Table of Contents - Water Programs · Table of Contents Chapter 2 Wells ... 3.9.1 Procedure for Treating Water 229 3.9.2 Components 230 ... 4.5.3 Chlorine Containers 313

ix

Table of Contents

Chapter 2Wells

2.1 Groundwater—Critical Link to Wells 32

2.1.1 Water (Hydrologic) Cycle 32

2.1.2 Aquifers 33

2.1.2.1 Porosity and Specific Yield 34

2.1.2.2 Overdraft 35

2.1.2.3 Saltwater Intrusion 35

2.1.3 Pollution Control 36

2.1.3.1 Geologic and Hydrologic Data 38

2.1.4 Wellhead Protection 39

2.1.4.1 National Program 40

2.1.4.2 Groundwater Protection Tips 46

2.2 Well Site Selection 49

2.2.1 Horizontal Distance 51

2.2.2 Design of Well Fields 54

2.2.3 Special Construction of Collection Systems Under Gravity Flow 55

2.2.4 Sanitary Control of Future Construction 55

2.3 Structure and Components 55

2.3.1 Types of Wells 56

2.3.1.1 Dug Wells 56

2.3.1.2 Bored Wells 56

2.3.1.3 Driven Wells 56

2.3.1.4 Drilled Wells 60

2.3.1.5 Shallow Collector Wells—Ranney Type 65

2.3.2 Subsurface Features of a Well 66

2.3.2.1 Conductor Casing 66

2.3.2.2 Well Casing 67

2.3.2.3 Intake Section of a Well 67

2.3.2.4 Annular Grout Seal 69

2.3.2.5 Gravel Pack 71

Chapter 1Introduction to Small Water Systems

1.1 Water as a Limited Resource 2

1.2 The Water Supply System 3

1.2.1 Sources of Water 4

1.2.1.1 Ocean 4

1.2.1.2 Surface Water 6

1.2.1.3 Groundwater 7

1.2.1.4 Reclaimed Water 8

1.2.2 Storage Facilities 9

1.2.3 Treatment Facilities 9

1.2.3.1 Water Treatment 10

1.2.4 Distribution Systems 10

1.3 Selection of a Water Source 12

1.3.1 Water Rights 12

1.3.2 Sanitary Survey 12

1.3.3 Contamination 14

1.3.3.1 Physical Characteristics 15

1.3.3.2 Chemical Characteristics 16

1.3.3.3 Biological Factors 16

1.3.3.4 Radiological Factors 17

1.4 The Safe Drinking Water Act 18

1.5 Small Water System Operators 22

1.5.1 Operation and Maintenance 23

1.5.2 Supervision and Administration 24

1.5.3 Public Relations 25

1.5.4 Safety 25

1.6 Math Assignment 26

1.7 Additional Resources 26

Chapter Review 28

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x Table of Contents

2.5.4 Water Quality Monitoring 106

2.5.5 Downhole Video Inspection 106

2.5.6 Summary 107

2.6 Well Pumps and Service Guidelines 108

2.6.1 Types of Pumps 108

2.6.1.1 Centrifugal Pumps 108

2.6.1.2 Other Pumps 110

2.6.1.3 Right-Angle Gear Drives 112

2.6.2 Selecting a Pump 113

2.6.3 Service Guidelines 114

2.6.4 Motors 115

2.6.5 Pump Testing and Evaluation 116

2.6.5.1 Guidelines for Testing 117

2.6.5.2 Evaluating Test Results 118

2.6.5.3 Pump Electrical 126

2.7 Disinfection of Wells and Pumps 129

2.7.1 New Wells 129

2.7.2 Existing Wells 131

2.7.3 Contaminated Wells 131

2.7.4 ChlorineRequirementCalculations 132

2.8 Electrical Supply and Controls 135

2.8.1 Electrical Supply 135

2.8.1.1 Motor Starters 135

2.8.1.2 Auxiliary Power 135

2.8.2 Pump Controls 137

2.8.2.1 Control Systems 138

2.8.2.2 Equipment 140

2.9 Troubleshooting 140

2.9.1 Decline in Yield 144

2.9.2 Sand in Well Water Systems 144

2.9.2.1 Problems Associated with Sand 145

2.9.2.2 Flushing Mains 146

2.9.2.3 Test for Sand, Volumetric Method 146

2.9.2.4 Acceptable Concentrations 148

2.9.2.5 Responding to Complaints 148

2.10 Abandoning and Plugging Wells 149

2.10.1 Permits 149

2.10.2 Abandoning and Plugging Guidelines 150

2.3.3 Surface Features of a Well 73

2.3.3.1 Well-Casing Vent 73

2.3.3.2 Gravel Tube 74

2.3.3.3 Sounding Tube 75

2.3.3.4 Pump Pedestal 75

2.3.3.5 Pump Motor Base Seal 76

2.3.3.6 Sampling Taps 76

2.3.3.7 Air Release and Vacuum Breaker Valves 76

2.3.3.8 Pump Blowoff 76

2.3.4 Well Appurtenances 77

2.3.4.1 Check Valves 77

2.3.4.2 Pump Control Valves 77

2.3.4.3 Foot Valves 80

2.3.4.4 Flowmeters 80

2.3.4.5 Sand Traps and Sand Separators 81

2.3.4.6 Surge Suppressors 82

2.3.4.7 Air and Vacuum Valves 83

2.3.4.8 Pressure Relief Valves 83

2.3.4.9 Hydropneumatic Pressure Tank Systems 85

2.4 Testing and Evaluation 92

2.4.1 Well Yield Tests 93

2.4.1.1 Bailing Test Method 93

2.4.1.2 Air Blow Test Method 93

2.4.1.3 Variable Rate Method 94

2.4.1.4 Constant Rate Method 94

2.4.1.5 Step-Continuous Composite Method 95

2.5 Maintenance and Rehabilitation 95

2.5.1 Factors Affecting the Maintenance of Well Performance 96

2.5.1.1 Overpumping 96

2.5.1.2 Clogging or Incrustation of Screen 96

2.5.1.3 Corrosion or Collapse of Screen 98

2.5.1.4 Biofouling 99

2.5.2 Preventive Maintenance and Repairs 99

2.5.3 Casing and Screen Maintenance 99

2.5.3.1 Surging 100

2.5.3.2 High-Velocity Jetting 101

2.5.3.3 Acid Treatment 103

2.5.3.4 Chlorine Treatment 105

2.5.3.5 Polyphosphates 105

2.5.3.6 Explosive Charges 105


Table of Contents xi

3.9.2.6 Finished Water Holding Facility 237

3.9.2.7 Hydraulic Controls and Monitoring Devices 238

3.9.3 Typical Filter Operating Cycle 239

3.9.3.1 Daily Operation 240

3.9.3.2 Cleaning the Filter Media 240

3.9.4 Preventive Maintenance 245

3.9.5 Troubleshooting 246

3.9.6 Finished Water Standards 247

3.9.7 Factors Affecting Filter Performance 248

3.9.7.1 Source Water Quality 248

3.9.7.2 Cyclic Influences 249

3.9.7.3 Mode of Operation 251

3.9.7.4 Hydraulic Loading Rate 251

3.9.8 Recordkeeping 253

3.9.9 Process Modifications 255

3.9.10 Example Slow Sand Filter Plant 255

3.9.10.1 Construction Features 255

3.9.10.2 Startup 256

3.9.10.3 Operation 257

3.9.10.4 Filter Cleaning 258

3.9.10.5 Shutdown 259

3.10 Iron and Manganese Control 259

3.11 Softening 261

3.11.1 Ion Exchange Softening 264

3.12 Operation 268

3.13 Maintenance 271

3.13.1 Tools 271

3.14 Safety 271



Chapter Review 275

Chapter 4Disinfection

4.1 Drinking Water Safety 280

4.1.1 Safe Drinking Water Laws 280

2.11 Operator Responsibility and Recordkeeping 152

2.11.1 Routine Facility Servicing 152

2.11.2 Records 153



Chapter Review 161

Chapter 3Small Water Treatment Plants

3.1 Importance of Small Water Treatment Plants 168

3.1.1 Surface Waters 169

3.1.2 Groundwaters 172

3.1.3 Operator Responsibility 173

3.2 Coagulation 173

3.3 Flocculation 182

3.4 Settling (Sedimentation) 183

3.5 Filtration 190

3.6 Disinfection 203

3.7 Corrosion Control 218

3.8 Solids-Contact Clarification 220

3.8.1 Fundamentals of Operation 224

3.8.2 Maintenance 227

3.9 Slow Sand Filtration 227

3.9.1 Procedure for Treating Water 229

3.9.2 Components 230

3.9.2.1 Filter Tank 230

3.9.2.2 Underdrain System 233

3.9.2.3 Sand Media Bed 233

3.9.2.4 Flow Control Piping, Valves, and Gauges 234

3.9.2.5 Outlet Chamber 236


xii Table of Contents

4.4 Points of Chlorine Application 303

4.4.1 Prechlorination 303

4.4.2 Postchlorination 303

4.4.3 Rechlorination 303

4.4.4 Wells 303

4.4.5 Mains 305

4.4.6 Tanks and Reservoirs 305

4.5 Operation of Chlorination Equipment 305

4.5.1 Hypochlorinators 305

4.5.2 Chlorinators 307

4.5.2.1 Chlorinator Flow Path 310

4.5.2.2 Chlorinator Parts and Their Purpose 312

4.5.3 Chlorine Containers 313

4.5.3.1 Plastic 313

4.5.3.2 Steel Cylinders 314

4.5.3.3 Ton Tanks 315

4.5.4 Safety Around Chlorine 316

4.5.5 Removing Chlorine from Containers 316

4.5.5.1 Connections 316

4.5.5.2 Valves 317

4.5.5.3 Ton Tanks 317

4.5.6 Performance of Chlorination Units 317

4.5.6.1 Hypochlorinators 318

4.5.6.2 Chlorinators 322

4.5.7 Normal and Abnormal Operation 327

4.5.7.1 Container Storage Area 327

4.5.7.2 Evaporators 328

4.5.7.3 Chlorinators, Including Injectors 330

4.5.7.4 Daily Operations 335

4.5.7.5 Laboratory Tests 337

4.5.8 Troubleshooting Gas Chlorinator Systems 338

4.5.9 Disinfection Troubleshooting 339

4.5.10 Chlorination System Failure 339

4.6 Maintenance 339

4.6.1 Chlorine Leaks 339

4.6.2 Installation 343

4.7 Chlorine Dioxide Facilities 345

4.7.1 Safe Handling of Chemicals 347

4.2 Factors Influencing Disinfection 283

4.2.1 pH 283

4.2.2 Temperature 283

4.2.3 Turbidity 283

4.2.3.1 Organic Matter 284

4.2.3.2 Inorganic Matter 284

4.2.4 Reducing Agents 284

4.2.5 Microorganisms 284

4.2.5.1 Removal Processes 284

4.3 Disinfection Process 285

4.3.1 Physical Means of Disinfection 285

4.3.2 Chemical Disinfectants Other Than Chlorine 286

4.3.3 Chlorine 287

4.3.3.1 Chlorine Disinfection Action 287

4.3.3.2 Reaction with Water 288

4.3.3.3 Reaction with Impurities in Water 289

4.3.4 Hypochlorite 290

4.3.4.1 Reactions with Water 290

4.3.4.2 Differences Between Chlorine Gas and Hypochlorite Compound Reactions 291

4.3.4.3 Onsite Chlorine Generation 291

4.3.5 Chlorine Dioxide 291

4.3.5.1 Reaction in Water 292

4.3.5.2 Reactions with Impurities in Water 292

4.3.6 Breakpoint Chlorination 292

4.3.7 Chloramination 294

4.3.7.1 Methods for Producing Chloramines 294

4.3.7.2 Chlorine-to-Ammonia-Nitrogen Ratios 295

4.3.7.3 Special Water Users 296

4.3.7.4 Blending Chloraminated Waters 296

4.3.7.5 Chloramine Residuals 296

4.3.8 Nitrification 296

4.3.8.1 Nitrification Prevention and Control 297

4.3.9 Chlorine Residual Testing 298

4.3.9.1 Chlorine Residual Curve 299

4.3.9.2 Critical Factors 300

4.3.10 CT Values 300

4.3.11 Process Calculations 301


Table of Contents xiii

4.7.2 Operation 347

4.7.2.1 Prestart Procedures 347

4.7.2.2 Startup 349

4.7.2.3 Shutdown 349



4.8 Measurement of Chlorine Residual 353

4.8.1 Methods of Measuring Chlorine Residual 353

