TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword .............................................................................................................. XXXVIntroduction .......................................................................................................... XXXVIIAbbreviations ....................................................................................................... XLIXVarious symbols .................................................................................................. LIIILiterature .............................................................................................................. LV

PART I. MORPHOSYNTAX

SECTION A THE ARTICLE ..................................................................................... 3

1 Values of the article ..................................................................................... 3 a) Equivalent to third person personal pronouns ....................................... 3 b) Anaphoric, particularising ...................................................................... 4 c) Contextually determinate ........................................................................ 6 d) Generic .................................................................................................... 8 e) Distributive ............................................................................................. 10 2 The article absent ......................................................................................... 10 3 Absence syntactically conditioned ............................................................... 12 a) ................................................................... 12 b) ........................................................................ 12 c) The predicate of a descriptive nominal clause ....................................... 13 d) Vocative .................................................................................................. 14 e) Dative and accusative of respect ............................................................ 14 4 Archaic poetic language ............................................................................... 14 5 Lexical, semantic fields surveyed ................................................................ 15 a) ........................................................................................................ 15 aa) anarthrous ............................................................................... 16 b) ..................................................................................................... 17 ba) Pagan deities .................................................................................... 20 c) Proper nouns ........................................................................................... 21 ca) Personal names ................................................................................ 21 caa) Indeclinable proper nouns ...................................................... 22 cab) Declinable proper nouns ........................................................ 23 cac) Personal name followed by fathers name ............................. 23 cad) Proper noun followed by a substantive in apposition ........... 24 cae) Ethnic groups .......................................................................... 24

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cb) Place names ..................................................................................... 24 cba) Names of cities, towns, and villages ..................................... 25 cbb) Rivers ...................................................................................... 25 d) Four compass points ............................................................................... 26 e) Heavenly bodies ..................................................................................... 26 ea) Specific stars ................................................................................... 26 f) Titles of books or documents ................................................................. 27 g) Festivals and holidays ............................................................................ 27 h) Months .................................................................................................... 27 i) Abstract nouns ........................................................................................ 28 j) Ordinals ................................................................................................... 29 k) Material or substance .............................................................................. 29 6 Addition of the article syntactically conditioned ........................................ 30 a) Substantivising function ......................................................................... 30 (i) + prepositional phrase ....................................................................... 30 (ii) + adverb ............................................................................................ 30 (iii) + genitive ......................................................................................... 31 b) Not prefixed to a clause or a question ................................................... 31 c) ............................................................................ 31 ca) ........................... 32 cb) + a prepositional adjunct ................................................................. 32 d) + an articular NP .................................................................................... 33 e) added to adverbial adjuncts ............................................................... 34 f) ............................................................................. 35 g) Ellipsis in the syntagm ...................................................... 35 h) ........................................................ 35 i) Article signalling the elision of an NP ................................................... 35

SECTION B THE PRONOUN ................................................................................... 37

7 Personal pronouns ........................................................................................ 37 a) General 37 b) Nominative.............................................................................................. 37 ba) Antithetical contrast ........................................................................ 37 bb) Disjunctive contrast ......................................................................... 38 bc) Confrontation ................................................................................... 38 bd) Implied contrast or opposition ........................................................ 39 be) Self-consciousness, assertiveness .................................................... 39 bf) Gods ego ........................................................................................ 39 bg) Interlocutors attention .................................................................... 40 bh) in lieu of the 1st or 2nd person ............................................ 40 bi) etc. ................................................................................ 41

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bj) added to a substantive ......................................................... 41 bk) highlighting the preceding constituent as predicate ........... 42 bl) , , distinct from 1st and 2nd person pronouns ... 42 bm) Together with an additive also ............................................. 43 c) First person singular, emphatic pronouns in oblique cases ............... 43 d) ......................................................................... 45 e) Ambiguous and ....................................................................... 46 f) Oblique case forms of ................................................................. 46 g) Indirect address ....................................................................................... 47 h) Diplomatic we for I? .............................................................................. 48 i) Two personal subjects built into a plural verbumfinitum spelled out .. 48 j) Semitising personal pronoun as subject ................................................. 48 k) Extremely high frequency of personal pronouns in oblique cases ........ 50 8 Reflexive pronouns ...................................................................................... 50 a) General remarks ...................................................................................... 50 b) 1st and 2nd pl. ........................................................................................ 51 c) - forms for 1st and 2nd persons ..................................................... 51 d) .............................................................................. 52 e) Genitive adnominal reflexive pronouns ................................................. 52 f) In distributive expressions ...................................................................... 54 g) ....................................................................................................... 54 h) ........................................................................................................ 54 i) Miscellaneous details .............................................................................. 55 9 Reciprocal pronouns .................................................................................... 56 a) - .................................................................................................... 56 b) Compared with Hebrew and Aramaic .................................................... 56 c) repeated for disjunctive contrast ................................................. 58 10 Indefinite pronouns ...................................................................................... 58 a) General remarks ...................................................................................... 58 b) Substantival ............................................................................................. 59 c) Attributive ............................................................................................... 60 d) Substitutes ............................................................................................... 61 da) Substantives ..................................................................................... 61 db) Cardinal numeral one .................................................................. 62 dc) Rhetorical effect .............................................................................. 62 11 Adjectival possessive pronouns ................................................................... 62 a) General remarks ...................................................................................... 62 b) Stylistic variation .................................................................................... 64 c) Substantival and predicative ................................................................... 64 d) Third person ............................................................................................ 65 e) Correlation with genitive phrases in their semantic values ................... 65

