victim. Examination should be approached with great the victim. Examination should be approached with great concentration. concentration.

CLOTHINGCLOTHING

The term "transferance" is a very important to convey the fact, that when The term "transferance" is a very important to convey the fact, that when any two objects come in contact, there is an exchange of some part of one any two objects come in contact, there is an exchange of some part of one with a part of the other. This applies to microscopic, as well as with a part of the other. This applies to microscopic, as well as macroscopic levels of examination. In a sexual assault there may be macroscopic levels of examination. In a sexual assault there may be exchange of pubic hair, chest and body hair, vaginal secretions, semen, exchange of pubic hair, chest and body hair, vaginal secretions, semen, blood, skin and cosmetics to the clothing of the assailant and onto clothes blood, skin and cosmetics to the clothing of the assailant and onto clothes of the victim. In an instance of a violent assault with a sharp instrument, of the victim. In an instance of a violent assault with a sharp instrument, there may be skin or subcutaneous tissue from the hand and fingers of a there may be skin or subcutaneous tissue from the hand and fingers of a victim or the assailant remaining on the clothing of either person. Clothing victim or the assailant remaining on the clothing of either person. Clothing fibers may, in turn, be transmitted to a sharp instrument, a blunt instrument fibers may, in turn, be transmitted to a sharp instrument, a blunt instrument and, to a missile fragment. The defect should be obvious in the material. and, to a missile fragment. The defect should be obvious in the material.

CLOTHINGCLOTHING

Clothing may be a tip-off to the life style of the victim Clothing may be a tip-off to the life style of the victim as well as a source of trace evidence and information. as well as a source of trace evidence and information. It is usually processed by the crime lab in a large It is usually processed by the crime lab in a large jurisdiction, but there are many occasions where it jurisdiction, but there are many occasions where it must initially be examined by the medical – examiner must initially be examined by the medical – examiner - who must be aware of the evidence which must be - who must be aware of the evidence which must be looked for on clothing.looked for on clothing.

CLOTHINGCLOTHING – – ShoesShoes

Shoes are a valuable source of information. Soil, foreign Shoes are a valuable source of information. Soil, foreign material including paint, grease, blood, semen, may be found material including paint, grease, blood, semen, may be found on the soles or surfaces. The sole, for instance, may bear an on the soles or surfaces. The sole, for instance, may bear an imprint of brakepedal accelerator or floor covering of a car, imprint of brakepedal accelerator or floor covering of a car, indicating who was driving where several were killed in a car indicating who was driving where several were killed in a car crash/or whether there was someone in control at the time of crash/or whether there was someone in control at the time of the impact. Blood spatter may be seen on the top of the shoe the impact. Blood spatter may be seen on the top of the shoe and information can be gleaned as to the position of the victim and information can be gleaned as to the position of the victim after being shot by considering this and his other clothing. after being shot by considering this and his other clothing.

CLOTHINGCLOTHING – – The clothingThe clothing

The clothing of a victim may receive artefactual The clothing of a victim may receive artefactual damage on the scene by emergency service damage on the scene by emergency service personnel or in the hospital emergency room or personnel or in the hospital emergency room or surgical facility. This means valuable evidence surgical facility. This means valuable evidence may be lost when clothing is not retained or may be lost when clothing is not retained or when the body is exposed completely by the when the body is exposed completely by the clothing being cut off. The cut made by a knife clothing being cut off. The cut made by a knife thrust or a hole made by a bullet may be lost as thrust or a hole made by a bullet may be lost as evidence by an accidental cut with scissors.evidence by an accidental cut with scissors.


The impact of a shotgun shell wadding may The impact of a shotgun shell wadding may produce a circular area of abrasion on the skin produce a circular area of abrasion on the skin and it may also be seen on a shirt. The trousers and it may also be seen on a shirt. The trousers pockets and cuffs may also contain valuable pockets and cuffs may also contain valuable trace evidence in the form of soil, chemicals, trace evidence in the form of soil, chemicals, vegetation or foreign material which may be vegetation or foreign material which may be introduced as a consequence of the movement introduced as a consequence of the movement and activities of the victim.and activities of the victim.