4.8.2 ORP Probes 354

4.9 Chlorine Safety Program 355

4.9.1 Chlorine Hazards 355

4.9.2 Why Chlorine Must Be Handled with Care 356

4.9.3 Chlorine Safety for Operators 356

4.9.4 Hypochlorite Safety 359

4.9.5 Chlorine Dioxide Safety 359

4.9.6 Operator Safety Training 359

4.9.7 CHEMTREC 360

4.10 Ultraviolet Systems 360

4.10.1 Lamp Types 361

4.10.2 System Types 361

4.10.3 Safety 362

4.10.4 Operation 363

4.10.4.1 UV Light Intensity Effectiveness 363

4.10.4.2 Minimum UV Dose Management 363

4.10.4.3 Routine Operations Tasks 365

4.10.4.4 Wiping System 366

4.10.4.5 Equipment Shutdown/Startup Preliminary Steps 366

4.10.4.6 Shutdown Sequence 367

4.10.4.7 Cleaning the Tank 367

4.10.4.8 Startup Sequence 367

4.10.4.9 Monitoring Lamp Output Intensity 367

4.10.4.10 Monitoring Influent and Effluent Characteristics 368

4.10.5 Emergency Alarms 368


4.10.6.1 Quartz Sleeve Cleaning 369

4.10.6.2 Lamp Maintenance 370


4.10.7.1 System Hydraulics 371

4.10.7.2 Biofilms on UV Channel Walls and Equipment 371

4.10.7.3 Particles Shielding Bacteria 371

4.11 Ozone Systems 371

4.11.1 Equipment 372

4.11.2 Gas Preparation 372

4.11.3 Electrical Supply Unit 373

4.11.4 Ozone Generator 373

4.11.5 Ozone Contactor 374

4.11.6 Ozone Residuals 374

4.11.7 Safety 375


4.11.9 Applications of Ozone 375

4.11.10 Advantages and Limitations of Ozone 376

4.12 Mixed-Oxidants (MIOX) Systems 377

4.13 Typical Chlorination Math Problems 378

4.13.1 Chlorinators 378

4.13.2 Hypochlorinators 382



Chapter Review 387

Chapter 5Safety

5.1 Safety Program 392

5.1.1 Tailgate Safety Sessions 393

5.1.1.1 Tailgate Safety Sample Script 393

5.1.2 Employee Right-To-Know Laws 394

5.2 Vehicle Safety 395

5.2.1 Towing A Trailer 395

5.2.2 How to Charge a Battery 395

5.2.3 Boat Safety 397


xiv Table of Contents

5.6.11 Using Temporary Traffic Control Zone Devices 444

5.6.12 Excavations in Streets 459

5.6.12.1 Trenches 459

5.6.12.2 Cave-Ins 461

5.6.12.3 Ladders 462

5.6.12.4 Locate Underground Utilities Before You Dig 462

5.7 Safety Around Water Storage Facilities 464

5.7.1 Slips and Falls 464

5.7.2 Ladders 464

5.7.3 Application of Coatings 466

5.7.4 Confined Spaces 467

5.8 Working near Noise 471

5.9 Safety Inspections 474


Chapter Review 477

Chapter 6Laboratory Procedures

6.1 Basic Laboratory Concepts 484

6.1.1 Laboratory Units—The Metric System 484

6.1.2 Chemical Names and Formulas 486

6.2 Laboratory Equipment and Techniques 488

6.2.1 WaterLaboratoryEquipment 488

6.2.2 Using Laboratory Glassware 492

6.2.2.1 Reading Volumes 492

6.2.2.2 Using Pipets 493

6.2.3 Chemical Solutions 495

6.2.3.1 Mass Concentration 495

6.2.3.2 Molar Concentration 496

6.2.3.3 Normality 497

6.2.4 Data Recording and Recordkeeping 498

6.2.5 Laboratory Quality Control 499

5.3 Personal Safety 398

5.3.1 MonitoringEquipment 398

5.3.2 PersonalProtectiveEquipment 403

5.3.3 Slips and Falls 404

5.3.4 Handling and Lifting 405

5.3.5 Electrical Safety 406

5.3.6 Corrosive Chemicals 406

5.4 Safety Around Wells 407

5.4.1 Location of Well Site 407

5.4.2 New Wells 407

5.4.3 Sanitary Seal 408

5.4.4 Surface Portion of Well 408

5.4.5 Tank Coatings 408

5.4.6 Well Chemicals 409

5.4.7 Working Around Electrical Units 411

5.4.8 Abandoning and Plugging Wells 413

5.4.9 Safety Inspection 413

5.5 Pump Safety 413

5.5.1 Guards Over Moving Parts 414

5.5.2 Maintenance and Repair 414

5.5.3 Lockout/Tagout Procedure 416

5.5.4 Storage of Lubricants and Fuel 418

5.6 Working in Streets 419

5.6.1 Fundamental Principles 420

5.6.2 Definitions 420

5.6.3 Major Temporary Traffic Control Considerations 425

5.6.4 Individuals Qualified to Control Traffic 426

5.6.5 Permission to Work Within the Right-of-Way of Streets or Highways 426

5.6.6 General Responsibilities 427

5.6.7 Regulations Concerning Street or Highway Work 427

5.6.8 Temporary Traffic Control Zones 430

5.6.8.1 Tapers 433

5.6.9 Pedestrian Safety 436

5.6.10 Worker Safety 439

5.6.10.1 Speed Limits in Work Zones 440

5.6.10.2 Flagger Control 440


Table of Contents xv

6.5.5 Sampling Containers and Preservation of Samples 577

6.5.5.1 Chain-of-Custody Samples 577

6.5.6 Reporting 577



Chapter Review 580

Chapter 7Introduction to Small System Management

7.1 Developing Water Rates 584

7.1.1 General Action Strategy 584

7.1.2 Developing a Hypothetical Water District 585

7.2 Revenue Requirements 587

7.2.1 Forecasting Expenditures 588

7.2.1.1 Declining Demand for Water 588

7.2.1.2 System Growth Rate 588

7.2.1.3 Inflation 589

7.2.1.4 Capital Improvement Program 589

7.2.1.5 Financial Assistance 591

7.2.2 Itemizing System Expenses 592

7.2.3 Establishing the Revenue Base 594

7.3 Cost Allocation Methods 597

7.3.1 Commodity-Demand Method 597

7.3.2 Base-Extra Capacity Method 598

7.3.3 Examples of Cost Allocations 599

7.4 Distributing Costs to Customers 602

7.5 Rate Design 603

7.5.1 InformationandDataRequirements 604

7.5.2 Rate Components 604

7.5.3 Typical Rate Structure 608

7.6 Administration of Rates and Charges 610

7.6.1 Consumer Confidence Reports 611

7.7 Planning for Financial Stability 612

6.3 Laboratory Safety 500

6.3.1 Laboratory Hazards 500

6.3.2 Personal Safety and Hygiene 501

6.3.3 Preventing Laboratory Accidents 502

6.3.3.1 Chemical Storage 502

6.3.3.2 Moving Chemicals 502

6.3.3.3 Proper Laboratory Techniques 503

6.3.3.4 Accident Prevention 504

6.4 Water Quality Tests 507

6.4.1 Instrument-Based Tests 507

6.4.1.1 Temperature 507

6.4.1.2 pH 509

6.4.1.3 Turbidity 511

6.4.2 Titration-Based Tests 514

6.4.2.1 Alkalinity 515

6.4.2.2 Hardness 520

6.4.2.3 Chlorine Residual 522

6.4.3 Tests for Plant Processes 529

6.4.3.1 Jar Test for Coagulation/Flocculation 529

6.4.3.2 Chlorine Demand 534

6.4.4 Biological Tests 538

6.4.4.1 Test Methods Overview 539

6.4.4.2 What Is Tested 542

6.4.4.3 General Materials Required for Microbial Testing 542

6.4.4.4 Procedures for Testing Total Coliform Bacteria 544

6.4.4.5 Additional Test Methods 568

6.5 Sampling 569

6.5.1 Representative Sampling 569

6.5.1.1 Source Water Sampling 569

6.5.1.2 In-Plant Sampling 570

6.5.1.3 Distribution System Sampling 570

6.5.2 Types of Samples 573

6.5.2.1 Grab Samples 573

6.5.2.2 Composite Samples 573

6.5.3 Sampling Devices 574

6.5.4 SamplingTechniques 575

6.5.4.1 Surface Sampling 575

6.5.4.2 Depth Sampling 575

6.5.4.3 Water Tap Sampling 576

6.5.4.4 First-Draw Sampling 577


xvi Table of Contents

7.7.1 Measuring Stability 612

7.7.2 Budgeting 614

7.7.3 Recordkeeping 615

7.7.3.1 Computer Recordkeeping Systems 616

7.7.3.2 Types of Records 616

7.7.3.3 Disposition of Utility Records 618

7.7.4 Check-Up Program for Small Systems 619

7.8 Emergency Response 619

7.8.1 FederalRequirements 619

7.8.2 Responding to Emergency Situations 620

7.8.3 Homeland Defense 623

7.8.3.1 Guarding Against Unplanned Physical Intrusion 624

7.8.3.2 Making Security a Priority for Employees 624

7.8.3.3 Coordinating Actions for Effective Emergency Response 625

7.8.3.4 Investing in Security and Infrastructure Improvements 625

7.8.4 Managing Contamination Threats 627

7.8.4.1 Evaluating and Responding to Threats 628

7.8.4.2 Cryptosporidium 630


Chapter Review 632

Appendix AIntroduction to Basic Math for Operators

Introduction 638

Basic Concepts (Sections A.1–A.4) 639

A.1 Numbers and Operations 639

A.1.1 Addition 639

A.1.2 Subtraction 639

A.1.3 Multiplication 640

A.1.4 Division 640

A.2 Order of Operations 640

A.2.1 More on Exponents 644

A.3 Basic Algebra (Solving Equations) 644

A.4 Percentages 647

Intermediate Concepts (Sections A.5–A.6) 650

A.5 Units 650

A.5.1 Distance or Length 650

A.5.2 Area 651

A.5.2.1 Surface Area of a Rectangle 651

A.5.2.2 Surface Area of a Triangle 652

A.5.2.3 Surface Area of a Trapezoid 653

A.5.2.4 Surface Area of a Circle 653

A.5.2.5 Surface Area of a Cylinder 654

A.5.2.6 Surface Area of a Cone 655

A.5.2.7 Surface Area of a Sphere 656

A.5.3 Volume 656

A.5.3.1 Cube 657

A.5.3.2 Rectangular Prism 657

A.5.3.3 Triangular Prism 658

A.5.3.4 Cylinder 658

A.5.3.5 Cone 658

A.5.3.6 Sphere 659

A.5.4 Mass and Weight 659

A.5.5 Density, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity 660

A.5.6 Concentration 660

A.5.7 Velocity and Flow Rate 662

A.5.8 Force and Pressure 664

A.5.9 Work, Head, and Power 669

A.6 Metric System 672

A.6.1 SI Base Units 672

A.6.2 Measures of Length 674

A.6.3 Measures of Capacity or Volume 674

A.6.4 Measures of Weight 674

A.6.5 Temperature 675

Advanced Concepts (Sections A.7–A.8) 676

A.7 Pumps 676

A.7.1 Pressure 676

A.7.2 Work 677

A.7.3 Power 678

A.7.4 Horsepower 678

A.7.5 Head 682


Table of Contents xvii

A.9 Typical Water Treatment Plant Problems (English System) 724

A.9.1 Flows 724

A.9.2 Chemical Doses 724

A.9.3 Wells 726

A.9.4 Small Water Treatment Plants 727

A.9.5 Disinfection 730

A.9.6 Laboratory Procedures 732

A.10 Typical Water Treatment Plant Problems (Metric System) 733

A.10.1 Flows 733

A.10.2 Chemical Doses 734

A.10.3 Wells 735

A.10.4 Small Water Treatment Plants 736

A.10.5 Disinfection 739

A.10.6 Laboratory Procedures 741

Answer Key 745

Glossary 747

Index 779

A.7.6 Pump Characteristics 684

A.7.7 Evaluation of Pump Performance 686