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12 Demonstrative pronouns .............................................................................. 66 a) General remarks ...................................................................................... 66 b) Resumptive ............................................................................................. 67 c) Cataphoric ............................................................................................... 67 d) Anaphoric ................................................................................................ 67 e) Relative frequency of and ........................................... 68 f) + proper noun ......................................................................................... 68 g) Neuter forms ........................................................................................... 68 ga) + interrogative ...................................................................... 68 gb) Idiomatic and partly Hebraising ..................................................... 69 h) Demonstrative pronouns resuming or anticipating ................................ 70 ha) Anaphoric ........................................................................................ 70 hb) Cataphoric........................................................................................ 70 i) Substantival ............................................................................................. 71 13 , , ............................................................................................. 71 a) General remarks ...................................................................................... 71 b) Equivalent to personal pronouns ............................................................ 72 c) In conjunction with a personal pronoun ................................................ 72 d) Attributive use ........................................................................................ 72 e) , -, - ............................................................................. 73 14 , , etc. .................................................................... 73 a) Total identity ........................................................................................... 73 b) ................................................................................................... 73 c) Weak anaphora ....................................................................................... 74 d) ........................................................................... 74 e) Substantival ............................................................................................. 74 15 , , ....................................................................... 75 a) Similarity ................................................................................................ 75 b) , -, and - ............................................................ 75 16 , , .................................................................... 75 a) Comparable degree or level.................................................................... 75 b) Articular attributive use .......................................................................... 75 17 Relative pronouns ........................................................................................ 76 a) Two sets of relative pronoun .................................................................. 76 b) Neutralisation .......................................................................................... 76 c) Antecedentless .............................................................................. 77 d) , , ....................................................................................... 78 da) Neutralisation vis--vis series .................................................... 79 e) ........................................................................................................ 79 ea) = ........................................................................................ 80 f) , , ................................................................................ 80 g) Adverbial relatives: and .......................................................... 80

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ga) ................................................................................................. 80 gb) ..................................................................................................... 81 gba) used broadly ....................................................................... 82 gbb) ................................................................. 82 h) Antecedentless relative clause ................................................................ 83 ha) In generic statements ........................................................................ 83 haa) With a preposition prefixed ................................................... 84 haaa) Syntactic status of latent antecedent ........................... 84 hab) Generalising, antecedentless relative pronoun in oblique case ......................................................................................... 85 i) Non-restrictive relative clause ................................................................ 86 ia) Neuter relative pronoun of generic reference ................................. 87 ib) Inferential, clause-initial hence ........................................... 87 ic) Non-restrictive relative clauses: examples ..................................... 87 id) Compound subordinating conjunctions .......................................... 88

SECTION C INTERROGATIVE WORDS ..................................................................... 91

18 Interrogative words ...................................................................................... 91 a) Notional classification ............................................................................ 91 b) as relative pronoun ........................................................................... 92 c) Interrogative used attributively ........................................................ 93 d) Plural neuter ................................................................................... 94 e) as exclamatory particle ....................................................................... 94 19 Correlative expressions ................................................................................ 94

SECTION D THE GENDER, NUMBER, AND CASE ................................................... 95

20 Gender of pronouns and nouns .................................................................... 95 a) Grammatical gender vs. natural sex ....................................................... 95 b) Common gender ..................................................................................... 96 c) Gender of substantives notionally classified .......................................... 97 d) Gender of substantivised adjectives ....................................................... 98 da) in particular ....................................................................... 99 e) Neuter gender of adjectives .................................................................... 100 ea) Applied to abstract notions or concepts.......................................... 100 eb) Applied to concrete manifestations of quality or character ........... 101 ec) Applied to tangible objects ............................................................. 101 ed) Applied to animate entities ............................................................. 101 ee) Applied to humans .......................................................................... 102 ef) Obscure cases .................................................................................. 103 f) Feminine adjectives in idiomatic expressions ........................................ 103 fa) Feminine singular pronouns for general deixis .............................. 105

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21 Grammatical number of nouns and pronouns ............................................. 106 a) Singular vs. plural ................................................................................. 106 aa) Hebrew and Aramaic vs. Greek ..................................................... 107 b) Plural indicating a large quantity .......................................................... 107 c) Singular used collectively ..................................................................... 108 d) Singularetantum ................................................................................... 110 e) Pluraletantum ....................................................................................... 111 f) Plural of abstract nouns ......................................................................... 111 g) Plural of expanse ................................................................................... 111 h) Plural of unspecified quantity ............................................................... 113 i) Plural of names of cities ........................................................................ 113 j) Repetition ............................................................................................... 114 k) Plural of composite entity ..................................................................... 115 22 The case of nouns and pronouns ................................................................. 115 a) Preliminary observations ....................................................................... 115 b) Nominative ............................................................................................ 118 ba) or prefixed to a predicate ................................................... 118 bb) Nominativuspendens ..................................................................... 119 bc) Miscellaneous details ..................................................................... 119 c) Substitution through prepositional phrases ........................................... 120 ca) Some miscellaneous observations.................................................. 123 d) Parallel government across the parts-of-speech boundary ................... 124 e) Rection of compound verbs .................................................................. 125 f) Adverbal vs. adnominal rection: the case of genitive .......................... 127 g) Genitive of comparison ......................................................................... 128 ga) Use of prepositions instead of comparative endings ..................... 129 h) Genitive of time ..................................................................................... 129 ha) With the distributive article ........................................................... 130 hb) Genitive of time competing with dative of time ........................... 130 hc) With .......................................................................................... 130 i) Genitive of place ................................................................................... 131 j) Genitive of possession, ownership and belonging ................................ 131 k) Genitive of measure .............................................................................. 131 l) Genitive of price .................................................................................... 132 m) Partitive genitive .................................................................................... 133 ma) Miscellaneous observations ........................................................... 134 n) Genitive of agent or instrument ............................................................ 136 o) Genitive of cause ................................................................................... 136 oa) Cause of admiration, accusation or contempt ............................... 137 p) Genitive-governing verbs, semantically classified ............................... 137 q) Genitive with the value of ablative ....................................................... 140 qa) Verbs with two objects .................................................................. 141

