Talcott Parsons. Background Born in 1902 in Colorado Springs, Colorado.Born in 1902 in Colorado Springs, Colorado. Youngest of five children.Youngest

Talcott Talcott ParsonsParsons

BackgroundBackground

• Born in 1902 in Colorado Springs, Born in 1902 in Colorado Springs, Colorado.Colorado.

• Youngest of five children.Youngest of five children.• He came from religious family that He came from religious family that

valued education. valued education. • His father was a congregational minister His father was a congregational minister

and professor at Colorado College.and professor at Colorado College.• His mother was a progressivist and a His mother was a progressivist and a

suffragist.suffragist.


• His father was dismissed from Colorado His father was dismissed from Colorado College, he moved family to New York City.College, he moved family to New York City.

• Parson spent his last two years of high school Parson spent his last two years of high school at the Horace Mann School for Boys. at the Horace Mann School for Boys.

• Talcott was accepted into Amherst College.Talcott was accepted into Amherst College.• Began his career as a biologist and later Began his career as a biologist and later

became interested in economics and sociology.became interested in economics and sociology.• Talcott graduated from Amherst in 1924 and a Talcott graduated from Amherst in 1924 and a

year later entered the London School of year later entered the London School of Economic.Economic.


• He studied with Bronislaw Malinowski, He studied with Bronislaw Malinowski, L.T. Hobhouse, and Morris Ginsberg. L.T. Hobhouse, and Morris Ginsberg.

• Received scholarship from the University Received scholarship from the University of Heidelberg, Where he first learned of of Heidelberg, Where he first learned of the works of Max Weber.the works of Max Weber.

• He was greatly influenced by Weber. He was greatly influenced by Weber. • He was teaching at Amherst and later on He was teaching at Amherst and later on

appointed as a nonfaculty instructor of appointed as a nonfaculty instructor of economics at Harvard University.economics at Harvard University.

• Also he worked in the department of Also he worked in the department of sociology.sociology.


• After leaving the sociology department in After leaving the sociology department in 1945, Gordon Allport, Henry Murray, and 1945, Gordon Allport, Henry Murray, and Clyde Kluckhohn, joined Parsons in to Clyde Kluckhohn, joined Parsons in to establish the Department of Social Relations.establish the Department of Social Relations.

• Department would become famous and Department would become famous and Talcott worked as chair of the department for Talcott worked as chair of the department for first ten years, remained active in the first ten years, remained active in the department until its dissolution in 1972.department until its dissolution in 1972.

• A year later he retired as Emeritus Proffesor.A year later he retired as Emeritus Proffesor.


• Parsons WorkParsons Work• The Structure of Social Action (1937)The Structure of Social Action (1937)• The Social System and Toward a General The Social System and Toward a General

Theory Theory

of Action (1951)of Action (1951)• Essay in Sociological Theory (1949, 1954)Essay in Sociological Theory (1949, 1954)• Working Papers in the Theory of Acton Working Papers in the Theory of Acton

(1953) (1953) • Structure and Process in Modern Society Structure and Process in Modern Society

(1960)(1960)

Functionalism Functionalism BackgroundBackground

• In 1950s and 1960 Functionalism In 1950s and 1960 Functionalism reigned as the dominant theoretical reigned as the dominant theoretical perspective in sociology.perspective in sociology.

• Is often referred to as structural Is often referred to as structural functionalism because of its dual functionalism because of its dual focus on the structural forces that focus on the structural forces that shape human behavior and the shape human behavior and the attention given to system needs.attention given to system needs.

Functionalism Functionalism BackgroundBackground

• Two leading structural functionalist Two leading structural functionalist were Talcott Parsons (grand theory) were Talcott Parsons (grand theory) and Robert Merton (middle range and Robert Merton (middle range theory).theory).

• The most significant intellectual The most significant intellectual forerunners of functionalism were forerunners of functionalism were Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, And Max Weber.Emile Durkheim, And Max Weber.