A.7.7.1 Capacity 686

A.7.7.2 Efficiency 687

A.7.8 Pump Speed-Performance Relationships 690

A.7.9 Friction or Energy Losses 691

A.8 Analysis and Presentation of Data 695

A.8.1 Causes of Variations in Results 695

A.8.1.1 Water or Material Being Examined 696

A.8.1.2 Sampling 696

A.8.1.3 Testing 696

A.8.2 Controlling Variation 696

A.8.2.1 Reading Charts 698

A.8.3 Describing Data or Results 698

A.8.3.1 Graphs and Charts 699

A.8.3.2 Numerical Representation of Data 704

A.8.4 Moving Averages 711

A.8.5 More Applications of Graphs 713

A.8.5.1 Volume of Sludge in a Digester 713

A.8.5.2 Tracking BOD Loading 716

A.8.6 RegressionAnalysis(PredictionEquations,Trends,and Correlations) 718

A.8.6.1 Correlations 723


779 779 779 779

AAADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic), 421Abandoning wells, 39, 149–151, 413Abnormal conditions, chlorination, 305,

322, 327, 333–334Absorption, 222Accident prevention, 504–506Accidents, 392, 393, 395, 487Accidents, laboratory, 502–506Acid rain, 2Acid titration curve, 516Acid treatment of wells, 103–105Acidic, defined, 509Acids, safety, 406, 409, 501Acids, used in laboratories, 503Acquisition, water rights, 12Additional resources, 26, 160, 274, 386,

476, 579, 631chlorination, 386disinfection, 386hardness in water, 520laboratory procedures, 484, 506, 509,

510, 514, 520, 528, 538, 557, 562, 564

laboratory safety, 506microbiological test methods, 568sampling, 577

Administrationcontaminated water supply, 623contingency planning, 619emergency response, 619–623operator’s duties, 22

Administrative expenses, 587, 594, 596, 600, 613

Adsorption, 192Aeration, 260Agricultural runoff, 3, 6, 293Air blow test method, wells, 93–94Air chargers, wells, 86–89Air gap, 81, 323Air lines, wells, 73, 74Air release valve, wells, 73, 74, 76, 83Air rotary drilling, wells, 64–65Air-lift pumps, 108Algal blooms, 7, 249Aliquot, 558Alkalinity, 174

and buffering, 511, 516conditions, 518monitoring, 532

procedure, 517test, 515–520

Alluvial, 60, 145Alum, 173Ambient temperature, 344Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water

Act (SDWA), 40Ammonia, 284, 289, 291–296, 340,

344, 345Ammonia, test for leaks, 323–324Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), 296Amperometric titration method, 353, 524Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT), 421Annual report, 611Annular grout seal, wells, 69Annular space, 62, 106Anthracite, 193AOB. See Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria

(AOB)Appropriative water rights, 12Aquifers, 7, 32, 33Arithmetic assignment. See Math

assignmentArrow boards, traffic, 423Arsenic, 19Artesian wells, 7, 8As-built plans (record drawings), 24Aseptic, 561Assessment of system vulnerability, 620Autoclave, 492, 543, 565Automatic sampling, 574Auxiliary power, 135Available chlorine, 105Available chlorine residual, 288, 292Awareness, safety, 392, 440

BBackflow prevention, 81, 270Backwash

filtration, 196–203softening, 265

Bacteriadefined, 573detection methods, 539disinfection, 203pathogenic, 280quantity affect on sample, 546types of counts, 539

Bacterial cells, 287

Bacterial cultures, 539Bacteriologic safety indicator, 538Bailing test method, wells, 93Barium, 19Barricades, traffic control, 457–458Base costs, 598Base-extra capacity method, 598Bases (caustics), used in laboratories, 501Battery, charging, 395–397Bill-frequency analysis, 604Biofouling, wells, 99Biological, water quality, 13Biological tests, 538–568Bitter tastes, 286Blanks, 543Blowoff, wells, 73, 76Boats, safety, 397Boils, 199Bonds, 589, 590Bored wells, 56, 60Bowls, pump, wells, 67, 108Brake horsepower, 109Breakpoint chlorination, 209, 210,

292–294, 335, 536, 537Breakthrough, 197Brilliant Green Bile (BGB) Broth, 540, 544Brine disposal, 266Brine stage, 265Bromine, 286Bruises, injury, 500Budget

preparation, 614operator responsibility, 25

Buffer, 291Buffer solution, 511Buffered dilution water, 543, 546Burns, laboratory, 500, 505Byproducts, disinfection, 19

CCable-tool drilling, wells, 60, 61, 66Cadmium, 19Caisson, wells, 65Calcium carbonate equivalent, 173, 515,

519, 520Calcium hypochlorite, 204, 290Calculations

coagulation, 178disinfection, 207–208

Index

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 779 17/11/17 9:10 am

780 Index

Calculations (continued)filtration, 200–203sedimentation, 189–190wells, 118–122

Calibration, instrument, 490-491, 493Calibration of feeders, 177, 178Call Before You Dig program (811), 462Capital costs, 587, 596, 598, 605Capital improvement program, 589Carbon monoxide, safety, 398Carcinogen, 285, 523Carcinogen chlorogranic compounds, 523Carelessness, 392Cash basis, 596Cash flow, 587Cash reserve, 588Casing, wells, 46, 67, 73Cathodic protection, 227, 330Caustic soda, 501Caustics, 501Cave-ins, 461Centrifugal pumps, uses, 108Certification

operator, 21, 22, 268responsibility, 22

Chain-of-custody sample protocol, 577Channelizing devices, traffic, 423Check valves, 77, 79, 80Chemical disinfectants, 286Chemical feeders, 177–179Chemical names, 486–488Chemical solution, 495–498

tank, 305Chemical treatment, corrosion, 219Chemicals

labeling, laboratory, 503–504movement, 502–503names, 486–488safety, 406solutions, 495–498storage, 502water quality, 13, 15

Chemistry, disinfection, 285–302CHEMTREC, 360, 623Chloramination

blending, 296chlorine to ammonia-nitrogen ratios,

295–296contact time, 300critical factors, 300how to produce chloramines,

294–295nitrification, 295, 296–298postammoniation, 294, 295preammoniation, 294prechlorination, 295residuals, 295, 296special water users, 296use, 294

Chloramines, 206, 207, 210, 290, 292–298Chloride, 20Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 16

Chlorination. See also Chlorinators; Hypochlorinators; Disinfection

abnormal operation, 333–334additional resources, 386ammonia test for leaks, 323–324amperometric titration, 353, 524breakpoint, 209, 210, 292–294, 335,

536, 537CHEMTREC, 360chloramination, 294chloramines, 290, 292–298chlorinator, 307–313, 322–327,

330–339chlorine, 287chlorine dioxide, 345–353chlorophenol, 294contact time, 300container storage, 313–316corrosion, 313, 330, 355critical factors, 300CT values, 208, 300demand, 288, 302, 534dichloramine, 293distribution system, 335dosage, 288DPD method, 206DPD test, 337, 353, 354, 528emergency repair kits, 341, 342equipment, 305–339failure, 339first aid, 358flow diagram, 304formulas, 320, 336free available residual chlorine, 292hazards, 355hypochlorinator, 305–307, 318hypochlorite, 290–291injection point, 300injector water supply, 323laboratory tests, 337leaks, 315, 316, 323, 332, 339–343, 357mains, 305maintenance, 339, 357maintenance, hypochlorinators, 214, 322math assignment, 385math, example problems, 378mixing, 300monitoring, 281monochloramine, 293nitrification, 295, 296normal operation, 305, 318, 326operation, 317–338operator training, safety, 359organic matter, 284, 292pathogen removal, 285performance, 317pH, 283, 288, 300, 345phenol, 294points of application, 303, 304poppet valves, 214population served, 281postchlorination, 300, 303, 304, 335

prechlorination, 290, 295, 300, 303, 304, 335

precursor, THM, 303process calculations, 301rechlorination, 303reducing agents, 283, 284, 289, 300removing chlorine, 316, 317reservoirs, 305residual chlorine, 285, 288, 293, 296,

298, 300, 331, 353, 522, 534safety, 314, 316, 355–360sampling, 281, 282self-contained breathing apparatus, 316,

340, 355, 357storage of containers, 327, 343, 383tanks, 305, 341tastes and odors, 294, 303, 335temperature, 283, 300training, safety, 359trichloramine, 294trihalomethanes (THMs), 284, 285, 303,

345troubleshooting, 334, 338, 339, 352turbidity, 283, 300variables, 284viruses, 280, 281, 284, 345water supply systems, 303waterborne diseases, 280wells, 303withdrawal from cylinder, 210

Chlorination equipment, 305air gap, 323amperometric titration, 354cathodic protection, 330chemical solution tank, 305CHEMTREC, 360chlorinator, 307–313, 322, 330–339chlorine dioxide, 345–353connections, 317containers, 313–317corrosion, 313, 330, 355cylinders, 314–315detection, chlorine leaks, 333, 339–343,

356dew point, 324diaphragm pump, 312DPD test, 337, 353, 354, 524, 528eductor, 305ejector, 305, 312emergency repair kit, 341, 342, 372evaporator, 324, 328failure, 339fusible plugs, 314, 315hypochlorinator, 305–307, 318injector, 305, 310, 331, 338installation, 305, 343laboratory, 337, 347leaks, 315, 316, 323, 332,

339–343, 357lifting clamp, 315location, 343maintenance, 322, 339, 357

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 780 17/11/17 9:10 am

Index 781

manifold, 313, 344math, example problems, 378metering, 310, 313operation, 317–335parts, 312pigtail tubing, 317plan review, 343poppet valves, 319pressure controls, 308residual analyzer, 331, 332, 353review of plans and specifications, 343rotameter, 310safety, 314, 316, 322, 355–360self-contained breathing apparatus, 316,

340, 355, 357shutdown, 318solution feeders, 305–307startup, 318, 323storage, containers, 327, 343ton tanks, 315–316troubleshooting, 334, 338trunnions, 315vacuum-controlled chlorinators,

307–313valves, 314, 317, 319, 323, 329ventilation, 344water supply system, 323weighing, 314, 344wrench, 317yoke-type connectors, 316, 317