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qb) Ablative in non-adverbal rection .................................................... 142 r) Genitive with adjectives ......................................................................... 142 s) Genitive with adverbs ............................................................................. 143 t) Exclamatory genitive .............................................................................. 144 u) Abbreviated ................................................................................... 144 v) Logico-semantic relationships ................................................................ 144

(i) possessive; (ii) relational; (iii) appositive; (iv) origin; (v) locationalandtemporal; (vi) condition; (vii) membership; (viii) material; (ix) time-span; (x) partitive; (xi) topical; (xii) subjective; (xiii) objective; (xiv) purpose; (xv) classificatory; (xvi) qualitative; (xvii) engagement; (xviii) experience; (xix) price; (xx) size andmeasure; (xxi) cause; (xxii) association; (xxiii) representation; (xxiv) means, method, instrument; (xxv) separation; (xxvi) miscellaneous

w) Dative ...................................................................................................... 160 wa) Decline of the dative ...................................................................... 160 wb) Dative of indirect object ................................................................ 160 wc) Dative of respect, specification...................................................... 161 wd) Dative marking an inalienable or inseparable relationship ........... 162 we) Point in time ................................................................................... 164 wf) Dative of place ............................................................................... 165 wg) Dative of advantage or disadvantage ............................................. 167 wh) So-called ethical dative.............................................................. 168 wi) Dative of confrontation, opposition, obedience or conformity ..... 169 wj) Associative ..................................................................................... 170 wk) Relationship .................................................................................... 171 wl) Instrumental .................................................................................... 172 wla) Verbs of filling ...................................................................... 173 wlb) A standard of measurement .................................................. 173 wm) Dative of manner of action ............................................................ 174 wn) Cause or reason .............................................................................. 174 wo) Dative of agent ............................................................................... 174 wp) Degree or extent ............................................................................. 177 wq) Dative of point of view, judgement ............................................... 177 wr) Translating Hebrew figuraetymologica ........................................ 177 ws) With adjectives ............................................................................... 178 wt) With adverbs .................................................................................. 178 x) Accusative ............................................................................................... 179 xa) Adverbal or adclausal value........................................................... 179 xb) Direct object of a transitive verb ................................................... 179 xc) Accusative of time ......................................................................... 179 xd) Extent of time ................................................................................. 180 xe) Extent of space ............................................................................... 181

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xf) Withverbs ofswearing ................................................................... 183 xg) Various adverbial values ................................................................. 184 xh) Accusative of respect, specification or limitation .......................... 184 xi) Pronouns in the accusative of respect ............................................. 186 xj) Miscellaneous remarks on the accusative of respect ...................... 187 xk) Cognate accusative .......................................................................... 188 y) Vocative .................................................................................................. 188 ya) General remarks .............................................................................. 188 yb) Nominative substituting vocative .................................................... 190 yc) prefixed to vocative ..................................................................... 190 yd) Articular vocative ............................................................................ 191 ye) Vocative further expanded .............................................................. 192

SECTION E THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB ..................................................... 195

23 Adjectives ..................................................................................................... 195 a) Comparison ............................................................................................. 195 b) Mingling of the degrees ......................................................................... 195 ba) Comparative .................................................................................... 195 bb) Superlative ....................................................................................... 196 bc) Elative .............................................................................................. 197 bd) Periphrasis with or prepositions .................................................. 198 bda) Use of periphrasis unavoidable or preferred.......................... 199 bdb) indicating preference .......................................................... 200 be) Periphrasis with ................................................................. 200 bf) ........................................................................... 201 c) NPs in oblique cases compared .............................................................. 201 d) Adjectival verb ....................................................................................... 201 e) Verbal adjective ...................................................................................... 202 f) Substantivised adjective ......................................................................... 203 (i) anarthrous; (ii) articular fa) With gentilic adjectives ................................................................... 205 fb) Neuter and with reference to abstract entities ................................ 205 fc) Missing substantive ......................................................................... 206 g) Adverbially used ..................................................................................... 207 ga) Neuter singular ................................................................................ 207 gb) Feminine singular accusative ............................................ 207 gc) Neuter plural .................................................................................... 207 h) Substantive adjectivally used ................................................................. 208 24 Adverbs ........................................................................................................ 209 a) Used substantivally ................................................................................. 209 b) Used like attributive adjectives .............................................................. 210

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c) Used like substantivised adjectives ........................................................ 211 d) Used like predicative adjectives ............................................................. 211 e) Comparison ............................................................................................. 212

SECTION F THE NUMERALS .................................................................................. 213

25 Numerals ...................................................................................................... 213 a) Cardinals ................................................................................................. 213 b) Ordinals ................................................................................................... 213 c) Fractions and multiplicatives .................................................................. 214

SECTION G OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH .................................................................. 215

26 Prepositions and conjunctions ..................................................................... 215 a) General remarks on prepositions ........................................................... 215 aa) Emphatic personal pronouns governed by prepositions ................ 216 b) Selection of case to be governed by preposition .................................. 216 c) Prepositions classified according to the number of cases governed..... 217 d) Improper prepositions ............................................................................ 219 e) Adverbial prepositions ........................................................................... 220 f) Assortment of prepositions .................................................................... 223 g) ............................................................................................... 224 h) Compound prepositions ......................................................................... 224 i) Semitistic pseudo-prepositional phrases ................................................ 225 j) Postpositions .......................................................................................... 226 k) Hyperbaton ............................................................................................. 227 l) Prepositional phrase substantivised ....................................................... 228 m) Conjunctions .......................................................................................... 228 n) Particles of comparison ......................................................................... 229