In cases involving firearms, there are many strange findings. In cases involving firearms, there are many strange findings. The shirt of a handgun victim may retain the bullet which has The shirt of a handgun victim may retain the bullet which has enough energy to get through the body but is stopped by the enough energy to get through the body but is stopped by the shirt. These bullets may often be lost unless careful attention is shirt. These bullets may often be lost unless careful attention is paid during undressing the body or during emergency paid during undressing the body or during emergency treatment. The clothing may filter the gases, unburnt powder or treatment. The clothing may filter the gases, unburnt powder or burnt material blown from the barrel of a gun and thus must be burnt material blown from the barrel of a gun and thus must be examined carefully to demonstrate it and contribute to examined carefully to demonstrate it and contribute to estimation of proximity of the body to the gun.estimation of proximity of the body to the gun.

Forensic Autopsy-External ExaminationForensic Autopsy-External Examination

After clothing removal, we must document features of identification and After clothing removal, we must document features of identification and injury. The basic information sought should be:injury. The basic information sought should be: Length, weight, estimated age, sex characteristics, hair character and Length, weight, estimated age, sex characteristics, hair character and

color, eye color, nutritional state, operative or traumatic scars, tattooing color, eye color, nutritional state, operative or traumatic scars, tattooing by content, location and character (professional or nonprofessional), by content, location and character (professional or nonprofessional), teeth charting and fingerprinting, presence of asymmetry, deformities, teeth charting and fingerprinting, presence of asymmetry, deformities, loss of digits, signs of natural disease. loss of digits, signs of natural disease.

X-rays to demonstrate bullets and old fractures, orthopedic or X-rays to demonstrate bullets and old fractures, orthopedic or maxillofacial procedures. maxillofacial procedures.

Artificial limbs, eyes, trusses, or pessaries are noted. With personal Artificial limbs, eyes, trusses, or pessaries are noted. With personal identification documented, the police lab takes fingerprints. identification documented, the police lab takes fingerprints.

Carefully examine each major body area to see obvious injuries. It may Carefully examine each major body area to see obvious injuries. It may require time but it is a necessity for thorough examination. Special areas require time but it is a necessity for thorough examination. Special areas of the body provide different information.of the body provide different information.

Forensic AutopsyForensic Autopsy –– HEADHEAD

Blood from the ear or nostril suggests a basilar skull fracture, Blood from the ear or nostril suggests a basilar skull fracture, Heavy white or pink foamy material from the mouth is seen in acute drug Heavy white or pink foamy material from the mouth is seen in acute drug

deaths, drownings, with Sudden Infant Death syndrome and acute deaths, drownings, with Sudden Infant Death syndrome and acute congestive failure.congestive failure.

The lips and surrounding skin injured or burns by caustics accidentally or The lips and surrounding skin injured or burns by caustics accidentally or suicidally ingested. The temples are a common site for suicidal firearm suicidally ingested. The temples are a common site for suicidal firearm injury. It may be covered, as would a head injury where little blood exuded injury. It may be covered, as would a head injury where little blood exuded by extremely thick hair. Broken glasses may be the only evidence of by extremely thick hair. Broken glasses may be the only evidence of gunshot through the opened eye. An electric contact burn may be missed gunshot through the opened eye. An electric contact burn may be missed in thick hair. Thorough palpation of the head is essential for other areas of in thick hair. Thorough palpation of the head is essential for other areas of injury. Petechial hemorrhages in conjunctivae may be the only evidence of injury. Petechial hemorrhages in conjunctivae may be the only evidence of an asphyxial death.an asphyxial death.

Forensic AutopsyForensic Autopsy –– NECKNECK

Swelling in the back or front of the neck may indicate a karate Swelling in the back or front of the neck may indicate a karate chop, a shoe kick, or an outline of a sole or toe pattern. Free chop, a shoe kick, or an outline of a sole or toe pattern. Free movement of the head and neck indicates cervical injury. The movement of the head and neck indicates cervical injury. The anterior neck may show nail imprints or finger pressure points anterior neck may show nail imprints or finger pressure points of ecchymosis indicating strangulation.of ecchymosis indicating strangulation.