Intellectual InfluencesIntellectual Influences

• American who studied in the United States American who studied in the United States and Europeand Europe– Americans concerned with specific/limited studiesAmericans concerned with specific/limited studies– Europeans focused on macroanalysisEuropeans focused on macroanalysis

• Converted to social sciences at AmherstConverted to social sciences at Amherst• Few references to American sociologistsFew references to American sociologists

– Merton, Homans, Sorokin, VeblenMerton, Homans, Sorokin, Veblen

• Mead and Cooley (American)Mead and Cooley (American)– Insight about problems for intimate interactionInsight about problems for intimate interaction– Criticizes their failed development of solid Criticizes their failed development of solid

program of detailed researchprogram of detailed research

Intellectual InfluencesIntellectual Influences

• London School of EconomicsLondon School of Economics– HobhouseHobhouse

• Evolution of MoralityEvolution of Morality– GinsbergGinsberg

• Economic institutions of preliterate societiesEconomic institutions of preliterate societies– MalinowskiMalinowski

• Structural-functional analysis in anthropologyStructural-functional analysis in anthropology• Parsons’ integration of all social sciences into one of Parsons’ integration of all social sciences into one of

human actionhuman action

• Strong European influenceStrong European influence– Two particular influencesTwo particular influences

• Max WeberMax Weber• Emile DurkheimEmile Durkheim

Intellectual InfluencesIntellectual InfluencesMax WeberMax Weber

• Greatest influence on ParsonsGreatest influence on Parsons• Dissertation, “Concept of Capitalism”, Dissertation, “Concept of Capitalism”,

based primarily on Weber’s workbased primarily on Weber’s work• Marx’s Reductionist ApproachMarx’s Reductionist Approach

– Tied strictly to economicsTied strictly to economics– Overly simplistic and unrealistic Overly simplistic and unrealistic

• Favored Weber’s unwillingness to simplify Favored Weber’s unwillingness to simplify complexity of the social systemcomplexity of the social system– First major link of value systems and social First major link of value systems and social

structuresstructures

Intellectual InfluencesIntellectual Influences• Ideas” behind interpretation of “representations”Ideas” behind interpretation of “representations”

– Form ultimate realities that are not themselves such Form ultimate realities that are not themselves such realitiesrealities

– Behavior influenced by social systemBehavior influenced by social system

• Parsons concluded that social system is made Parsons concluded that social system is made from the interaction of humansfrom the interaction of humans– Affected by social environmentAffected by social environment

• Wanted to describe logical types of social Wanted to describe logical types of social relations applicable to all groups (small and relations applicable to all groups (small and large)large)– System created based on social actionSystem created based on social action– The Structure of Social Action The Structure of Social Action (1937)(1937)

Intellectual InfluencesIntellectual Influences Emile DurkheimEmile Durkheim

• Parsons valued broad comparative studiesParsons valued broad comparative studies– Study of suicide ratesStudy of suicide rates– Study of aboriginal Australian societyStudy of aboriginal Australian society

• Suicide Rates StudySuicide Rates Study– ““intermediate between the broad comparative intermediate between the broad comparative

method and what might be called the method and what might be called the ‘meticulous’ ideal of operational procedure”‘meticulous’ ideal of operational procedure”

– Revealed suicide rates based on religions that Revealed suicide rates based on religions that held up cross-culturallyheld up cross-culturally

– Parsons criticized the attempt at statistical Parsons criticized the attempt at statistical methodmethod

– Parsons appreciated variety of significant Parsons appreciated variety of significant combinations of datacombinations of data

Intellectual InfluencesIntellectual InfluencesEmile DurkheimEmile Durkheim

• Aboriginal Australian StudyAboriginal Australian Study– The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1915)(1915)– Documented “pan-religionism” of primitive Documented “pan-religionism” of primitive

societiessocieties• ““Primitive societies are permeated with religious Primitive societies are permeated with religious

sentiments and activities ruled by the prominence of sentiments and activities ruled by the prominence of religio-magical belief systems and the prevalence of ritual religio-magical belief systems and the prevalence of ritual activities” activities” (Delaney, 238)(Delaney, 238)

– Sociocultural system linked to kinship systemSociocultural system linked to kinship system– Parsons saw validity in a structural, functioning Parsons saw validity in a structural, functioning

system linked through kinship and working toward system linked through kinship and working toward the greater good for the whole of societythe greater good for the whole of society• FunctionalismFunctionalism

Intellectual InfluencesIntellectual Influencesof Functionalismof Functionalism

• Max Weber and Emile DurkheimMax Weber and Emile Durkheim• Auguste ComteAuguste Comte

– Social statics and social dynamicsSocial statics and social dynamics• Society is changing, but change is subject to social lawsSociety is changing, but change is subject to social laws• Evolutionary processEvolutionary process

• Herbert SpencerHerbert Spencer– Requisite FunctionalismRequisite Functionalism

• Organic (individual) and Superorganic (society) must Organic (individual) and Superorganic (society) must fulfill universal requisites to adapt to their environmentfulfill universal requisites to adapt to their environment