SECTION H THE VERB ......................................................................................... 231

27 Voice ............................................................................................................ 231 a) Preliminary remarks ............................................................................... 231 (i) Morphological asymmetry; (ii) True passive of deponent verbs; (iii) Semanticfactors b) Active and passive .................................................................................. 234 ba) Tolerative passive ............................................................................ 235 c) Middle ..................................................................................................... 237 ca) Its values .......................................................................................... 237 caa) Subjects mental attitude, meditation, intellectual perception or emotion............................................................................... 239

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cab) Reinforced by reflexive pronouns .......................................... 240 cac) Reflexive pronouns alone ....................................................... 240 cb) Direct middle and indirect middle .................................................. 240 cc) Self-propelling action ...................................................................... 241 cd) Reciprocal ........................................................................................ 242 cda) Reciprocal pronoun ................................................................ 243 ce) Dynamic middle .......................................................................... 244 d) Uncertain interpretation of middle and passive forms ........................... 245 da) Active and middle ........................................................................... 245 db) Middle and passive .......................................................................... 246 dc) Deponent verbs ................................................................................ 248 e) Functional neutralisation ........................................................................ 248 28 Tense, aspect, and mood .............................................................................. 250 a) General observations .............................................................................. 250 b) Present indicative .................................................................................... 254

(i) Actualpresent; (ii) Historicpresent; (iii) Declarationofanintentionorpledgeto act in the future; (iv) Statement of destiny, ofwhat is destined to happen;(v) Genericstatements,permanent truths; (vi) Whathasbeengoingon forawhileatthepointofspeech;(vii) Customary,habitual

c) Imperfect ................................................................................................. 259(i) Continuative,durative; (ii) Habitual,customary; (iii) Repetitive,iterative; (iv) Inchoative; (v) Hebraistic syntagm ;(vi) Someparticularuses

ca) Imperfect compared with aorist ...................................................... 264(i) Relativefrequency; (ii) Pragmatic,functionaldifferentiation

d) Aorist ...................................................................................................... 268 da) Its basic value .................................................................................. 268 db) Performative .................................................................................... 269 dc) Gnomic ............................................................................................ 269 dd) Prophetic .......................................................................................... 270 de) In contrary-to-fact conditional sentences ........................................ 270 df) Aorist compared with other tenses ................................................. 270 dfa) Aorist and perfect ................................................................... 270 dfb) Aorist for pluperfect ............................................................... 271 dfc) Aorist imperative vs. present imperative ............................... 272 dfd) Aorist infinitive vs. present infinitive .................................... 273 dfe) Morphological conditioning ................................................... 273 dff) Time reference of an aorist participle in relation to its lead verb 274 e) Perfect ..................................................................................................... 275 ea) Its basic value .................................................................................. 275 eb) Performative .................................................................................... 278 ec) Stative perfect .................................................................................. 278 ed) Perfect replacing aorist .................................................................... 280

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f) Pluperfect ................................................................................................ 282 g) Future ...................................................................................................... 284 ga) Its basic value .................................................................................. 284 gb) Prospective ...................................................................................... 284 gc) Injunctive, prescriptive .................................................................... 285 gd) Permissive........................................................................................ 288 ge) Theoretical possibility ..................................................................... 288 gea) Potential value and the syntagm 289 gf) Deliberative in the 1st pers. ............................................................ 289 gg) Pledge, decision, determination ....................................................... 289 gh) Highlighting the futurity of actions ................................................. 290 gi) Future participle ................................................................................ 291 gia) Future participle indicating a purpose .................................... 291 gib) Future tense forms in - or -clauses .......................... 291 h) Aspect ..................................................................................................... 292 ha) Present ............................................................................................. 293 (i) Infinitive; (ii) Participle; (iii) Imperative hb) Aorist ............................................................................................... 297 hba) Aorist in subordinate clauses ................................................. 297 hbb) Infinitive: aor. vs. pres. .......................................................... 298 hbc) Imperative ............................................................................... 299 hc) Perfect .............................................................................................. 300 hca) Perfect imperative................................................................... 302 hcb) Perfect participle..................................................................... 302 hcc) Perfect infinitive ..................................................................... 303 hcd) Perfect vs. aorist ..................................................................... 303 hd) Pluperfect ......................................................................................... 304 he) Future ............................................................................................... 304 hf) Vague boundaries ............................................................................ 305 i) Periphrastic tenses .................................................................................. 306 ia) General remarks .............................................................................. 306 29 Mood ............................................................................................................ 308 a) Preliminary observations ........................................................................ 308 b) Subjunctive in main clauses ................................................................... 309 ba) Volitive ............................................................................................ 309

(i) Hortative; (ii) Injunctive; (ii-a) Doublynegativedsubjunctive; (iii) Delib-erative, dubitative; (iv) Introduced by or and expressingapprehension

c) Subjunctive in subordinate clauses ........................................................ 316(i) Ingeneralisingrelativeclauses; (ii) Inconditionalclauses; (iii) Infinalclauses; (iv) In modal clauses; (v) In temporal clauses; (vi) In contentclauses

d) Optative ................................................................................................... 320

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da) Preliminary observations ................................................................. 320 db) Optative in main clauses ................................................................. 321

(i) Desiderativeoptative; (ii) Potentialoptative dc) Optative in subordinate clauses ...................................................... 325