Linear abrasions indicate ligature strangulation and/or suicidal Linear abrasions indicate ligature strangulation and/or suicidal hanging. Abrasions to the side of the neck indicate possible hanging. Abrasions to the side of the neck indicate possible injury to the- carotid artery. injury to the- carotid artery.

Forensic AutopsyForensic Autopsy –– CHEST AND BACKCHEST AND BACK

Should be palpated for areas of crepitus which may Should be palpated for areas of crepitus which may indicate break in the chest wall or indicate location indicate break in the chest wall or indicate location of a bullet. Breasts, especially the nipples, should be of a bullet. Breasts, especially the nipples, should be examined for bites and/or evidence of saliva. examined for bites and/or evidence of saliva.

In children, ecchymotic areas on the chest and back In children, ecchymotic areas on the chest and back may indicate violent shaking.may indicate violent shaking.

Crushed chest may be palpated and asymmetry may Crushed chest may be palpated and asymmetry may be obvious. Tire marks may be seen on the skin in a be obvious. Tire marks may be seen on the skin in a run-over case. Impact points may be demonstrated in run-over case. Impact points may be demonstrated in blunt trauma.blunt trauma.

Forensic AutopsyForensic Autopsy –– ABDOMENABDOMEN

Visceral enlargement should be palpated Visceral enlargement should be palpated and impact points of blunt trauma should and impact points of blunt trauma should be demonstratedbe demonstrated

Forensic AutopsyForensic Autopsy –– EXTREMITIESEXTREMITIES

Check hands for offensive and defensive Check hands for offensive and defensive injuries, electrical contact points and.powder injuries, electrical contact points and.powder burns. Arms for old needle marks and recent burns. Arms for old needle marks and recent intravenous injections. Wrists for old scars or intravenous injections. Wrists for old scars or impressions made by ligatures. Legs for impressions made by ligatures. Legs for needlemarks, signs of unilateral enlargement needlemarks, signs of unilateral enlargement of calves and thighs, impact points from blunt of calves and thighs, impact points from blunt trauma and fractures or finger pressure.trauma and fractures or finger pressure.

Forensic AutopsyForensic Autopsy –– EXTERNAL GENITALIA AND ANUSEXTERNAL GENITALIA AND ANUS

Examine for injury of vagina and presence of Examine for injury of vagina and presence of semen. Rule out postmortem injury. Examine semen. Rule out postmortem injury. Examine for mutilation of male and female genitalia or for mutilation of male and female genitalia or foreign bodies.foreign bodies.

Record all wounds relative to a fixed point of Record all wounds relative to a fixed point of reference right or left heel or head. Observe reference right or left heel or head. Observe and record body temperature, state of livor and and record body temperature, state of livor and rigor.rigor.

Forensic Autopsy Forensic Autopsy - Internal Examination of the Body- Internal Examination of the Body

Upon completion of the detailed examination of the clothing Upon completion of the detailed examination of the clothing and external examination, the dissection or internal and external examination, the dissection or internal examination should proceed.examination should proceed.

Autopsy - The objectives are to establish the cause of death, Autopsy - The objectives are to establish the cause of death, document the presence and effect of trauma and natural document the presence and effect of trauma and natural disease, and contribute to the understanding of the manner of disease, and contribute to the understanding of the manner of death. The protocol, itself, can be in narrative form or death. The protocol, itself, can be in narrative form or numerical listing of positive and negative findings. In both numerical listing of positive and negative findings. In both types, each body area and organ must be described and final types, each body area and organ must be described and final summary of findings included as a listing of anatomic summary of findings included as a listing of anatomic diagnoses. If gunshot or stab wounds are found, they should diagnoses. If gunshot or stab wounds are found, they should be described separately with particulars of the wound, be described separately with particulars of the wound, passage through the body, its effect and exit given. passage through the body, its effect and exit given.