Chlorinators, 307–313, 322, 328–339. See also Chlorination

maintenance, 322troubleshooting, 322uses, 322

Chlorineammonia, 289, 292, 294, 296ammonia test for leaks, 333–334available, 105available residual, 288, 292CHEMTREC, 360chloramines, 290, 292–298concentrations, effects, 356container storage, 327demand, 288, 301, 302, 534detection, leaks, 332, 339–343, 357detention rate curve, 299disinfection, 287–290disinfection action, 287dose, 288, 302emergency repair kits, 340, 341first aid, 358frozen, 330hydrogen sulfide, 290hypochlorite, 290hypochlorous acid, 288, 291, 523ice, 330leaks, 315, 316, 317, 323, 332, 338,

339–343, 357maximum removal rate, 316, 344on-site generation, 291pH, 283, 288, 300, 345

physiological response, 356prechlorination, 290, 295, 300, 303,

304, 335properties, 355protection from, 357rate of withdrawal, 323, 344reaction with impurities, 289reaction with water, 288residual, 285, 288, 292, 293, 295, 298,

300, 331, 353, 534safety, 316uses, 204withdrawal rate, 316, 344

Chlorine demandsolution, 535test, 534–538

Chlorine dioxideammonia, 345corrosion, 346facilities, 345–353generation, 346iron and manganese, 292maintenance, 351, 352operation, 347–353pH, 345phenolic tastes and odors, 292reaction in water, 292reactions with impurities, 292safety, 347, 359shutdown, 350sodium chlorite, 347startup, 349taste and odor control, 292trihalomethanes, 293, 345troubleshooting, 352, 353

Chlorine residual test, 522–529Chlorine treatment, 105, 132–134Chloroform, 523Chlorophenol, 294Chlororganics, 292, 523Chromium, 19Chromocult Coliform Agar

Presence–Absence Membrane Filter Test, 539

Cistern, water storage, 6Clarifiers, 220–222Clarity of water, 205Clear wells

description, 9small plants, 170

Clogged well screen, 100Clothing, safety, 403, 404Coagulation

alkalinity, 174alum, 173calculations, 179calibration of feeders, 177, 178chemical feeders, 177–179dosage, 174floc, 171flocculation, 174gang stirrer, 174

jar test, 174, 175mixing, 174, 175pathogen removal, 284pH, 174polymer, 177process, 174, 176streaming current meter, 175temperature, 174

Coatings, tanks, 408, 467Coliform

bacteria, 281disinfection, 281

Coliform Agar ES, 568Coliform bacteria, 281, 538Coliform tests

Colilert method, 541, 566fermentation tubes, 540membrane filter, 557–560, 563Presence–Absence (P–A) Method,

564–566Coliform-positive samples, 538Colilert method, 541, 566Colilert test (enzyme substrate test),

566–568Colisure test (enzyme substrate test),

566–568Colitag Presence–Absence (P–A) Test, 539,

568Collapsed well, 56Collapsed well screen, 99Color, 15, 20, 510Colorimeter, 510, 527Colorimetric measurement, 510Column pipe, wells, 110, 112Combined chlorine, 207Combined residual chlorine, 523, 534Combustible gases, 398Commodity costs, 597, 599Commodity-demand method, 597Community water system, 21Competent person

confined spaces, 469defined by OSHA, 439hazard assessment of work site, 439shoring, 459

Complaint handling, operator’s duties, 25Composite sample, 569, 573Compound substance, 487Conductor casing, wells, 67, 73Cone of depression, 36, 52Confined space, 398, 408, 467Confined space entry permit, 467, 468Connection fees, 589Connections, equipment, 316Conservation, 2Consolidated formation, 62Constant rate method, wells, 94–95Construction cost index (CCI), 589Construction, wells, 55Consumer confidence report (CCR), 611Consumer demands for water, 10Consumer price index (CPI), 589

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 781 17/11/17 9:10 am

782 Index

Contact time, chlorine, 207, 300Contactor, ozone, 375Containers

chlorine, 313–317, 326sampling, 571, 578

Contaminated water supplycontamination, 627–631countermeasures, 630Cryptosporidium, 630emergency treatment, 629incident commander, 627response, 627wells, 131–132

Contamination. See also Water qualitygroundwater, 3

Contingency planning, 619Contingency reserve, 588Control devices and zones. See Traffic

controlControl of

corrosion, 219iron and manganese, 259

Controls, pumps, wells, 137–140Copper, 19, 20Copper Rule. See Lead and Copper RuleCorrosion

chemical treatment, 219control, 219damages, 219Langelier Index, 219lime, 219polyphosphate, 105, 219small plants, 171soda ash, 219water quality problems, 218water treatment plants, 171wells, 98–99

Corrosion problemschlorination, 313, 355chlorine dioxide, 346

Corrosive chemicals, 406Corrosive materials, 501Corrosivity, 11Cost allocation, 597–602Cost-based rates, 598Cost-of-service studies, 598Costs

treatment, 3water rates, 2

Coverage ratio, 612Cross-connections, 13, 149Cryptosporidiosis, 7, 233, 538Cryptosporidium, 281, 283, 377, 630CT values, 300Culture strategy, test, 540Culture tubes, 489Currents, in tanks, 185Custom designed plant, 172Customer service costs, 598Cuts, injury, 500, 504Cylinders, chlorine, 314–315Cysts, 284

DDaily log or diary, 270Daily tasks, 268, 269Damages

corrosion, 219Dams and reservoirs. See ReservoirsDangerous air contamination, 398, 400,

469Data recording, 498DBPR. See Disinfectants and Disinfection

Byproducts Rule (DBPR)Debt service, 594Decibel, noise exposure, 472Decision sight distance, defined, 425Deep-well pumps, 108, 109, 110, 115Deionized water versus distilled water,

534–535Demand, chlorine, 288, 301, 302Demand costs, 597, 598Demineralized water, 542Depreciation, 590Depth sampling, 570, 575, 576Detection, chlorine leaks, 333, 339–343,

356, 357Detention rate curve, chlorine, 299Detention time

chlorine, 300curves, 299nitrification, 297reservoirs, 14settling (sedimentation), 184, 189

Dew point, 324Diaphragm pump, 307Diatomaceous earth, 191, 192Diatoms, 294Dichloramine, 293, 294, 523Dilution water, 543Direct fire protection costs, 598, 605Direct runoff, 6Diseases, 203, 280Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts

Rule (DBPR), 281Disinfection, 280–386. See also

Chlorinationaction, 287additional resources, 386agents of disinfection, 285bacteria, 281bacteria, pathogenic, 280bacterial cells, 285bitter taste, 286breakpoint chlorination, 292, 335bromine, 286byproducts, 19, 286calcium hypochlorite, 290, 291calculations, 301chemical disinfectants, 286chloramines, 290, 292, 298chlorination, 287chlorinator, 307–313chlorine, 287–290

chlorine dioxide, 291, 345–353coliform, 281combined chlorine, 207concentration, 207contact time, 207, 300critical factors, 300Cryptosporidium, 281, 283, 377CT values, 300cysts, 284definition, 203disease, waterborne, 280diseases, 203, 280dosage, 209, 213, 288DPD method, 206enzymes, 287fecal coliforms, 538flow diagram, 304formulas, 320, 336free chlorine, 207Giardia lamblia, 19, 209, 228, 248, 281,

282, 300, 377giardiasis, 203, 247, 280heat, 286hepatitis, 280hypochlorinator, 216hypochlorite, 290–291influencing factors, 283inorganic matter, 284iodine, 286math assignment, 385math, example problems, 378maximum contaminant level, 281microbial standards, 281microorganisms, 284–285mixed-oxidants system, 377–378mixing, 205monitoring, 281organic matter, 284, 292ozone, 286, 371parasites, 280pathogen removal, 284pathogenic organisms, 280pH, 283, 288, 300, 345physical means, 285points of application, 303population served, 281postchlorination, 300, 303, 304, 335prechlorination, 293–334process calculations, 301processes, 285–303protozoa, 280purpose, 283recordkeeping, 299reducing agents, 283, 284, 289, 300removal processes, pathogens, 284reporting, 282residual chlorine, 285, 288, 292,

293, 296, 300, 331, 353–355, 522, 534, 536

safety, 409sampling, 281, 282small plants, 171

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 782 17/11/17 9:10 am

Index 783

sodium hypochlorite, 204spore-forming bacteria, 284standards, microbial, 281sterilization, 280taste, bitter, 286temperature, 283, 300time of contact, 204total chlorine, 296trihalomethanes, 284, 285, 303, 345troubleshooting, 334, 338, 339, 352turbidity, 283, 300ultrasonic waves, 286ultraviolet radiation, 204ultraviolet rays, 285, 286, 368ultraviolet (UV) systems, 285, 360, 368variables, 283viruses, 203, 281, 284, 345, 376water treatment plants, 171waterborne diseases, 280wells, 129–134withdrawal rate of chlorine, 210

Disinfection byproducts (DBPs), 19, 286

Displacement well pumps, 108Disposal of

brine, 266records, 618sludge, 186

Distances to wells, 51–54Distilled water

in culture media, 546versus deionized water, 534

Distribution systemsdescription, 10flushing mains, 146sampling, 570–573

Diversion works, 169Dosage, coagulation, 174Dose, chlorine, 288, 302DPD Colorimetric Method, 525–529DPD method, 206DPD test, 296, 337, 353DPD titration method, 524DPD titrimetric method, 524Drawdown, wells, 13, 117, 144Drilled wells, 60–65Driller’s log, wells, 38Driller’s report, wells, 156Drinking water, 280–281

laws, 280regulations, 19safety, 280sampling, 18, 569–578turbidity removal, 19

Driven wells, 56–60Driving, safety, 395Drums, traffic control, 457Dual media filter, 193Dug wells, 56, 58Duties of operators, 23, 24, 269Dysentery, contamination of water

supply, 6

EE. coli (EPA Method 1603), 563E*Colite Test, 539, 568EDTA titrant, 521Eductor, 305Effective size, 68, 233Ejector, 305, 312Electric shock, 500, 504Electrical, safety, 406, 411Electrical supply, pumps, 135Electrochemical probe, 510Electrochemical reaction, 218Emergency(ies)

administration, 619–620chlorine repair kits, 341contaminated water supply, 623preparation for, 619–620procedures, 626response plan, 619–626treatment, 627

Emergency traffic control situations, 441Employee “Right-To-Know” laws,

394Endpoint, 495, 515Endrin, 19Enzyme substrate coliform test, 541Enzyme Substrate Method, 539Enzyme substrate tests, 539, 566–568Enzymes, 287Epidemiology, 13Equipment

chlorination, 305, 310electrochemical probe, 510laboratory, 488–495 (see also Laboratory

equipment)ozone, 372–374safety, 398–403sampling, 574, 575ultraviolet (UV) systems, 361

Equity, 596Escherichia coli (E. coli), 563Evaluation of wells, 92Evaporation, 32, 33Evaporator, chlorine, 324, 328Evapotranspiration, 5Excavations in streets

cave-ins, 461ladders, 462safety rules, 459shoring, 459spoil, 459trenches, 459underground utilities,

462–463Expenses, 612, 613Explosions, 500, 501Explosive charges, wells, 105Explosive conditions, safety,

25, 399Explosive limits, 399, 402Extra capacity costs, 598

FFacultative bacteria, 538Failure, chlorination, 339Falls, safety, 404, 464FC test. See Fecal coliform (FC) testFecal coliform (FC) test, 539, 549, 561, 565