(i) Modal-comparativeclauses; (ii) Finalclauses; (iii) Indirectquestions; (iv)Contentclauses; (v) Hypotheticalconditionalclauses

e) Imperative ............................................................................................... 328 30 Infinitive ....................................................................................................... 330 a) Substantival character of the infinitive .................................................. 330 aa) Parallel with substantives ................................................................ 330 ab) Prefixed with the article .................................................................. 332 aba) Governed by prepositions ...................................................... 333 abaa) = subordinate clause ......... 336 abb) Articular vs. anarthrous infinitive .......................................... 336 abc) Miscellaneous observations on the article prefixed to the infinitive ................................................................................. 337 b) Functions ................................................................................................. 337 ba) Final-resultative ............................................................................... 338 baa) infinitive .......................................................................... 338 bab) Final-resultative broadly understood...................................... 339 bac) explicitly marking final-resultative value .................... 340 bb) Resultative ....................................................................................... 340 bc) Explanatory (epexegetical) .............................................................. 341 bca) Complementing adjectives or adverbs ................................... 342 bcb) With .............................................................................. 343 bd) Adnominal ....................................................................................... 344 bda) = .......................... 346 bdb) Subject of adnominal genitive ............................................... 346 bdc) Syntactic analysis of prefixed to adnominal infinitives . 347 be) Substantival functions ..................................................................... 347 bea) Subject of a nominal clause ................................................... 347 beb) Subject of a verbal clause ...................................................... 348 bec) Syntagm with modal values ............................ 349 beca) understood ......................................................... 351 bed) Predicate ................................................................................. 352 bef) Serving as accusative object .................................................. 352 bf) With verbs of verbal communication and intellectual perception . 355 bg) Complementary ............................................................................... 356 bh) Rare uses ......................................................................................... 358 c) of genitive or ablative value prefixed to the infinitive .................. 358 ca) Negator added to ablative phrases .................................................. 363 cb) Non-ablative added .................................................................. 364 cc) Affiliated to the genitive of comparison ......................................... 364

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d) Grammaticalised .............................................................................. 364 31 Participle....................................................................................................... 366 a) Preliminary observations ........................................................................ 366 b) Substantival ............................................................................................. 367 ba) Anarthrous ....................................................................................... 367 bb) Articular ........................................................................................... 370 bba) Articular substantival participle further expanded ................ 371 bbb) Substantival character syntactically manifested .................... 372 c) Attributive ............................................................................................... 373 ca) Formula for indicating a nickname ................................................. 374 cb) Affinity with relative clause ........................................................... 374 cc) Expanded by an object or an adverbial .......................................... 375 cd) Modifier intervening between a substantive and a participle ........ 375 ce) ...................................................................... 376 cf) Anomalously anarthrous: ............... 378 cg) Attributive participle after its nucleus NP ...................................... 379 ch) Expanding even an oblique case pronoun ...................................... 379 d) Circumstantial ......................................................................................... 380 da) Verbs of saying followed by direct speech .................................... 382 daa) as a signal marking onset of direct speech ................ 382 db) Reflecting figuraetymologica in H ................................................ 383 dc) Auxiliary circumstantial participle .................................................. 385 dd) Circumstantial participle preceding its lead verb ........................... 385 de) Circumstantial participle following its lead verb ........................... 387 df) Circumstantial participle in an oblique case ................................... 389 dg) Semantic values of circumstantial participle .................................. 391 dh) Circumstantial participle expanding an infinitive .......................... 392 di) Circumstantial participle expanding another participle .................. 393 e) Supplementing ........................................................................................ 394 f) Periphrastic ............................................................................................. 397 fa) ............................................................................ 397 fb) .............................................................................. 399 fc) ...................................................................... 400 fd) ................ 401 fe) ........................................................................ 401 ff) ............................................................................ 402 fg) .......................................................................... 402 fh) Stative perfect .................................................................................. 402 fi) Periphrasis as substitute tenses ....................................................... 402 fj) Participle separated from ........................................................ 405 fk) ............................................................................. 405 fl) ................................................................................... 406 g) Predicative .............................................................................................. 407

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ga) Graphic descriptions ........................................................................ 409 gb) In circumstantial clauses ................................................................. 409 gc) With pf. pass. ptc. ........................................................................... 410 gca) Annalistic description of the end of kings reign ................... 411 gd) Expanding verbs of sense perception, intellectual cognition, and verbal communication ..................................................................... 411 ge) Miscellaneous remarks .................................................................... 413 h) Genitive absolute .................................................................................... 413 ha) Loose syntax .................................................................................... 414 hb) Subject missing ............................................................................... 417 hc) General observations ....................................................................... 417 hd) added to subjective statements .................................................. 418 he) Semantic values of genitive absolute construction ......................... 419 hf) Accusative and nominative absolute ............................................... 421

PART II. SYNTAX

SECTION A THE NOUN EXPANDED BY CONSTITUENTS IN THE SAME CASE........... 425

32 The article .................................................................................................... 425 33 Noun phrase in apposition ........................................................................... 425 a) Naming.................................................................................................... 426 b) Explanatory apposition ........................................................................... 427 c) Generic - specific .................................................................................... 427 d) Nouns ending with - or - ............................................................ 429 e) Miscellaneous remarks ........................................................................... 430 34 Demonstrative pronouns .............................................................................. 432 a) Articular .................................................................................................. 432 b) Postpositioning........................................................................................ 433 c) Fronted .................................................................................................... 434 d) Attributive vs. predicative ...................................................................... 437 e) , , .................................................................. 437 f) , , .............................................................. 438 g) , , ..................................................................... 439 h) , , .................................................. 439 i) the same ................................................................................. 439 35 Indefinite pronouns ...................................................................................... 439 36 Adjectival possessive pronouns ................................................................... 440 a) Articular or anarthrous ........................................................................... 440 b) Sequence ................................................................................................. 441 c) Functional opposition between the two sequences ................................ 442