Forensic Autopsy Forensic Autopsy - Internal Examination of the Body- Internal Examination of the Body

Correlation between external and internal trauma may be Correlation between external and internal trauma may be aided by body diagrams and photographic documentation. aided by body diagrams and photographic documentation. The protocol should be prepared within a day's time and The protocol should be prepared within a day's time and corrections made before final signature. Toxicological corrections made before final signature. Toxicological examination may delay a report but can follow on completion examination may delay a report but can follow on completion of the tests. Microscopic examination may be required in of the tests. Microscopic examination may be required in some cases. Opinion and interpretation should be preserved some cases. Opinion and interpretation should be preserved for direct communication with the prosecutor. The medico-for direct communication with the prosecutor. The medico-legal investigative report includes the autopsy report as part of legal investigative report includes the autopsy report as part of the official death report.the official death report.

Different dissection techniques Different dissection techniques

Different dissection techniques and special Different dissection techniques and special examinations may be made depending on the examinations may be made depending on the body area and the type of trauma involved.body area and the type of trauma involved.

Different dissection techniques Different dissection techniques - - The chest The chest

The chest is usually examined first to detect presence of The chest is usually examined first to detect presence of injuries to rib cage. Chest structures may shift due to injuries to rib cage. Chest structures may shift due to pneumothorax. If air embolism or pneumothorax is suspected, pneumothorax. If air embolism or pneumothorax is suspected, the sternum may be removed and the chest cavities and the sternum may be removed and the chest cavities and pericardium opened under a layer of water. Before removal of pericardium opened under a layer of water. Before removal of hemothorax, palpate the cavity for bullet lying free in the cavity hemothorax, palpate the cavity for bullet lying free in the cavity in a shooting. The heart should be check for presence of in a shooting. The heart should be check for presence of natural diseaseor an embolus by opening the pulmonary artery natural diseaseor an embolus by opening the pulmonary artery and palpating them. In a penetrating injury to the chest and palpating them. In a penetrating injury to the chest organs, the pathway should be determined in situ and then the organs, the pathway should be determined in situ and then the heart and lungs should be removed en bloc. This is done in heart and lungs should be removed en bloc. This is done in every pediatric case to demonstrate congenital lesions.every pediatric case to demonstrate congenital lesions.

Different dissection techniques Different dissection techniques - - Abdominal Abdominal

Abdominal cavity should be examined for bleeding Abdominal cavity should be examined for bleeding points, wound tracts, and perforations. Individual points, wound tracts, and perforations. Individual organ damage and disease should be noted to show organ damage and disease should be noted to show rupture from trauma to an abdominal aortic aneurysm rupture from trauma to an abdominal aortic aneurysm or diverticulum of the colon. or diverticulum of the colon.

Contents of the stomach and gastrointestinal tract Contents of the stomach and gastrointestinal tract should be examined for the presence of medications should be examined for the presence of medications or poisons. Determine the amount and type of food. or poisons. Determine the amount and type of food.

Carefully investigate the uterus, tubes, and ovaries to Carefully investigate the uterus, tubes, and ovaries to rule out trauma or natural disease or pregnancy.rule out trauma or natural disease or pregnancy.

Different dissection techniques Different dissection techniques - - Extremities Extremities

Extremities size variation indicate deep venous Extremities size variation indicate deep venous thrombosis in cases of pulmonary embolism. Veins in thrombosis in cases of pulmonary embolism. Veins in the antecubital fossae and other superficial areas may the antecubital fossae and other superficial areas may demonstrate recent injection. This tissue may be demonstrate recent injection. This tissue may be analyzed to demonstrate the type of drug used. The analyzed to demonstrate the type of drug used. The circumference of the calves and thighs is measured.circumference of the calves and thighs is measured.

Different dissection techniquesDifferent dissection techniques - - Head Head

Head dissection should be made after that of the body. Head dissection should be made after that of the body. Demonstrate penetrating injuries, characterisitcs of Demonstrate penetrating injuries, characterisitcs of skull fracture, presence of dural bleeding, extent and skull fracture, presence of dural bleeding, extent and location of cerebral surface injury, presence of old location of cerebral surface injury, presence of old injury, recent or old natural hemorrhage, tumor injury, recent or old natural hemorrhage, tumor formation. The dura is stripped to show basilar formation. The dura is stripped to show basilar fractures.fractures.