E. coli, 539Fermentation tubes, 540, 544Field testing of deposits, wells, 98Filter aids, 192, 197, 200Filtration

anthracite, 193backwashing, 195–201boils, 199breakthrough, 195, 197calculations, 201–203controller, 193diatomaceous earth, 191, 192dual media filter, 193filter aids, 192, 197, 200gravity, 190, 191head loss, 194, 195, 200iron and manganese control, 260media, 192, 193mixed media filter, 193mudballs, 197, 199operation, 194pathogen removal, 285polymers, 192, 197, 200precoat filters, 191pressure, 191, 192, 194, 196, 197, 200process, 190, 192purpose, 192rapid sand filters, 194rate, 194, 199rate-of-flow controller, 194rinsing pressure filters, 198sand, 190, 192slow sand filters, 190, 192, 229–259

(see also Slow sand filter)softening, 261–264surface wash, 194, 196troubleshooting, 199turbidity, 194types, 190underdrain, 191, 194, 196, 197, 233waste backwash water, 197

Financial stability, 612Fire

blanket, uses, 505classifications, 506extinguisher, 505–506laboratory, 500, 505protection costs, 597, 598, 605

First aidchlorine, 359laboratory, 502

First-draw sampling, 577Fixed costs, 588Flag tree warning devices, traffic control, 455Flagging, traffic control, 440–444

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 783 17/11/17 9:10 am

784 Index

Flame-polished glass, 505Flammable conditions, 402Flammable or explosive materials used in

laboratories, 500Floc, 171Flocculation

mixing, 182operation, 182–183process, 171, 182short-circuiting, 183troubleshooting, 183

Flow measurement, 169Flow pattern, 304Flowmeters, wells, 80–81Fluoride, 19Flushing, mains, sand, 146Foaming agents (MBAS), 20Foot valve, wells, 76, 77, 80Forecasting expenditures, 588Formation

consolidated, 62unconsolidated, 57

Formazin Turbidity Units (FTU), 512Formulas

chlorination, 320, 336disinfection, 320, 336laboratory, chemicals, 486–488sampling, 571

Free available residual chlorine, 207, 292Free chlorine, 207Free residual chlorine, 523Friction loss table, 120Frozen chlorine, 330FTU. See Formazin Turbidity Units (FTU)Fuel, safety, 418Fusible plugs, 314, 315

GGang stirrer, 174, 175Garnet, 193Gases, safety, 399Geologic data, 38Geological log, 13Giardia lamblia, 19, 209, 228, 229, 237,

247, 248, 281, 282, 300, 377Giardiasis, 6, 203, 233, 247, 280, 538Glasses, safety, 501Glassware, laboratory, 492–495, 542Grab sample, 573, 575Gravel-envelope wells, 56, 66, 70, 74Gravel-packed wells, 57, 66Gravity filters, 190, 191Greensand, 260Grounds, maintenance, 271Groundwater

advantages, 32aquifers, 32, 33hydrologic cycle, 33, 34importance, 40movement, 32

origin, 32overdraft, 35pollution, 32, 37, 38porosity, 34protection, 39recharge, 9recordkeeping, 38safety, 49sampling, 570soil moisture, 32source, 7, 8, 13specific yield, 34transmissivity, 34treatment, 172–173wells, 8, 32yield, 34, 144zone of saturation, 7, 33

Grout seal, wells, 69–71Guards, safety, 414

HHalliburton grout method, 70Handling and lifting, 405Hands-only CPR, 359Hardness test, 520–522Hardness treatment, 173Hard-rock wells, 56, 66Hazardous materials

disposal, 504, 505laboratory, 500–501

Hazardous wastes, 3Hazards

chlorination, 355safety, 271, 392

Head, 108, 111Head loss, filtration, 194, 195, 200Health hazards

disease, 6groundwater recharge, 9laboratory, 500

Hearing protection, 473Heat, disinfection, 286Hepatitis, 6, 280Heterotrophic bacteria, 19, 282, 294High resolution redox (HRR), 354High service pumps, 171High Test Hypochlorite (HTH), 290High-level flag tree warning devices, traffic

control, 454, 455High-rate settlers, 186High-velocity jetting, wells, 101–102Holding time, sampling, 577, 578Homeland defense, 623–626HRR (high resolution redox), 354HTH (High Test Hypochlorite), 290Hydraulic gradient, 51Hydraulic rotary drilling, wells, 60, 62–64Hydrogen sulfide, 400

chlorine reaction with, 289Hydrogeologist, 35

Hydrologic (water) cycle, 5, 32Hydrologic data, 38Hydropneumatic tanks, wells, 81, 83,

85–91Hydrostatic pressure, 64Hygiene, laboratory, 501Hypochlorinators, 305–307, 318. See also

Chlorinationmaintenance, 213–214operation, 351–353troubleshooting, 322

Hypochloritecalcium hypochlorite, 290calculation example, 382disinfection, 290HTH (High Test Hypochlorite), 290hypochlorous acid, 288, 290, 293, 523ion, 288reactions with water, 289–290safety, 359sodium hypochlorite, 291

Hypochlorous acid, 288, 290, 293, 523

IIce, chlorine, 330IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or

Health), 344IESWTR. See Interim Enhanced Surface

Water Treatment RuleImmediately Dangerous to Life or Health

(IDLH), 344Impermeable, 6Incident commander, 627Incrustation, well screens, 96–98Indicators, 510Industrial facilities, wells, 52Inflation, 589Injection point, chlorine, 299, 300Injector, chlorine, 305, 307, 310,

331, 338Injector water supply, 310Injuries, safety, 393Inlets, 184–186Inorganic

chemicals, 16, 19compounds, 487matter, 284

In-plant sampling, 570Inspection

ladders, 466maintenance, 227safety, 413, 474–475safety report form, 475

Installationchlorination equipment, 305, 343

Instrument calibration, 493, 511Instrument-based water quality tests,

507–514Intake, wells, 67–69Intake structures, multilevel, 7

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 784 17/11/17 9:10 am

Index 785

Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR), 281

Inventory records, 618Investor-owned utilities, 596Iodine, 204Iodine, disinfection, 286Ion, 487Ion exchange, 264–267Iron, 20Iron and manganese

aeration, 260chlorine, 260control, 259dechlorination, 260filtration, 260greensand, 260ion exchange, 260objections, 259polyphosphates, 260potassium permanganate, 260superchlorination, 260

Iron and manganese controlchlorine dioxide, 292SMCL (secondary maximum contaminant

level), 20Irrigation runoff, 2, 12Irrigation water, 8

JJar test, 174, 175, 224, 226, 261

alkalinity monitoring, 532apparatus, 529, 530coagulation/flocculation, 529–534jar shape, selecting, 529polymer and coagulant aid dosages, 531procedure, 529, 531

Jet pumps, 59, 110Jetting, well screens, 101–102Jobs, knowledge and skills needed, 22Joint, mechanical, 55

KKemmerer depth sampler, 576Kinetic energy, 83

LLab results, reporting, 577Labeling sample container, 503, 577Laboratory. See also Laboratory equipment;

Laboratory glassware; Laboratory procedures; Laboratory safety

chlorination, 337, 353disinfection, 332, 353jar test, 529metric system units, 484–486

Laboratory equipment

autoclave, 492colorimeter, 525–528glassware (see Laboratory glassware)pH meter, 510turbidimeter, 513turbidity meter, 513

Laboratory glasswareculture tube, 489meniscus, 492, 493pipets, 493–495test tubes, 489

Laboratory proceduresaccident prevention, 502–506acid titration curve, 516additional resources, 484, 509, 510, 520,

528, 538, 557, 562, 564additional test methods, 568alkalinity test, 515–520bacterial cultures, 539basic concepts, 484–488biological tests, 538–568calibration, 493, 511chain-of-custody protocol, 577chemical burns, 505chemical names, 486–488chemical solutions, 495–498chemical storage and movement,

502–503chlorine demand test, 534–538chlorine residual test, 522–529coliform bacteria, 538Colilert method, 541, 566corrosive materials, 501data recording, 498enzyme substrate tests, 566–568equipment, 488–492 (see also Laboratory

equipment)erratic laboratory results, 511error sources, 569Escherichia coli, 563, 564fecal coliform, 538fire extinguisher, 505–506formulas, 486–488glassware, 492–495 (see also Laboratory

glassware)hardness test, 520–522hazardous materials, 500hazards in laboratory, 500–501identification strategies, testing, 540instrument-based tests, 507–514jar test, 529labeling chemicals, 503–504liquid media sterilization, 543math assignment, 579media, 540media preparation and storage, 543–544membrane filter, 541membrane filter (MF) method, 557–561membrane filter method-E. coli, 563–564membrane filter procedure

modifications, 561–562meniscus, 492, 493

metric system, 484–486microbial testing material, 542–544most probable number (MPN)

procedure, 544–557MPN Index, 551, 555MPN (most probable number)

procedure, 540, 544–557multiple tube fermentation, 540,

544–557notebooks, 498pH test, 509–511plant process tests, 529–538Presence–Absence (P–A) Method, 541,

564–566quality control, 499recordkeeping, 498reference-type sample, 499reporting lab results, 577–578safety, 500–506sampling, 569–578 (see also Sampling)

devices, 574techniques, 575–577

solutions, 493, 495standardized solutions, 516techniques, 488–495, 503temperature test, 507test methods, overview, 539–542, 568thermometer types, 507–508titrations, 514–529total coliform bacteria testing, 544–568toxic fumes, 505turbidity test, 511–514turbidity units (TU) and measures, 512using glassware, 492–495waste disposal, 505water quality tests, 507–568worksheets, laboratory, 498, 499

Laboratory safetyaccident prevention, 502, 504acids, 501additional resources, 506bases, 501bruises, 500burns, 500, 505caustics, 501chemical storage, 502corrosive materials, 501cuts, 500, 504electric shock, 500, 504explosions, 500, 501fires, 500, 505–506first aid, 502flammable materials, 501glasses, safety, 501–502hazardous materials, 500–501hazards, 500hygiene, 501–502mercury, 503movement of chemicals, 502–503Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA), 500personal safety, 501–502

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 785 17/11/17 9:10 am

786 Index

Laboratory safety (continued)prevention of accidents, 502, 504protective clothing, 502shock, 500, 504techniques, 503toxic materials, 500, 501, 505

Laboratory tests, 337Ladders, safety, 462, 464–465Lakes. See also Reservoirs

sources of water, 6–7Land subsidence, 8Langelier Index (LI), 219Lauryl tryptose broth, 540Laws, drinking water, 280–283Layout, small plants, 256Lead, 19Lead and Copper Rule

first-draw sampling, 577Leaks, chlorine, 316, 323, 332, 339–343, 357LEL (lower explosive limit), 399, 402LES endo agar, 540chlorine tanks, 314, 315Lifting, safety, 273, 405Lighting devices, traffic control, 458Lime, corrosion control, 219Limits on water, 2Lindane, 19Liquid media sterilization, 543Location, chlorination equipment, 343Location, wells, 49Lockout/tagout procedure, 416–418Log removals, 248Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water

Treatment Rule (LT2ESWTR), 283Lower explosive limit (LEL), 399, 402Lubricants, safety, 418Lubricating oils, 114

MMains

disinfection, 305water flushing, 146

Maintenancechlorination, 322, 339, 357chlorinators, 209chlorine dioxide, 350equipment, 23grounds, 271hypochlorinators, 214inspections, 271ozone, 375plant grounds, 271safety, 392slow sand filters, 245small plants, 168solids-contact clarification units, 227tools, 272ultraviolet (UV) systems, 369–371wells, 95–107

Manganese, 20

Manifold, 91, 313, 344Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices

(MUTCD), 419Manual sampling, 574Marble test, 264Mass concentration, 495Math assignment

chlorination, 385disinfection, 385laboratory procedures, 579safety, 273wells, 160