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d) Predicative and substantival use ............................................................. 443 37 Adjective ...................................................................................................... 443 a) Sequence ................................................................................................. 443 b) Various patterns of sequence illustrated ................................................ 444 ba) Anarthrous ....................................................................................... 444 baa) Adjective preposed: ........................................... 444 baaa) Quantifying adjectives tending to precede .................. 447 bab) Adjective postposed: ......................................... 448 bb) Articular ........................................................................................... 449 bba) Singly articular with an adjective in between ....................... 449 bbb) Doubly articular: both the modified and the modifier .......... 452 bbc) .................................................................. 453 bbd) .................................................................. 455 bbe) .................................................................. 456 c) Hyperbaton .............................................................................................. 457 38 Predicatively used adjectivals ...................................................................... 458 a) General remarks ...................................................................................... 458 b) Detailed description ................................................................................ 459 (i) , , ....................................................................... 459 (i) Unquestionably attributive use ............................................. 462 (i) Substantivised ....................................................................... 463 (i) Hyperbaton ............................................................................ 464 (ii) .............................................................................................. 464 (iii) .................................................................................... 466 (iv) ............................................................................................ 466 (v) ............................................................................................ 468 (vi) ............................................................................................ 468 (vii) ........................................................................................ 469 (viii) ...................................................................................... 469 39 Numerals ...................................................................................................... 469 a) Cardinal numerals ................................................................................... 470 aa) Numeral for one ............................................................................ 470 ab) Articular NP .................................................................................... 471 ac) Negative , ................................................................ 472 b) Ordinal numerals .................................................................................... 473 40 Participle....................................................................................................... 473

SECTION B THE NOUN MODIFIED BY CONSTITUENTS IN A DIFFERENT CASE ......... 475

41 Genitive pronouns ........................................................................................ 475 a) Personal pronouns in the genitive .......................................................... 475 aa) Anarthrous ....................................................................................... 475

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ab) Articular ........................................................................................... 476 ac) Further expanded with demonstrative pronoun .............................. 478 ad) Absence of genitive personal pronouns .......................................... 478 ae) Ambiguous IC structure .................................................................. 480 b) Reflexive pronouns ................................................................................. 480 ba) In distributive expressions .............................................................. 481 bb) Anarthrous ....................................................................................... 482 c) Demonstrative pronouns ......................................................................... 482 d) Interrogative pronouns ............................................................................ 483 e) Reciprocal pronouns ............................................................................... 483 f) Hyperbaton .............................................................................................. 484 42 Genitive noun phrase ................................................................................... 484 a) Hyperbaton .............................................................................................. 484 b) Both constituents articular ...................................................................... 485 c) Adnominal genitive preceding ............................................................... 486 d) Concatenation of heterogeneous genitives ............................................. 487 e) Miscellaneous remarks ........................................................................... 488 43 Dative noun phrase ...................................................................................... 488

SECTION C MODIFIED BY CASE-NEUTRAL CONSTITUENTs...................................... 491

44 Prepositional phrase ..................................................................................... 491 a) Articular .................................................................................................. 491 aa) Optional nature of the syntagm ...................................................... 492 ab) Action noun as NP1 ......................................................................... 492 ac) Anarthrous NP1 ............................................................................... 493 b) Anarthrous .............................................................................................. 493 45 Clause ........................................................................................................... 494 a) Relative clause ........................................................................................ 494 b) Temporal clause ...................................................................................... 495 c) Locational clause .................................................................................... 495 d) Content clause ......................................................................................... 495 46 Adverb .......................................................................................................... 495 47 Infinitive ....................................................................................................... 496

SECTION D THE ADJECTIVE EXPANDED BY .......................................................... 497

48 Adverbs ........................................................................................................ 497 49 Prepositional phrase ..................................................................................... 497 50 Noun and pronoun ....................................................................................... 497 51 Infinitive ....................................................................................................... 497

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SECTION E THE VERB EXPANDED BY ................................................................... 499

52 Preliminary remarks ..................................................................................... 499 a) Diverse patterns of rection ..................................................................... 499 b) Semantic motivation? ............................................................................. 501 c) Influence of Hebrew and Aramaic ......................................................... 501 53 Copulaic verbs .............................................................................................. 503 54 Transitive vs. intransitive ............................................................................. 503 a) Binary classification ............................................................................... 503 b) Monotransitive vs. bitransitive ............................................................... 505 c) Movement between transitive and intransitive ...................................... 505 d) Voice and transitivity ............................................................................. 506 55 Object in the genitive ................................................................................... 507 a) Genitive-governing monotransitive verbs .............................................. 507 aa) Alternating with accusative ............................................................. 509 ab) Alternating with dative .................................................................... 510 ac) : its transitivity and voice / tense ........................................ 510 ad) Passivisation .................................................................................... 510 b) Bitransitive verbs governing: .................. 511 ba) Miscellaneous types ........................................................................ 511 bb) Passivisation .................................................................................... 512 c) Genitive with partitive value .................................................................. 512 d) Genitive with ablative value ................................................................... 513 da) With bitransitive verbs .................................................................... 514 daa) Passivisation ........................................................................... 515 e) Diachronic changes ................................................................................. 516 ii) + gen. > + acc. .................................................................................. 516 ii) Alternating with prepositional adjuncts ............................................ 516 56 Object in the dative ...................................................................................... 517 a) Monotransitive verbs .............................................................................. 517 aa) Alternating with accusative ............................................................. 518 ab) Alternating with genitive ................................................................ 518 b) Cognate object ........................................................................................ 518 c) Diachronic change .................................................................................. 519 ii) + dat. > + acc. ................................................................................... 519 ii) Alternating with prepositional adjuncts ............................................ 520 d) Passivisation............................................................................................ 520 57 Object in the accusative ............................................................................... 521 a) Verbs of movement ................................................................................ 521 b) Compound verbs ..................................................................................... 522 c) Alternating with prepositional adjuncts ................................................. 523