Different dissection techniquesDifferent dissection techniques - - The vertebral columnThe vertebral column

The vertebral column should be examined The vertebral column should be examined for fracture or dislocation and the spinal cord for fracture or dislocation and the spinal cord exposed to demonstrate hemorrhage, exposed to demonstrate hemorrhage, compression, and foreign bodies. compression, and foreign bodies.

Forensic AutopsyForensic Autopsy - Postmortem Changes: TIMING OF DEATH- Postmortem Changes: TIMING OF DEATH

Estimating time of death or postmortem interval Estimating time of death or postmortem interval is fraught with difficulty which increases is fraught with difficulty which increases proportionately as the minutes tick away.proportionately as the minutes tick away.

Immediately following the cessation of life, the Immediately following the cessation of life, the body undergoes a change which is related to body undergoes a change which is related to several physiological and biochemical several physiological and biochemical phenomena. phenomena.

These are: These are:

Livor Mortis:Livor Mortis: This is due to gravitational movement of blood to dependent parts of the This is due to gravitational movement of blood to dependent parts of the

body. A body which is in a supine position will show coloration of the body. A body which is in a supine position will show coloration of the posterior aspect. It will be pale in areas of pressure such as the hips, posterior aspect. It will be pale in areas of pressure such as the hips, scapular region, back of the head and heels. Dark red coloration is due to scapular region, back of the head and heels. Dark red coloration is due to accumulation of reduced hemoglobin in the capillaries. Variations from the accumulation of reduced hemoglobin in the capillaries. Variations from the regular postmortem lividity coloration is seen in cardiac failure, freezing and regular postmortem lividity coloration is seen in cardiac failure, freezing and poisoning. In heart failure there is deep bluing or cyanosis especially of the poisoning. In heart failure there is deep bluing or cyanosis especially of the face and neck. With carbon monoxide poisoning the livor is cherry-red. If face and neck. With carbon monoxide poisoning the livor is cherry-red. If the deceased was exposed to nitrites there may be evidence of the deceased was exposed to nitrites there may be evidence of methemoglobinemia where there is a brownish tinge to the body. With methemoglobinemia where there is a brownish tinge to the body. With freezing in cold weather or cold water there may be pink coloration due to freezing in cold weather or cold water there may be pink coloration due to some oxyhemoglobin remaining. If the body is suspended as with hanging some oxyhemoglobin remaining. If the body is suspended as with hanging there will be undue pressure on the capillaries with rupture and blood there will be undue pressure on the capillaries with rupture and blood accumulation called "tardieu's spots". These were originally described with accumulation called "tardieu's spots". These were originally described with subpleural petechial hemorrhages but the term has been used for skin subpleural petechial hemorrhages but the term has been used for skin petechial hemorrhages as well. The onset of lividity is immediate after petechial hemorrhages as well. The onset of lividity is immediate after death and may be noted within an hour. It may increase until it is fully death and may be noted within an hour. It may increase until it is fully developed after eight hours. The body which has been moved after lividity developed after eight hours. The body which has been moved after lividity has developed may show a discrepancy in the position of the body and has developed may show a discrepancy in the position of the body and location of lividity.location of lividity.

Rjgor Mortis; Rjgor Mortis; After death the muscles undergo chemical changes related to After death the muscles undergo chemical changes related to

denaturation 'of their protein content and coagulation of denaturation 'of their protein content and coagulation of protoplasm. This is the result of the decrease of oxygen and protoplasm. This is the result of the decrease of oxygen and increasing acidity which begins after death. The perceptible increasing acidity which begins after death. The perceptible rigidity of muscle groups may occur rather quickly if death rigidity of muscle groups may occur rather quickly if death follows convulsion or a period of violent struggle or muscle follows convulsion or a period of violent struggle or muscle activity.activity.

Rapid rigor mortis is seen in natural deaths of infants suffering Rapid rigor mortis is seen in natural deaths of infants suffering high fevers.high fevers.

Rigor begins gradually within four hours and may be complete Rigor begins gradually within four hours and may be complete within 12 hours.within 12 hours.