Maximum contaminant level (MCL), 17, 18, 281

MBAS (foaming agents), 20MCL (maximum contaminant level), 17, 18,

281m-ColiBlue24® Test, 539, 568Mechanical joint, 55Media

filtration, 190, 191preparation and storage, 543–544

Meg, 142Membrane filter

counting colonies, 562innoculation, 558need, 541, 549

Membrane filter (MF) method, 539, 557–561

Membrane filter method–E. coli (EPA Method), 539, 541–542, 563–564

Membrane filter procedures modifications, 561–562

Meniscus, 492, 493Mercury, 19, 362, 371, 503Mesh, 81Meter equivalents, 606Metering, chlorine, 310, 323, 325, 334Methoxychlor, 19Metric system, 484–486, 672–675Microbes, 540Microbial standards, 19, 281, 282Microbial testing, materials, 542Microorganisms, 204, 284Mixed media filter, 193Mixed-oxidant disinfection, 377Mixing

chlorine, 299coagulation, 174, 176disinfection, 205flocculation, 182

Mole, 496control systems, 484disinfection, 280, 282

Monitoring, water qualitychanges, 106slow sand filters, 228wells, 99, 106

Monitoring equipment, safety, 398, 399Monochloramine, 293, 523

Most Probable Number (MPN) procedure, 539, 540, 544–557

Motor starters, pumps, 135Motors, pumps, 127Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, 359Movement, groundwater, 32Moving parts, safety, 414MPN Index, 551, 555MPN (most probable number) procedure,

539, 540, 544–557Mudballs, 197, 199Multilevel, 7Multiple tube fermentation, 540Multiple Tube Fermentation Method (MPN

Procedure), 539, 540, 544–557Multiple-block rate structure, 605Multistage pumps, 109MUTCD (Manual on Uniform Traffic

Control Devices), 446

NNameplate, 143Negligence, safety, 392Nephelometer, 512Nephelometric method, 512Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU), 512Nitrate, MCL (maximum contaminant

level), 19Nitrification, 295–298Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, 296Noise, 471Noise exposure, safety, 471–474Noncommunity water system, 21Non-permit-required confined space, 469Nontransient noncommunity water system,

21Normal conditions, chlorination, 303, 305,

313, 318, 327Notebooks, lab, 498NTU. See Nephelometric Turbidity Unit

(NTU)

OObjective, water treatment, 10Occupational Safety and Health Act of

1970 (OSH Act of 1970), 439, 500 Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA), 500Odor, 12, 16Odor control. See Taste and odor controlOdor threshold, 20Oil-lubricated pumps, 110, 112, 114, 131O&M. See Operation and maintenance

(O&M)On-site chlorine generation, 291Operating expenses, 612, 613Operating pressure differential, 89Operating ratio, 612

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 786 17/11/17 9:10 am

Index 787

Operationchlorination, 305–339chlorine dioxide, 345–353disinfection, 285–303

Operation, small plantsbackflow prevention, 270certification, operator, 268daily log or diary, 270daily tasks, 269duties, operator, 24, 268–269laboratory tests, 270maintenance, 271periodic tasks, 269plant operation, 269procedures, 268–269recordkeeping, 268responsibilities, operator, 173, 268safety, 271, 273system records, 270training operators, 268

Operation and maintenance (O&M)disinfection, 203–218expenses, 612, 613filters, 199flocculation, 182, 183hypochlorinators, 204operator’s duties, 23sedimentation, 183–188small plants (see Operation, small

plants)softening, 261, 264solids-contact clarification,

220–227Operator

certification, 21, 22, 268complaint handling, 25duties, 23, 24, 268–269operation and maintenance, 23–24pay, 23public relations, 25qualifications, 22recordkeeping, 24requirements, 10responsibility, 22, 38, 40, 46, 152, 173,

268, 271safety, 25, 271, 273, 347, 355safety training programs, 359salary, 23sampling, 18staffing needs, 23supervision and administration, 24–25training courses, 26, 264

Organic compounds, 487Organic matter, chlorine demand, 284Organics

chlorine demand, 292compounds, 487MCL (maximum contaminant level), 19source, 13

Organism, 538Orifice, 81Origin, groundwater, 32

ORP (oxidation-reduction potential) probe, 354

OSH Act of 1970 (Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970), 500

OSHA. See Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

Outlet chamber, 236–237Outlet gates. See Intake structuresOutlet structures. See Intake structuresOutlets, tank, 175Overdraft, wells, 32Overflow rates, 186, 222Overpumping, wells, 96Overturn, lake, 7Oxidation, 172Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP)

probe, 354Oxidizing agent, 292Oxygen deficiency/enrichment, 398, 469Ozone

advantages, 376–377applications, 375–376characteristics, 375, 376chemical reaction, 374, 375contactor, 374costs, 377description, 371, 372disinfection, 286, 371effectiveness, 371, 372, 376, 377electrical supply, 373equipment, 372gas preparation, 372–373generator, 373–374limitations, 376–377maintenance, 375residual, 374–375safety, 375tastes and odors, 375

PPackage plants, 171, 172Parasites, 280, 630, 631Parshall flume, 176Pathogen removal

coagulation, 284disinfection, 284, 285filtration, 285sedimentation, 285

Pathogenic organisms, 247, 280, 284, 538, 549

Pathogens, 538Pay, operator, 23Payback time calculation, 590PCMS (portable changeable message sign),

452Pedestal, pump, wells, 73, 75–76Pedestrian safety, traffic control, 436Percussion drilling, wells, 60–62Performance testing, wells, 92Permeability, 51, 60

Permit-required confined space, 469Personal safety, 398Personnel records, 618Pesticides, 16Pet cock, 76pH

chlorination efficiency, 283, 288, 300, 339chlorine dioxide, 339disinfection, 204, 207meter, 510test, 509–511

pH meter, 510, 517alternative indicators, 518

Phenol, 294Phenolic tastes and odors, 292, 294Phenolphthalein alkalinity, 518Physical, disinfection, 285–286Physical, water quality, 15Physiological response, chlorine, 356Piezometer, 238Pigtail tubing, 317, 326Pipets, laboratory, 493Piston pump, 110, 113Plan review, chlorination, 343Planning, expenses, 612Plant operations records, 616Plant process tests, 529–538PLC. See Programmable logic controller (PLC)Plugging, wells, 38, 149, 413Plunging, wells, 100Points of chlorine application, 303–305Policy, safety, 410Pollution

groundwater, 32, 37, 38sources, 38wells, 32

Polymerscoagulation, 177filtration, 192, 197, 200

Polyphosphatescorrosion control, 105, 219iron and manganese, 260safety, 260wells, 105

Poppet valves, 214, 319Population served, 281, 282Pore, 34Porosity, 34Portable changeable message sign (PCMS),

452Positive displacement pumps, 80, 108Postammoniation, 294Postchlorination, 300, 303, 304, 335Potable water, 523Potassium permanganate, iron and

manganese, 260Preammoniation, 294Prechlorination, 290, 293, 295, 300, 303,

304, 335Precipitate, 172, 528Precipitation, 528Precoat filters, 191, 192

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 787 17/11/17 9:10 am

788 Index

Precursors, THM (trihalomethane), 303Preparation for emergencies, 626Prescriptive water rights, 12Presence–Absence Broth, 568Presence–Absence (P–A) Method, 539, 541,

564–566Present worth, 590Preservation of samples, 577, 578Pressure

differential, operating, 89filters, 191, 196, 197, 200, 227hydrostatic, 64relief valves, wells, 83–84tanks, wells, 81, 85, 87, 90

Presumptive testexample, 565, 566total coliform bacteria, 544

Prevention of accidents, 392, 502, 504–506Preventive maintenance. See MaintenancePrimary regulations, 18Prime, pumps, 80Procedures, sampling, 569Processes, treatment

coagulation, 171, 173disinfection, 171, 203filtration, 171, 190flocculation, 171, 182sedimentation, 183solids-contact clarification, 220

Procurement records, 616–617Program, safety, 25, 355, 392–394Programmable logic controller (PLC), 363,

365Protection from chlorine, 316Protective clothing, 357, 404, 409, 466,

501–502Protozoa, 203Public, safety, 441, 626Public health, 9, 10, 13, 627–629Public relations, operator’s duties, 25Public safety, 441Pumping, tests, wells, 92Pumps, wells

air-lift, 108auxiliary power, 135–137bowls, 108centrifugal, 108column pipe, 110, 112controls, 137–140deep well, 109–110, 115disinfection, 129–134displacement, 108, 110electrical supply, 135evaluation, 116–129hydropneumatic tanks, 83, 85–92jet, 58, 110, 113lubricating oils, 114motor starters, 135motors, 115–116multistage, 109oil lubricated, 110, 112, 114operating pressure differential, 89

operator responsibility, 152–160pedestal, 75–76piston, 110, 113positive displacement, 108pressure tanks, 83, 85–92prime, 80pump station, 77reciprocating, 108recordkeeping, 152–160rotary, 110, 112, 114safety, 413–419sand, 144–149selection, 113service guidelines, 108–129shallow, 59, 108small plants, 171station, 77submersible deep well, 110, 112testing, 116–129troubleshooting, 140–144turbine-type, 109–112, 131unbalanced current, 126–127variable displacement, 108volute-type, 108–109water lubricated, 109, 114, 131water treatment plants, 171

Purchase order, 614, 617

QQualifications for operator jobs, 22Quality control, laboratory, 499Quality monitoring, wells, 106Quartz sleeve, 361, 369

RRadioactivity, MCL (maximum contaminant

level), 17Radiological water quality, 15, 17Ranney well, 65–66Rapid mix, 171, 174–177, 192, 294, 295, 531Rapid sand filters, 194Rate

administration, 610–612components, 604–605design, 603–610of return, 596structure, 608studies, 584

Rate of chlorine withdrawal, 316, 344Rate-of-flow controller, 194Rates, water, 2, 584Rates of filtration, 194, 195, 199, 213Readycult Coliforms 100

Presence–Absence Test, 535, 539Reagent

chlorine demand-free water, 535chlorine dosing solution, 535freshness, 530prepared, 525

stock chlorine solution, 535using pipets, 494

Recarbonation, 264Rechlorination, 303Reciprocating pump, 108Recirculation, 223–226Reclaimed water, 8Record drawings (as-built plans), 24Recordkeeping

computer, 616disinfection, 209disposal of, 618equipment and maintenance, 616groundwater, 38inventory, 618laboratory, 498operation, 268operator’s responsibility, 25personnel, 618plant operations, 616procurement, 616–617pumps, 152–160slow sand filters, 255small plants, 268solids-contact clarification, 220types, 616wells, 38, 99, 152–160

Records. See RecordkeepingRecreation, lakes, 7Reducing agents, 283, 284, 289, 300, 534Regeneration, 265, 266Regulations

SDWA (Safe Drinking Water Act), 18–22, 280

street work, 436wells, 45

Rehabilitation, wells, 96Rehabilitation costs, 587Reliquefaction, 213Removal processes

chlorine, 316pathogens, 284, 285

Removing chlorine, 316Repair/replacement fund, 595–596Repairs

safety, 414wells, 99

Replacement costs, 596Reporting, disinfection, 281Representative sample, 569Requisition, 614, 616, 617Reserve funds, 588Reservoirs

chlorination, 303disinfection, 303sampling, 569stratification, 7

Residual analyzer, chlorine, 331, 334, 353, 375

Residual chlorine, 207–214, 285, 288, 290, 292–296, 298–300, 331, 334, 335, 353, 522, 534