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ca) Alternating with dative .................................................................... 523 d) Cognate object ........................................................................................ 524 da) Derivational or semantic affinity .................................................... 526 db) Cognate object expanded by ........................................................... 527

(i) Anadjective; (ii) Agenitivesubstantive; (iii) Apersonalpronouninthegenitive; (iv) Ademonstrativepronoun; (v) Arelativeclause

dc) Reflecting the Hebrew figuraetymologica ..................................... 528 dd) Passivisation .................................................................................... 529 e) Infinitive.................................................................................................. 530 58 Two objects one in the dative and the other in the accusative ................ 531 a) Examples ................................................................................................. 531 aa) alternating with .................................. 532 b) Infinitive clause as equivalent to accusative object ............................... 532 c) Participial clause as equivalent to accusative object ............................. 533 d) Content clause as equivalent to accusative object ................................. 533 e) Cognate object ........................................................................................ 533 f) Prepositional adjunct in lieu of dative ................................................... 534 g) Relative position of two pronominal objects ......................................... 534 h) Passivisation............................................................................................ 535 59 Two accusatives forming a clausal complex ............................................... 537 a) Preliminary observations ........................................................................ 537 b) Examples ................................................................................................. 537 c) ACC1 = infinitive clause .......................................................................... 539 d) ................................................................................... 540 e) Passivisation............................................................................................ 541 f) Subject - predicate relationship between ACC1 and ACC2 ...................... 542 g) Miscellaneous remarks ........................................................................... 542 60 Doubly transitive or bitransitive verbs ........................................................ 542 a) Preliminary remarks ............................................................................... 542 b) Examples ................................................................................................. 544 c) Causative ................................................................................................. 547 d) Cognate object ........................................................................................ 548 e) Passivisation............................................................................................ 548 f) Middle or passive with an accusative object? ....................................... 549 g) Adversative passive ................................................................................ 551 h) Broken-hearted ................................................................................... 552 i) Alternating with ..................................... 553 j) Alternating with or ................................... 553 k) Types of ................................................ 553 l) Syntax and semantics ............................................................................. 554 61 Noun and adjective as adverbal adjunct ...................................................... 554 a) Preliminary observations ........................................................................ 554

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b) nom., subject complement ...................................................................... 555 ba) Concord of the adjectival predicate ................................................ 556 bb) prefixed to the predicate........................................................... 557 c) acc., object complement ......................................................................... 557 d) Complements in the genitive or dative .................................................. 560 e) Miscellaneous remarks ........................................................................... 560 62 Adverbs functioning as direct objects ......................................................... 561 63 Passivisation ................................................................................................. 562 a) General observations .............................................................................. 562 b) Monotransitive verbs .............................................................................. 562 c) Bitransitive verbs .................................................................................... 564 d) Dative object in passivisaiton ................................................................. 565 e) Agent-marking ........................................................................................ 567 64 Hendiadys ..................................................................................................... 568 65 Prepositional phrase as an essential complement ........................................ 570 66 Content clause .............................................................................................. 570 a) Preliminary remarks ............................................................................... 570 b) and introducing content clauses ........................................... 571 c) ................................................................ 572 d) Passivisation............................................................................................ 574 67 An asyndetically following clause ............................................................... 574 68 Indirect question ........................................................................................... 575 69 Infinitive ....................................................................................................... 576 a) Nominative adverbal ............................................................................... 576 b) Equivalent of of monotransitive verbs ................................... 576 ba) With verbs of communication and intellectual judgement ............. 577 c) Equivalent of acc. in ................................................. 579 d) Equivalent of acc.2 in .................................................... 580 e) IC analysis of the syntagms ................................................................... 581 f) Passivisation............................................................................................ 584 g) Equivalent of acc.1 in a clausal complex as object ................................ 587 h) ................................................................................... 587 i) Alternating with a participle ................................................................... 588 j) Transition to subordinate clauses introduced by and the like ......... 589 69A Expansion of the infinitive ......................................................................... 591 a) Expression of the subject of an infinitive .............................................. 591 aa) Subject implicit ............................................................................... 591 ab) Subject in the accusative ................................................................. 593 ac) Predicate nominal remaining in the nominative ............................. 594 ad) Subject in the accusative with an infinitive prefixed with a pre- position ............................................................................................ 595

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ae) Referent of the subject already mentioned earlier, then not repeated 595 af) Ambiguity arising from the omission of subject ............................ 596 ag) Subject that can be supplied from the context ............................... 596 ah) Ambiguity of analysis of the accusative NP attached to an infinitive 597 ai) Two accusative NPs with an infinitive ........................................... 598 aj) Two personal pronouns with an infinitive ...................................... 598 b) Relative sequence of an infinitive and its subject ................................. 599 c) Infinitive expanded by a circumstantial participle ................................. 600 70 Participle....................................................................................................... 600 a) Participial clause with its own subject ................................................... 600 aa) < + + ptc. gen.>: object complement or genitive absolute? 602 ab) Other kinds of ambiguity ................................................................ 603 ac) ............................................................................. 604 ad) ..................................................................... 604 ae) With verbs other than those of seeing, hearing, discovering etc. .. 604 b) Lead verb and participle being coreferential ......................................... 605 ba) Passivisation .................................................................................... 605 bb) Some other constructions ................................................................ 606 c) Alternating with other syntagms ............................................................ 606 d) Attributive or adverbal? ......................................................................... 607 71 Concord of a predicate dependent on a participle or an infinitive ............. 607 a) Dependent on a participle ....................................................................... 607 b) Dependent on an infinitive ..................................................................... 608 72 Adverbial adjunct ......................................................................................... 609 a) Single lexemes ........................................................................................ 609 b) Noun phrases comprising two or more lexemes .................................... 610 c) Substantives in oblique cases ................................................................. 610 d) Circumstantial participles ....................................................................... 610 e) Genitive absolute .................................................................................... 611 f) Infinitives expressing a purpose or a result ........................................... 611 g) Infinitive complexes introduced by a particle ........................................ 611 h) Prepositional phrases .............................................................................. 611 i) Clauses introduced with a range of subordinating conjunctions ........... 612