It may persist if the body is refrigerated and disappear if the It may persist if the body is refrigerated and disappear if the body is kept in a warm temperature. The timing of death using body is kept in a warm temperature. The timing of death using ridigity as the basis is unreliable.ridigity as the basis is unreliable.

Body Cooling: Body Cooling: This is most helpful to establish the first several hoursThis is most helpful to establish the first several hours after death. The body cools at a regular rate in an environment after death. The body cools at a regular rate in an environment

of stable temperature and with normal amounts of covering by of stable temperature and with normal amounts of covering by bedclothes. If body temperatures are taken at half-hour bedclothes. If body temperatures are taken at half-hour intervals for several hours, a cooling curve may be obtained,intervals for several hours, a cooling curve may be obtained,

This is usually linear for the first several hours if the This is usually linear for the first several hours if the environmental temperature has not changed. Body cooling may environmental temperature has not changed. Body cooling may be at a rate of 1 degree be at a rate of 1 degree 00C per hour.C per hour.

Gastric Emptying: Gastric Emptying: Examination of the contents of the stomach may have general Examination of the contents of the stomach may have general

application for determination of the time of death. If the last application for determination of the time of death. If the last meal content is known, there might be some information meal content is known, there might be some information gleaned from the fact that the stomach is still full and that gleaned from the fact that the stomach is still full and that evidence of digestion has taken place. evidence of digestion has taken place.

This might indicate that the meal was in the stomach less than This might indicate that the meal was in the stomach less than 3-4 hours. 3-4 hours.

Gastric Emptying: Gastric Emptying:

Factors which affect gastric emptying include:Factors which affect gastric emptying include:

1.1. Those which increase gastric emptying are liquid foods, Those which increase gastric emptying are liquid foods, large meals which stimulate emptying, cholinergic drugs, large meals which stimulate emptying, cholinergic drugs, meals eaten after fasting or with hunger, finely chewed food, meals eaten after fasting or with hunger, finely chewed food, lying on the right side (some individuals), and psychological lying on the right side (some individuals), and psychological problems.problems.

2.2. Those which decrease emptying time are solid or semisolid Those which decrease emptying time are solid or semisolid food, pain,injury, hemorrhage and hypotension, food, pain,injury, hemorrhage and hypotension, anticholinergic drugs, fatty foods (by liberating entergastrone anticholinergic drugs, fatty foods (by liberating entergastrone from intestine), hypertonic and hypotonic solutions, from intestine), hypertonic and hypotonic solutions, depression, grief, fear (decrease motor activity) and lying on depression, grief, fear (decrease motor activity) and lying on the left side of the stomach.the left side of the stomach.

Forensic AutopsyForensic Autopsy - Special Problems- Special Problems -- Timing of InjuryTiming of Injury

As one does an autopsy there should be As one does an autopsy there should be questions running through your mind which may questions running through your mind which may arise in the court room. These include how long arise in the court room. These include how long could the victim have survived with a lethal could the victim have survived with a lethal injury, was the injury antemortem or injury, was the injury antemortem or postmortem, or were the injuries produced at postmortem, or were the injuries produced at different times and the sequence of injury different times and the sequence of injury production.production.

AntemortemAntemortem vs. Postmortem Injury: vs. Postmortem Injury:

The presence or absence of circulation usually is a The presence or absence of circulation usually is a determining factor when one has to consider injury determining factor when one has to consider injury being made before or after death. This question being made before or after death. This question arises when the driver of a car sustains a heart attack arises when the driver of a car sustains a heart attack and crashes. He may have slight injuries or and crashes. He may have slight injuries or occasionally a fracture. Minimal bleeding suggests he occasionally a fracture. Minimal bleeding suggests he was dying at the time of impact. Overkill with multiple was dying at the time of impact. Overkill with multiple stab wounds may show lethal injuries to the head, stab wounds may show lethal injuries to the head, neck and chest, but little bleeding indicate postmortem neck and chest, but little bleeding indicate postmortem injury.injury.