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 788 17/11/17 9:10 am

Index 789

concentrations, 527, 528types, 523

Resistance of organisms, 284Responsibility of operators

operation, 268safety, 25, 392small plants, 171, 173, 268wells, 38, 46, 99, 152

Revenue requirements, 587–596Reverse circulation, well drilling, 64Rights to use water

appropriative, 12prescriptive, 12riparian, 12

Right-To-Know laws, 394Rinsing pressure filters, 197Riparian water rights, 12Rivers, 6Rossum sand sampler, 146, 147Rotameter, 310Rotary drilling, wells, 62–66Rotary pumps, 110, 112, 114Roughing filter, 249, 250, 255Routing traffic, 419–463

SSafe distances to wells, 51–54Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 16–22,

191, 227, 280Safe procedures

emergency traffic control situations, 439high-visibility clothing, 441noise exposure, 471–473portable changeable message sign

(PCMS), 452regulations, street work, 427speed limits in work zones, 440street work regulations, 427traffic control, 426, 430, 444–458

Safe yield for surface water supplies, 14Safety. See also Laboratory safety; Traffic

controlaccidents, 392, 393, 398, 411acids, 406, 409additional resources, 476awareness, 392battery, 395–397boats, 397Call Before You Dig program (811), 462carbon monoxide, 398carelessness, 393cave-ins, 461chemicals, 409chlorination, 314, 315, 320, 355–360chlorine, 410chlorine dioxide, 339, 347, 359clothing, 403, 404coatings, 408, 467combustible gases, 398competent person, 439, 459

confined space, 398, 403, 467confined space entry permit, 468corrosive chemicals, 406dangerous air contamination, 398, 400,

469definition, 392disinfection, 409drinking water, 280–283driving, 395electrical, 406, 411equipment, 398–403excavations, 459explosive conditions, 399explosive limits, 399, 402falls, 404–405, 464fire blanket, 505fire extinguisher, 506flammable conditions, 399fuel, 418gases, 400General Industry Safety Orders, 500guards, 414handling and lifting, 405hazards, 273, 355, 393hearing protection, 472homeland defense, 623–626hydrogen sulfide, 398hypochlorite, 359injuries, 393inspection, 413, 474–475laboratory (see Laboratory safety)ladders, 462, 464–466lifting, 273, 405lockout/tagout procedure, 416–418lower explosive limit (LEL), 399, 402lubricants, 418maintenance, 414–416management, 392monitoring equipment, 398–403moving parts, 414negligence, 392noise, 472non-permit-required confined space, 469objectives, 392operator’s responsibility, 25, 173OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health

Administration), 439, 500oxygen deficiency/enrichment, 398, 469ozone, 375pedestrian traffic control, 436–439, 454permit-required confined space, 469personal, 398policy, 392prevention of accidents, 392program, 25, 392protective clothing, 403, 404, 409public, 419, 441pumps, 413–419repair, 414–416responsibilities, 25, 392Right-To-Know laws, 394Safety data sheet (SDS), 394

shoring, 459, 461sling, 416slips, 404–405, 464small plant hazards, 271storage facilities, water, 464storage of fuel, 418street work, 419–463tailgate safety sessions, 393tanks, 408, 467think safety, 392threat levels, homeland defense, 625toxic gases, 399traffic, 419–463trailers, towing, 395training, 392, 466trenches, 459ultraviolet (UV) systems, 360, 362underground utilities, 462–463unsafe acts, 392, 393upper explosive limit (UEL), 399, 402ventilation, 399, 470waste disposal, 505water storage facilities, 467wells, 407, 409–410working in streets, 419–463

Safety data sheet (SDS), 347, 394, 502Safety program

operator’s duties, 25small plants, 271, 392

Salary, operator, 23Sample, unchlorinated, filtering, 558Sample preservation, 577, 578Sampling

additional resources, 577automatic, 574bacteria quantity, 546, 556chain-of-custody protocol, 577chlorination, 281, 282collection, 574–578composite sample, 569, 573containers, 571, 577, 578depth, 569, 570, 574–576devices, 574disinfection, 281, 282distribution system, 570–572drawn from main, 570, 571drinking water, 17, 569–578errors, 569first-draw sampling, 577formulas, 571grab samples, 573, 575groundwater, 570holding time, 577, 578in-plant, 570Kemmerer depth sampler, 576labeling container, 577lakes, 570manual, 574, 575parameters, 573preservation, 573, 577, 578procedures, 569reference-type sample, 499

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 789 17/11/17 9:10 am

790 Index

Sampling (continued)reporting lab results, 577representative sample, 569reservoirs, 570results, 569, 571rivers, 569–570small water system, 571source water, 569–570stations, 571, 574surface, 575techniques, 575–577types, 569, 573–574volume, 569, 578water tap, 576well profile, 570

Sampling bottles, 542Sampling tap, wells, 76Sand, wells

production, 144–149separator, 81–82, 145trap, 81–82

Sand media, 192, 229, 233–234, 241, 251, 256, 259

Sanitary landfills, 3Sanitary seal, wells, 66, 73Sanitary survey, 12–14

groundwater, 13surface water, 13–14treatment of water, 14

Schmutzdecke, 229Screens, wells, 67–69, 96, 97, 99–102SDS (Safety Data Sheet), 394SDWA. See Amendments to the Safe

Drinking Water Act (SDWA)SDWA (Safe Drinking Water Act), 16–22,

191, 227, 280Seal, wells, 66, 70Seawater intrusion, 3, 8Secondary regulations, 18Sedimentation (settling)

calculations, 189currents in tank, 185detention time, 184, 189disposal of sludge, 186high-rate settlers, 186inlets, 183–185operation, 183–186outlets, 184, 185overflow rate, 185pathogen removal, 285process, 183settling zone, 183, 184short-circuiting, 185sludge zone, 183, 184sludges, 183, 184, 186surface loading (overflow rate), 185temperature, 185tube settlers, 186–188wind, 185zones, 183, 184, 185

Selection of well site, 49Selenium, 16

Self-contained breathing apparatus, 273, 316, 340, 355, 356, 469

Septic tank leaching systems, 3Service area statistics, 585Service charge, 605Service guidelines, well pumps, 108–129Set point, 137Settling. See Sedimentation (settling)Settling zone, 183, 184Sewers, location from well, 54Shallow collector wells, 65–66Shallow well pumps, 59, 108Shock, electric, 464, 500, 502, 504Shoring

cave-ins, 461safety, 459, 461

Shortage, water, 2Short-circuiting, 183, 185

in reservoirs, 14Shutdown

chlorination, 318chlorine dioxide, 348slow sand filters, 259ultraviolet (UV) systems, 366

Signs, traffic control, 427, 444. See also Traffic control

Silt, source, 15Silver, 16Site selection, wells

collection system construction, 55factors, 50land use control, 54overview, 49regulations, 49safety, 49well fields, 54

Sling, safety, 416Slips, safety, 404–405, 464Slow sand filter

cleaning media, 240–245, 258–259components, 230control, flow, 234–236daily operation, 240diagram, 230, 232, 235, 244, 256, 258effective size, 233example, 255–259filter tank, 230finished water, 237, 247–248flow control, 234–236hydraulic controls, 238hydraulic loading, 251maintenance, 253media, 233–234, 240–245modifications, 255monitoring, 238, 253, 254operation, 239–245, 257–258outlet chamber, 236–237pathogens, 233, 247performance, 248–253preventive maintenance, 245–246procedures, 229process modifications, 255

recordkeeping, 253–255sand media, 233–234, 240–245schmutzdecke, 229shutdown, 259start-up, 256–257troubleshooting, 246–247underdrain system, 233uniformity coefficient, 234

Sludgecontrol, 224disposal, 186sedimentation, 183, 184, 186zone, 184, 185

Slurry, 60, 192Small treatment plants, 168

clear well, 171coagulation, 171corrosion control, 171custom designed plant, 172disinfection, 171diversion works, 169filtration, 171flocculation, 171flow measurement, 169groundwater, 172–173hardness, 173hazards, 273high service pumps, 171importance, 169iron and manganese control, 172–173layout, 169maintenance, 271operator responsibility, 173, 268package plants, 171pumps, 171raw water storage, 169settling, 171softening, 173, 261, 266storage, 171surface waters, 169

Small water system sampling, 571Soda ash, corrosion control, 219Sodium chlorite, 346–347Sodium hydroxide, 291, 501Sodium hypochlorite, 204, 290, 291Softening

backwash, 265brine disposal, 266brine stage, 265calculations, ion exchange, 267chemical doses, 261disposal of brine, 266filtration, 264ion exchange softening, 264jar tests, 261maintenance, brine system, 266Marble test, 264operation, 261, 264raw water quality, 264recarbonation, 264regeneration, 265zeolite, 265

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 790 17/11/17 9:10 am

Index 791

Soil moisture, 7Solenoid pump control valve, 77Solid waste disposal sites, wells, 52Solids-contact clarification

advantages and disadvantages, 222alkalinity, 224cathodic protection, 227chemical dosage, 224chemicals, 224clarifiers, 220–222flow rates, 224, 226jar test, 224, 226maintenance, 227operation, 224overflow rate, 223recirculation, 224recordkeeping, 225sludge control, 224, 225slurry, 223–225surface loading (overflow rate), 223temperature, 222, 223turbidity, 222volume over volume (V/V) test, 225

Solids-contact units, 220, 222, 224, 226, 227Solution feeders, 305–307, 319Solutions, chemical, 495–498Sounding tube, wells, 75Sources of water

contamination, 14description, 4direct runoff, 6groundwater, 7, 8, 13hydrologic cycle, 5lakes, 6–7ocean, 4–5reclaimed water, 8–9reservoirs, 6–7rivers, 7selection of source, 12springs, 8streams, 6surface water, 6, 11water cycle, 4–5wells, 8

Space, annular, 62, 71Specific capacity, 144Specific gravity, 530Specific yield, wells, 34Specifications, review, chlorination, 343Speed limits in work zones, 440Spoil, 428Spore-forming bacteria, 284Stage 2 Disinfection By-Products (Stage 2

D/DBP), 283Standard solution, 495Standardization, 495Standardized lab solutions, 514, 516Standards, microbial, 19, 282Startup

chlorination, 318, 323chlorine dioxide, 349disinfection, 318, 323

slow sand filters, 256–257ultraviolet (UV) systems, 366

Static water level, 93, 114–115Station, sampling, 571, 574Statistics, service area, 585Step-continuous composite method,

wells, 95Sterilization, 280, 542, 543Stock solution

concentrations, 530creating, 530volume calculation, 530, 531

Stock solution, preparing, 543Stopping distance, vehicle, 424–425Storage

chemicals, 502chlorine containers, 307, 313, 327, 340, 343fuel, 418

Storage facilities (water)description, 9safety, 464small plants, 171

Stratification, reservoirs, 7Streaming current meter, 175Street work

regulations, 436safety, 419–463

Structure, wells, 55Submersible deep-well pump, 110Subsidence, land, 8, 35Subsurface features, wells, 66Suction lift, 108Sulfate, SMCL (secondary maximum

contaminant level), 20Superchlorination, 260Supernatant, 532Supervision and administration,

operator’s duties, 24Surface features, wells, 73–76Surface loading (overflow rate), 185, 223Surface wash, 194, 196Surface water, 6Surface water sampling, 532Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), 17,

228, 247, 281, 300Surge suppressors, wells, 82–83Surging, wells, 100Sustained yield for wells, 8SWTR (Surface Water Treatment Rule), 17,