– DifferentiationDifferentiation• Increase in both Organic and social aggregates directly Increase in both Organic and social aggregates directly

related to increase in complexity of their structurerelated to increase in complexity of their structure

Philosophy- Talcott Philosophy- Talcott ParsonsParsons

• Realism v. IdealismRealism v. Idealism– Idealist - An act is always a process in time, Idealist - An act is always a process in time,

and that the concept “end” always implies a and that the concept “end” always implies a future reference to a state or situation that future reference to a state or situation that does not exist yetdoes not exist yet

• Realism v. NominalismRealism v. Nominalism– Realism – The relations between actors are Realism – The relations between actors are

essentially the structure of the social systemessentially the structure of the social system• Idealism v. MaterialismIdealism v. Materialism

– Materialist – Interrelated parts contribute to Materialist – Interrelated parts contribute to the functioning of the whole systemthe functioning of the whole system

Concepts and Concepts and ContributionsContributions

• Attempted to generate a “grand Attempted to generate a “grand theory” of society that explained all theory” of society that explained all social behavior, everywhere, social behavior, everywhere, throughout history and the end throughout history and the end result was Structure Functionalism result was Structure Functionalism

FunctionalismFunctionalism

• Views society as having interrelated Views society as having interrelated parts that contribute to the parts that contribute to the functioning of the whole systemfunctioning of the whole system

• Macrosociological theory: focuses on Macrosociological theory: focuses on large-scale social patterns and social large-scale social patterns and social systemssystems


• Functionalism has two basic Functionalism has two basic assumptions:assumptions:

1- Interdependent parts: this is society’s 1- Interdependent parts: this is society’s institutions (religion, education, politics, institutions (religion, education, politics, etc.) that are all linked together. A etc.) that are all linked together. A change in one institution leads to a change in one institution leads to a change in other parts. In order to change in other parts. In order to function properly the system will seek function properly the system will seek equilibrium, or stability.equilibrium, or stability.


• 2- General Consensus on Values: 2- General Consensus on Values: members of society must have a members of society must have a general agreement on issues of right general agreement on issues of right and wrong, basic values, and and wrong, basic values, and morality issues in order to function morality issues in order to function properly. properly.


• Functionalism explains social change as Functionalism explains social change as a result of such variables as population a result of such variables as population growth and increased technology. growth and increased technology.

• Rapid change within the system is not Rapid change within the system is not something the functionalist approach is something the functionalist approach is geared to handle.geared to handle.

• Society’s institutions then try to restore Society’s institutions then try to restore themselves to a state of equilibrium.themselves to a state of equilibrium.

Social Action TheorySocial Action Theory

• Social Action Theory begins with a Social Action Theory begins with a biological-sociological conceptualization biological-sociological conceptualization of the basic unit of study as the “unit of the basic unit of study as the “unit act”.act”.

• An “act” involves the following:An “act” involves the following:– An agent or actorAn agent or actor– Must have an end or goalMust have an end or goal– Must be in a situation which differs from Must be in a situation which differs from

state of affairs the action is orientedstate of affairs the action is oriented– There exists alternative meanings to the There exists alternative meanings to the

end end


• An act is always a process in time. An act is always a process in time. • ““End” implies a future reference or End” implies a future reference or

state that does not exist yet. state that does not exist yet. • Actions consist of structures and Actions consist of structures and

processes by which humans form processes by which humans form meaningful intentions and implement meaningful intentions and implement them.them.

• Social action is preformed by an actor Social action is preformed by an actor either as an individual or a groupeither as an individual or a group


• Parsons theory had four steps:Parsons theory had four steps:– Actors are motivated to action Actors are motivated to action

(education)(education)– Actor must find the means to attain goal Actor must find the means to attain goal

($)($)– Actor must deal with hindering Actor must deal with hindering

conditions (crisis)conditions (crisis)– Actor must work within the social Actor must work within the social

system (rules)system (rules)

Social SystemSocial System

• Parson’s described a system as a Parson’s described a system as a “complex unit of some kind with “complex unit of some kind with boundaries, within which parts are boundaries, within which parts are connected, and within which connected, and within which something takes place.something takes place.

• The social system is an arrangement The social system is an arrangement between parts and elements that between parts and elements that exist over time, even while some exist over time, even while some elements change.elements change.