(i) Temporal; (ii) Locative; (iii) Causal; (iv) Final; (v) Resultative; (vi) Modal,comparative; (vii) Conditional; (viii) Concessive

j) Hebraistic constructions: and ......................... 614

SECTION F OTHER SYNTACTIC ISSUES .................................................................. 619

73 Subject elided ............................................................................................... 619 a) Easily discoverable from the context ..................................................... 619 b) In causal clauses ..................................................................................... 619

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c) ................................................................ 620 d) Partitive genitive ..................................................................................... 620 e) Poetic parallelism ................................................................................... 620 74 Object elided ................................................................................................ 620 a) Object pronoun absent in both H and G ................................................ 620 b) Bitransitive verbs appearing with one object only ................................ 621 c) Partitive genitive ..................................................................................... 621 d) Idiomatic collocations ............................................................................. 622 e) Miscellaneous remarks ........................................................................... 622 75 Verb elided ................................................................................................... 623 76 Word order ................................................................................................... 624 a) Preliminary considerations ..................................................................... 624 aa) Mobility: freedom and constraints ................................................. 624 ab) Methodological considerations ....................................................... 626 b) Noun phrase ............................................................................................ 627 c) Verb phrase ............................................................................................. 628 d) Dependent clauses vis--vis governing clauses ..................................... 628 e) Fronting of various constituents ............................................................. 630 ea) Object fronted .................................................................................. 630 eb) Adverbials fronted ........................................................................... 631 ec) Adverbial and hyperbaton ............................................................... 631 ed) Fronted adverbs ............................................................................... 632 ee) Fronting of unemphatic personal pronouns in oblique cases ......... 633 f) Pronominalregel ..................................................................................... 635 g) Vocative .................................................................................................. 636 h) Miscellaneous remarks ........................................................................... 636 77 Grammatical concord ................................................................................... 637 a) General observations .............................................................................. 637 b) Discord in number .................................................................................. 641 ba) Collective singular........................................................................... 641 baa) ................................................................................ 644 bb) With a distributive or reciprocal expression ................................... 645 bc) .................................................. 646 bd) Disjunctive expression or a series of coordinate terms preceding . 646 be) Sg. resumed with pl. pronoun ................................................... 647 bf) Generic reference ............................................................................ 647 bg) Hendiadys ........................................................................................ 647 bh) Neuter plural subject concording with singular verb ..................... 648 bi) and in giving the length of reign and age .................... 650 bj) N. sg. and ......................................................................... 650 bk) Singular verb before the subject ..................................................... 651 bl) and introducing direct speech ........................ 652

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bm) Miscellaneous remarks .................................................................. 652 c) Discord in gender ................................................................................... 652 ca) Adsensum ...................................................................................... 652 cb) Neuter gender in cultic terminology .............................................. 655 cc) Neuter referring to inanimate entities ............................................ 657 cd) Genuspotius ................................................................................... 658 ce) Miscellaneous remarks on the neuter concord .............................. 659 cf) Ambiguous morphology vs. ambiguous syntax ............................ 660 cg) in lieu of ..................................................................... 661 d) Discord in case ....................................................................................... 662 da) NP in an oblique case followed by NP in the nominative ............ 662 db) Description of the end of a kings reign........................................ 663 dc) Miscellaneous remarks ................................................................... 664 e) Discord in person ................................................................................... 665 f) Discord in mood .................................................................................... 666 g) Discord in determination ....................................................................... 666 h) Relative clause ....................................................................................... 667 i) Second term of comparison ................................................................... 667 j) Miscellaneous remarks .......................................................................... 668 k) Multiple-term head ................................................................................ 669 ka) Immediately preceding term determinant ...................................... 669 kb) Immediately following term determinant ...................................... 670 kc) Hierarchy among coordinate terms ................................................ 671 l) Concording with the predicate of a nominal clause ............................. 673 m) Multiple entities perceived as a single whole ....................................... 673 n) Errors ...................................................................................................... 675 78 Coordination ................................................................................................. 678 a) Incremental addition .............................................................................. 678 b) Absolute asyndeton ................................................................................ 679 c) Coordinators , , and .................................................................. 679 d) Repetition or otherwise of the article .................................................... 680 da) Reference to separate entities ........................................................ 680 i) Articlerepeated; ii) Notrepeated db) Single referent with multiple modifiers, qualifiers ....................... 681 dc) Articular infinitive .......................................................................... 683 e) ......................................................................................................... 683 f) Repetition or otherwise of coordinators, and ............................. 684 g) Repetition or otherwise of prepositions ................................................ 685 ga) Apposition ..................................................................................... 686 h) Repetition or otherwise of pronouns in an oblique case....................... 686 i) Hierarchy between coordinate terms ..................................................... 687 j) Inclusive coordination ............................................................................ 688

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k) .............................