228, 247, 281, 300System records, 270

TTailgate safety meeting, 393Tanks

chlorine, 305, 315–317, 341coatings, 85, 408safety, 408, 466–467

Tapers, traffic control, 433Taste and odor control (T&O)

bitter tastes, 286chlorine, 293, 303, 335odor, secondary maximum contaminant

level (SMCL), 19ozone, 375water quality, 13

TCE (trichloroethylene), 2TDS (total dissolved solids), 20Techniques, laboratory, 502, 503. See also

Laboratory proceduresTemperature

chlorination, 283, 300coagulation, 174disinfection, 205, 283, 300sedimentation, 185solids-contact clarification, 222, 223

Temperature test, laboratory, 507Temporary traffic control (TTC) zones,

444–458. See also Traffic controlTest tubes, 489Testing

well pumps, 116–127wells, 92

Testsbiological test goals, 538, 539culturing media, 539, 540enzyme substrate coliform test, 541goals, 539lab methods, 538–541, 568

overview, 539–542membrane filter, 541Membrane Filter Method–E. coli (EPA

Method), 541–542Multiple Tube Fermentation Method

(MPN Procedure), 540plant processes, 529–538Presence–Absence (P–A) Method, 541total coliform bacteria, 544–568

Thermometer types, 507THMs (trihalomethanes), 16, 171, 284, 303,

335, 345, 523Threat response, 628Threshold odor number, 20Time, detention

chlorine, 299curves, 299reservoirs, 14

Time of contact, disinfection, 205Time-weighted average (TWA), 473Titration, 495, 514–529T&O. See Taste and odor control (T&O)TOC. See Total organic carbon (TOC)TON. See Threshold odor number (TON)Ton tanks, chlorine, 315, 317Tools, 271Topography, 8Total alkalinity, 518, 532Total chlorine, 296Total coliform bacteria, 539

test procedures, 544–568Total Coliform Rule, 538Total coliform test, 539

000200010271997881_CH11_IDX_p779-796.indd 791 17/11/17 9:10 am

792 Index

Total dissolved solids (TDS), 20Total organic carbon (TOC), 630Total suspended solids (TSS), 363Toxic fumes, 505Toxic gases, 402Toxic materials, 505

used in laboratories, 501Toxic metals, 16Traffic control

barricades, 458devices, 421, 444–458drums, 457flagging, 440–441high-level flag tree warning devices,

454, 455pedestrian safety, 436–439signs, 421, 452, 455stopping distances, 424street closure, 436, 440tapers, 431–433temporary traffic control (TTC) zones,

430–436trenches, 459

Trailers, towing, 395Training

collection system operators, 474course, 26, 268flaggers, 441operators, 268safety, 359, 392, 467

Training programs, operator safety, 359Transient noncommunity water system, 21Transmissivity, 34Transpiration, 7, 32Treatment, emergency, 627Treatment facilities, purpose, 9–10Treatment processes

reclaimed water, 8–9by source water, 10

Trenches, safety, 459Trichloramine, 293, 295, 523Trichloroethylene (TCE), 2Trihalomethanes (THMs), 16, 171, 284,

285, 303, 335, 345, 523Troubleshooting

chlorination, 334, 338, 339, 344, 353chlorinators, 213chlorine dioxide, 351–353disinfection, 213, 334, 338, 339, 344,

350, 352filtration, 194flocculation, 183hypochlorinators, 214sedimentation, 185slow sand filters, 246–247well pumps, 140–144wells, 144

Trunnions, 315TSS (Total suspended solids), 363TTC. See Temporary traffic control (TTC)

zonesTube settlers, 186, 187, 188

Tubes, test, 489Turbidity

cause, 15chlorination, 283, 300versus color, 510, 511disinfection, 205, 283, 284, 300filtration, 194measurement, 512meter, 512, 513reading, 514source, 15test, 510, 511units (TU), 185, 512

Turbidity meter, 512, 513Turbidity units (TU), 185, 512, 513Turbine-type pumps, 109–110Turnover, lake, 7TWA (time-weighted average), 473Types of wells, 56Typhoid, contamination of water supply, 6

UUEL (upper explosive limit), 399, 402Ultrasonic waves, 286Ultraviolet radiation, 204Ultraviolet (UV) systems

alarms, 368description, 360disinfection, 285, 286, 360–363, 365, 368dosage, 363, 364equipment, 366fouling, quartz sleeve, 369maintenance, 369, 370operation, 363safety, 362shutdown, 366, 367sleeve cleaning, 369startup, 366troubleshooting, 371types, 361

Unchlorinated samples, filtering, 558Unconsolidated formation, 57Underdrain, filter, 191, 194, 196, 197, 233Underground utilities, 462–463

Call Before You Dig program (811), 462Uniformity coefficient, 68, 234Unsafe acts, 392, 393Upflow clarifiers. See Solids-contact unitsUpper explosive limit (UEL), 399, 402US Terrorism Alert System, 626UV lamps, 361–363, 365, 369–371UV systems. See Ultraviolet (UV) systems

VVacuum breaker valve, wells, 76, 83Vacuum-controlled chlorinator, 307–313, 331Valves

check, 76, 77, 79

chlorination, 316, 317, 319, 322, 323, 327, 329, 335, 339, 345

solenoid, 77vacuum breaker, 76, 83well, 77, 80, 83

Variable costs, 588Variable displacement pumps, 108Variable rate method, wells, 93Variables, chlorination, 284Vent, wells, 73–75Ventilation

chlorine rooms, 344safety, 399, 409, 469

Vertical traffic control panels, 457. See also Traffic control

Video inspection, wells, 106Viruses, 203, 247, 281, 284, 300, 345Visibility, clothing for worker safety,441Volatile, 86

liquids, 502Volume charge, 588, 605Volume of sample, 573, 578Volume over volume (V/V) test, 225Volute-type pump, 108–109Vulnerability assessment, 619–620

WWaste, disposal of lab waste, 505Waste backwash water, 197Waste disposal sites, wells, 52Wastewater facilities, 9, 13, 52Water

acid rain, 2conservation, 2contamination, 2costs, 2, 9cycle, 4, 5evaporation, 4groundwater, 6, 7, 13hydrologic cycle, 5, 32irrigation runoff, 2limited resource, 2presence, 2quality monitoring, 99, 106rates, 2sampling, 569seawater intrusion, 3, 8shortages, 2sources, 10surface, 6, 9testing procedures, 538, 539treatment, 10water quality problems, 10, 106, 218

Water chemistry, typical units, 495Water cycle, 32Water hammer, 83Water level measuring, wells, 73, 75Water mains, flushing, 146Water quality

biological, 16–17, 106

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Index 793

chemical, 15, 16, 106color, 15consumer demands, 10indicators, 569, 573, 576, 577inorganic chemicals, 16monitoring

changes, 106slow sand filters, 237wells, 99, 106

odor, 16organic chemicals, 16physical, 15–16, 106problems, 11, 106, 218radiological, 17taste, 16temperature, 16tests, 507–568turbidity, 15

Water rates, 2Water rights, basic types and acquisition, 12Water supply systems

chlorination equipment, 310, 315chlorination of, 303description, 3–11distribution systems, 10–11layout, 4sketch, 4sources, 4storage facilities, 9treatment facilities, 9

Water table, 7, 8, 13Water tap sampling, 576Water treatment plants

clear well, 171coagulation, 171corrosion control, 171costs, 3, 10custom designed plant, 172disinfection, 171diversion works, 169filtration, 171flocculation, 171flow measurement, 169groundwater, 172hardness, 173hazards, 271high service pumps, 171importance, 169iron and manganese control, 172–173layout, 170maintenance, 271objectives, 10operator responsibility, 173, 268package plants, 171pumps, 171purpose, 21raw water storage, 169settling, 171sketch, 170softening, 173, 261, 266storage, 171surface waters, 169

water quality problems, 2Waterborne diseases, 203, 280Water-lubricated pumps, 110, 114, 131Weighing, chlorine, 344Well casing vent, wells, 73Well fields, 54Wellhead protection, 39–46Wells

abandoning, 38, 149–151, 413acid treatment, 103–105advantages, 32adverse conditions, 54air blow test method, 93–94air chargers, 86–89air lines, 73air release valve, 76, 86air rotary drilling, 64–65annular grout seal, 69–71bailing test method, 93biofouling, 99blowoff, 76bored wells, 56bowls, pump, 108cable-tool drilling, 66, 69caisson, 65calculations, 132casing, 66, 70, 73chlorination, 303chlorine treatment, 105, 132–134clogged screen, 96–98collapse, 56collapsed screen, 99components, 55conductor casing, 66, 70, 73constant rate method, 94–95construction, 12, 55contaminated, 131–132controls, pumps, 137–140corrosion, 98–99diameter, 67disinfection, 129–134distances to facilities, 51–54drawdown, 13, 36, 117, 144drilled wells, 60–65driller’s log, 38driller’s report, 156driven wells, 56–60dug wells, 56, 58electrical supply, pumps, 135evaluation, 92explosive charges, 105field testing of deposits, 98flowmeters, 80–81foot valve, 76, 80gravel-envelope, 66, 70, 71gravel-packed, 66, 69, 71groundwater, 32grout seal, 69–71hard-rock, 66, 71high-velocity jetting, 101–102hydraulic rotary drilling, 62–66hydrologic cycle, 32

hydropneumatic tanks, 83, 85–92incrustation, well screens, 96–98industrial facilities, 52inspection, video, 106intake, 67–69jetting, well screens, 101–102maintenance, 95–105operator responsibility, 38, 40, 46, 152–160overdraft, 32overpumping, 96pedestal, pump, 73, 75–76percussion drilling, 60–62performance testing, 92plugging, 39, 149, 413plunging, 100pollution, 32polyphosphates, 105pressure relief valves, 83–84pressure tanks, 83, 85–92pump, 75, 108–129, 135–137pump bowls, 108pump pedestal, 73, 75–76pump station, 77pumping tests, 92quality monitoring, 106Ranney well, 65–66recordkeeping, 38, 99, 152–160regulations, 45rehabilitation, 96repairs, 99responsibility, operators, 35, 38, 46, 99, 152reverse circulation, well drilling, 64rotary drilling, 62–66safe distances, 51–54safety, 406, 410sampling, 570sampling tap, 76sand, 144–149sand separator, 81–82, 145sand trap, 81–82sanitary seal, 66, 73screens, 67–69, 96, 97, 99–102seal, 66, 70sewers, location, 54shallow collector wells, 65–66site selection, 49solid waste disposal sites, 52sounding tube, 75specific yield, 34step-continuous composite method, 95structure, 55subsurface features, 66surface features, 73–76surge suppressors, 82–83surging, 100testing, 92troubleshooting, 144types, 56vacuum breaker valve, 76, 83valves, 76, 77, 83variable rate test method, 93vent, 73–75

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794 Index

Wells (continued)video inspection, 106waste disposal sites, 52wastewater facilities, 52water level measuring, 73, 75water quality monitoring, 99, 106well casing vent, 73wellhead protection, 39–46working pressure, 89yield, 34, 144

Wind, sedimentation, 185Withdrawal rate, chlorine, 210, 315, 343, 344

Worker visibility, clothing, 441Working in streets, safety, 419–463Working pressure, well pumps, 89Worksheets, laboratory, 498Wrench, chlorine, 272, 317Wye strainer, 171

YYield

safe, surface water supplies, 14

sustained, wells, 8wells, 35, 144

Yoke-type connectors, 316

ZZeolite, 264Zinc, SMCL (secondary maximum

contaminant level), 20Zone of saturation, 7, 33, 332Zones of settling, 183, 184

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Documents

Table of Contents - Water Programs · Table of Contents Chapter 2 Wells ... 3.9.1 Procedure for Treating Water 229 3.9.2 Components 230 ... 4.5.3 Chlorine Containers 313