Social SystemSocial System

• Parson’s general assumptions:Parson’s general assumptions:– Systems are made of order and the Systems are made of order and the

interdependence of partsinterdependence of parts– The system, and all the sub-systems, strive for The system, and all the sub-systems, strive for

equilibriumequilibrium– Systems are generally static, or move in a Systems are generally static, or move in a

deliberate mannerdeliberate manner– A disruption in the normal flow of one A disruption in the normal flow of one

subsystem can cause a disturbance subsystem can cause a disturbance throughout the whole system.throughout the whole system.

– Systems have boundaries, which may involve Systems have boundaries, which may involve actual physical space, or time and distance.actual physical space, or time and distance.

SociobiologySociobiology

• Differences between biological Differences between biological systems and social systems:systems and social systems:– GrowthGrowth: biologically an individual : biologically an individual

grows to a certain point and stops. A grows to a certain point and stops. A social system may be static for some social system may be static for some time and then grow, or it may simply time and then grow, or it may simply continue to growcontinue to grow

– Spatial:Spatial: Biological systems are Biological systems are bounded. Social systems boundaries are bounded. Social systems boundaries are not as fixed or limited.not as fixed or limited.


– Time:Time: A biological unit has limits, A biological unit has limits, mortality. Social units can survive for mortality. Social units can survive for centuries.centuries.

– Parts/subparts: Parts/subparts: Biological systems are Biological systems are often specialized and dependent on the often specialized and dependent on the whole for its survival. Within social whole for its survival. Within social systems parts are easily replaceable systems parts are easily replaceable and the systems moves on.and the systems moves on.


• The roles of the actor allowed Parsons The roles of the actor allowed Parsons to create three distinct units within the to create three distinct units within the social systemsocial system– The act is a unit in the social system as it The act is a unit in the social system as it

interacts with its author and other actorsinteracts with its author and other actors– Status roles are units of the social system.Status roles are units of the social system.– The actor himself is a unit. It is the actor The actor himself is a unit. It is the actor

that holds a status and performs a rolethat holds a status and performs a role

Systems LevelsSystems Levels

• Social systems must be structured in a Social systems must be structured in a way as not to impede the actionway as not to impede the action

• Parsons organized four distinct system Parsons organized four distinct system levels:levels:– Social Systems: interaction between actorsSocial Systems: interaction between actors– Personality Systems: optimization of Personality Systems: optimization of

gratificationgratification– Cultural Systems: value and meaning to Cultural Systems: value and meaning to

actoractor– Behavioral Systems: physical aspectBehavioral Systems: physical aspect

Pattern VariablesPattern Variables

• Categorize expectations and the Categorize expectations and the structure of relationshipsstructure of relationships

• Allows for comparison between Allows for comparison between relationshipsrelationships

• Three primary thoughts when Three primary thoughts when developing these variables:developing these variables:– General enough to permit comparisonGeneral enough to permit comparison– Should show relevance to actionShould show relevance to action– Categorizations of decisionsCategorizations of decisions


• Affectivity-Affectivity NeutralityAffectivity-Affectivity Neutrality– Expectation of emotional componentExpectation of emotional component

• Diffuseness- SpecificityDiffuseness- Specificity– Range of demands expected in a Range of demands expected in a

relationshiprelationship

• Universalism- ParticularismUniversalism- Particularism– Fair Treatment or priority status?Fair Treatment or priority status?


• Achievement- AscriptionAchievement- Ascription– Interactions based in who they are or Interactions based in who they are or

inborn qualityinborn quality

• Collectivity- Self OrientationCollectivity- Self Orientation– Motivation: actions directed at a person Motivation: actions directed at a person

or collectivityor collectivity

AGILAGIL

• Parsons’ hypothesis that process in Parsons’ hypothesis that process in any social system is subject to four any social system is subject to four independent functional imperatives independent functional imperatives or problems which must be met or problems which must be met adequately if equilibrium or adequately if equilibrium or existence of the system is to be existence of the system is to be maitainedmaitained

AGILAGIL

• Adaptation:Adaptation:– Secure & distribute sufficient resources Secure & distribute sufficient resources

or adapt to changesor adapt to changes

• Goal Attainment:Goal Attainment:– Must establish clear goals. This is Must establish clear goals. This is

primary to political systemprimary to political system

AGILAGIL

• Integration:Integration:– Regulation and coordination of actors and Regulation and coordination of actors and

systemssystems

• Latency:Latency:– Tension maintenance and pattern Tension maintenance and pattern

maintenancemaintenance– Sufficient motivation for actorsSufficient motivation for actors– Social institutions are key (family, peers, Social institutions are key (family, peers,

education)education)

The Social Structure of The Social Structure of SystemsSystems

• The social system is a differentiated The social system is a differentiated system in terms of roles and the system in terms of roles and the distribution process. distribution process.