Sequence of Injuries iSequence of Injuries inn Pedestrian Accidents Pedestrian Accidents

It is important at the autopsy to look at the injuries in It is important at the autopsy to look at the injuries in perspective. The sequence in which the injuries occurred perspective. The sequence in which the injuries occurred may be deduced. In a pedestrian accident initial impact may be deduced. In a pedestrian accident initial impact may be evidenced by bilateral injuries of the lower legs, may be evidenced by bilateral injuries of the lower legs, secondary impact injuries may occur when the body strikes secondary impact injuries may occur when the body strikes the windscreen. Fragments of glass enter the wound and the windscreen. Fragments of glass enter the wound and blood and hair remain on the windshield. The tertiary blood and hair remain on the windshield. The tertiary impact as the body strikes the ground. This sequential impact as the body strikes the ground. This sequential study of injuries can also be done in homicides.study of injuries can also be done in homicides.

Forensic AutopsyForensic Autopsy -- Special Problems: POSTMORTEM ARTEFACTSSpecial Problems: POSTMORTEM ARTEFACTS

Body decomposition produces a very objectionable and Body decomposition produces a very objectionable and repulsive change in the minds of many people involved in repulsive change in the minds of many people involved in criminal investigation as well as experienced pathologists, criminal investigation as well as experienced pathologists, who never quite get used to these cases. who never quite get used to these cases.


Decomposition results from the progressive process of bacterial Decomposition results from the progressive process of bacterial growth. It is characterized by gas formation, skin slippage, color growth. It is characterized by gas formation, skin slippage, color changes of the body, splitting of skin in areas where there has been changes of the body, splitting of skin in areas where there has been previous surgery or recent trauma, replacement of vascular channels previous surgery or recent trauma, replacement of vascular channels and the organs by gas and massive dilatation of the bowels by gas. and the organs by gas and massive dilatation of the bowels by gas. Hair may be absent or easily pulled off. The labia and male genitalia Hair may be absent or easily pulled off. The labia and male genitalia are often inflated with gas.are often inflated with gas.

One method of removing the gas from the abdomen is to make a One method of removing the gas from the abdomen is to make a midline incision in the lower abdomen and have a burning cylinder of midline incision in the lower abdomen and have a burning cylinder of paper placed over this opening to burn off the emitted gases. Despite paper placed over this opening to burn off the emitted gases. Despite the presence of decomposition, there is a lot to be learned from such the presence of decomposition, there is a lot to be learned from such an autopsy. The presence or absence of trauma may be determined an autopsy. The presence or absence of trauma may be determined by demonstrating the intactness of the chest and abdominal cavity. If by demonstrating the intactness of the chest and abdominal cavity. If there is a questionable hole in any area x-ray should be done to rule there is a questionable hole in any area x-ray should be done to rule out the presence of a bullet or foreign body.out the presence of a bullet or foreign body.

Natural Mummification in the coffin XVIII centaury

Sudan mummy (meroic period )

Sceleton in grave ( Sudan XV b. c.)


Postmortem artefact may result from heat, cold, soil, injury and other hazards. The Postmortem artefact may result from heat, cold, soil, injury and other hazards. The following is a class & ification of types of postmortem artefacts.following is a class & ification of types of postmortem artefacts.a)a) Animal Injury: Ants cause very delicate injuries to the exposed parts, especially Animal Injury: Ants cause very delicate injuries to the exposed parts, especially

where blood has run or splattered. Flies lay eggs in moist exposed areas such where blood has run or splattered. Flies lay eggs in moist exposed areas such as the month and nostrils, as well as wounds. Hatched larvae penetrate as the month and nostrils, as well as wounds. Hatched larvae penetrate beneath the skin and into the body cavities. Beetles will multiply and feed on beneath the skin and into the body cavities. Beetles will multiply and feed on the body if it is in the location for a long of time. Many other types of insects the body if it is in the location for a long of time. Many other types of insects cause damage. Marine animals will attack the exposed parts of a body. Turtles cause damage. Marine animals will attack the exposed parts of a body. Turtles and crabs will remove the eyelids, - lips and ears; larger fish such as sharks will and crabs will remove the eyelids, - lips and ears; larger fish such as sharks will tear off large chunks of flesh from the floating body. Small shrimp may also tear off large chunks of flesh from the floating body. Small shrimp may also cause discrete skin abrasions. Land animals cause varying degrees of damage cause discrete skin abrasions. Land animals cause varying degrees of damage depending on their size and appetite. Mice cause tiny bites on exposed areas. depending on their size and appetite. Mice cause tiny bites on exposed areas. Large birds will remove the eyes. Large animals will separate the flesh and the Large birds will remove the eyes. Large animals will separate the flesh and the bones and scatter them. Dogs will devour the whole body. bones and scatter them. Dogs will devour the whole body.