• Parsons classifications of internal Parsons classifications of internal differentiation of social systems:differentiation of social systems:– Relational InstitutionsRelational Institutions– Regulative InstitutionsRegulative Institutions– Cultural InstitutionsCultural Institutions– Relational and Regulative InstitutionsRelational and Regulative Institutions

Structure of SystemsStructure of Systems

• Principle Types of Social Structure:Principle Types of Social Structure:– Universalistic- Achievement PatternsUniversalistic- Achievement Patterns– Universalistic- Ascription PatternsUniversalistic- Ascription Patterns– Participation- Achievement PatternsParticipation- Achievement Patterns– Particularistic- Ascriptive PatternsParticularistic- Ascriptive Patterns

Social Structure of Social Structure of SystemsSystems

• Structural ComponentsStructural Components– Kinship systemsKinship systems– Instrumental Achievement Structures Instrumental Achievement Structures

and Stratificationsand Stratifications– Territoriality, Force, and the Integration Territoriality, Force, and the Integration

of the Power Systemof the Power System– Religion and Value-integrationReligion and Value-integration

OrganizationsOrganizations

• Parsons defines the term as a broad Parsons defines the term as a broad type of collectivity which has type of collectivity which has assumed a particular important assumed a particular important place in modern societyplace in modern society

• Goal attainment is the defining Goal attainment is the defining characteristic of and organizationcharacteristic of and organization

OrganizationsOrganizations

• Types of Organizations:Types of Organizations:– Oriented toward economic productionOriented toward economic production

• Business and productionBusiness and production

– Oriented toward political goalsOriented toward political goals• Refers to government and bankingRefers to government and banking

– Integrative organizationsIntegrative organizations• Legal system and courts, goal to ease Legal system and courts, goal to ease

conflictsconflicts

– Pattern-maintenance organizationsPattern-maintenance organizations• Informing of basic moral beliefsInforming of basic moral beliefs

Evolutionary TheoryEvolutionary Theory

• Parsons model of evolutionary theory:Parsons model of evolutionary theory:– DifferentiationDifferentiation

• Many sub-systemsMany sub-systems• Change in one affects many othersChange in one affects many others• New parts develop to take on those rolesNew parts develop to take on those roles

– IntegrationIntegration• InclusionInclusion• Growing complexity demands larger supplies of Growing complexity demands larger supplies of

peoplepeople• Mobilization and coordination are criticalMobilization and coordination are critical

– Value GeneralizationValue Generalization• Adaptation of value systemAdaptation of value system

Race, Class and GenderRace, Class and Gender

• Race:Race:– Parsons suggested that the survival of the Parsons suggested that the survival of the

system was dependent on a new level of system was dependent on a new level of institutionalization of values of equality.institutionalization of values of equality.

• Class:Class:– Parsons saw class inequality as failure of a Parsons saw class inequality as failure of a

social system to properly integrate all social system to properly integrate all members. Class struggle creates motivationmembers. Class struggle creates motivation

• Gender: Gender: – Traced differences in gender roles to the familyTraced differences in gender roles to the family– Predicted that the greater number of women Predicted that the greater number of women

seeking careers outside the family would alter seeking careers outside the family would alter the structure of the familythe structure of the family

RelevancyRelevancy

• Although Functionalism has come under Although Functionalism has come under attack it still remains in the “Big Three.”attack it still remains in the “Big Three.”

• Society and social systems are comprised Society and social systems are comprised of interdependent parts, a major failure of interdependent parts, a major failure or breakdown in one part can cause harm or breakdown in one part can cause harm to the entire system. to the entire system. – Ex: Enron caused major effects throughout Ex: Enron caused major effects throughout

the financial industry. Thus the social system the financial industry. Thus the social system had to react to Enron to find equilibrium. had to react to Enron to find equilibrium.

RelevancyRelevancy

• 9-11 is another example9-11 is another example• An example of Parsons Evolution An example of Parsons Evolution

Theory is the technological Theory is the technological advancement of the cell phone. They advancement of the cell phone. They change the aspects of everyday life change the aspects of everyday life and society has to adaptand society has to adapt

Documents

Talcott Parsons. Background Born in 1902 in Colorado Springs, Colorado.Born in 1902 in Colorado Springs, Colorado. Youngest of five children.Youngest