Flies (order diptera) are often first on the scene. Once a blowfly is attracted to remains the female will shortly begin to lay eggs in the moist locations of the body; eyes, ears, nose and mouth .

Postmortem injures made by animals

Wild cats

Fatal attack by estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) mature males can be 6 metres . Polish seaman attacked in Tayland


Postmortem artefact may result from heat, cold, soil, injury and other hazards. The Postmortem artefact may result from heat, cold, soil, injury and other hazards. The following is a clas & ification of types of postmortem artefacts.following is a clas & ification of types of postmortem artefacts.c)c) Deliberate artefacts may be produced where there is an attempt to conceal the Deliberate artefacts may be produced where there is an attempt to conceal the

true cause of death as with attempted destruction of a body or secretion of the true cause of death as with attempted destruction of a body or secretion of the body by remote burial or disposal into the sea. Body destruction may be an body by remote burial or disposal into the sea. Body destruction may be an indication of an insurance fraud. The overkill may reflect insanity on the part of indication of an insurance fraud. The overkill may reflect insanity on the part of the killer or hate relationship as may be seen between homosexual partners. the killer or hate relationship as may be seen between homosexual partners. Sexual mutilation may occur as a consequence of episode following a sexual Sexual mutilation may occur as a consequence of episode following a sexual assault and murder. This may be in the form of mutilation by a sharp instrument assault and murder. This may be in the form of mutilation by a sharp instrument of the genitalia, breasts or by eviscerating in the chest or abdomen. Mutilation of the genitalia, breasts or by eviscerating in the chest or abdomen. Mutilation may also follow terrorist activity where torture is carried out. Postmortem vaginal may also follow terrorist activity where torture is carried out. Postmortem vaginal insertion of an instrument such as a broom handle may also be seen in a sex insertion of an instrument such as a broom handle may also be seen in a sex murder. Symbolic wounding may occur in gangland slayings. An informer may murder. Symbolic wounding may occur in gangland slayings. An informer may have a double cross cut into his face or he may be disembowled to emphasize have a double cross cut into his face or he may be disembowled to emphasize his spilling information to the authorities.his spilling information to the authorities.


Postmortem artefact may result from heat, cold, soil, injury and other Postmortem artefact may result from heat, cold, soil, injury and other hazards. The following is a clas&ificationof types of postmortem hazards. The following is a clas&ificationof types of postmortem artefacts.artefacts.b)b) Accidental: Exposure to sun may cause blackening of exposed Accidental: Exposure to sun may cause blackening of exposed

parts. Bodies which may be found in a car wreck may be soaked parts. Bodies which may be found in a car wreck may be soaked in gasoline causing skin slippage and color change. Bodies found in gasoline causing skin slippage and color change. Bodies found in mountain streams may suffer severe damage from being hurled in mountain streams may suffer severe damage from being hurled against rocks repeatedly. Water bodies may be injured by pointed against rocks repeatedly. Water bodies may be injured by pointed grabbling hooks or by propellers of a boat which will produce grabbling hooks or by propellers of a boat which will produce severe parallel wounds. Thermal injury may occur locally if the severe parallel wounds. Thermal injury may occur locally if the body rests against a heater or radiator. With severe burning, heat body rests against a heater or radiator. With severe burning, heat fractures may be found in the extremities and in the skull where fractures may be found in the extremities and in the skull where there may be brain shrinkage and a pseudohemorrhage may be there may be brain shrinkage and a pseudohemorrhage may be found in the extradural space.found in the extradural space.

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TANATOLOGY Danuta Deboa. INTRODUCTION Forensic Medicine is concerned with the investigation of living and deceased persons by the study of the circumstances