THEORY OF URBAN THEORY OF URBAN DESIGNDESIGN

I. Concept of spaceI. Concept of spaceTraditional definitionsTraditional definitions

Oxford English Dictionary:Oxford English Dictionary:Two meanings of space:Two meanings of space:1.1. Time or durationTime or duration2.2. Area or extension (more common definition)Area or extension (more common definition) In physics, space has three dimensions (x-y-z In physics, space has three dimensions (x-y-z

axes) and is considered as a volume not an axes) and is considered as a volume not an area.area.

Sir Isaac Newton (17Sir Isaac Newton (17thth C) elaborated that C) elaborated that space space is absoluteis absolute….proper to itself…..and independent ….proper to itself…..and independent of the objects it contains (objects fit into space of the objects it contains (objects fit into space an d not vice-versa)an d not vice-versa)

New ApproachesNew Approaches

Two main categories of space exist:Two main categories of space exist:1.1. Mental Space (experiential)Mental Space (experiential)2.2. Physical Space (existential)Physical Space (existential) The notion of space is said to originate in an The notion of space is said to originate in an

observers mind and is later imposed as a structure observers mind and is later imposed as a structure on the physical world….on the physical world….mental space is an image mental space is an image of physical spaceof physical space

The concept of space differs from culture to The concept of space differs from culture to culture…Different cultures have characteristic culture…Different cultures have characteristic spatial designs as expressed in their cities, spatial designs as expressed in their cities, buildings, and art(ref. Dogon villages; japanese buildings, and art(ref. Dogon villages; japanese Mandala e.t.c)Mandala e.t.c)

…… ……but but space itself is universal!space itself is universal! (transcends culture)(transcends culture)

II. THE CONCEPT OF II. THE CONCEPT OF AESTHETICSAESTHETICS

Aesthetics in urban design refers to Aesthetics in urban design refers to the creative arrangement of the the creative arrangement of the elements of a town in a beautiful and elements of a town in a beautiful and functional manner.functional manner.

Order and beauty in a town are a Order and beauty in a town are a necessity, not an after thought…..they necessity, not an after thought…..they are as much a prerequisite to human are as much a prerequisite to human health as is fresh air.health as is fresh air.

Site-City-Observer Relationships Site-City-Observer Relationships (viewing city from surrounding and vice-(viewing city from surrounding and vice-

versa)versa) Extracted form:Extracted form: harmony between buildings and harmony between buildings and

nature….nature….e.g consider basic slopes, angle of hills, vegetation/tree canopies, e.g consider basic slopes, angle of hills, vegetation/tree canopies, and rock outcrops. and rock outcrops. Reflects dominant and pervasive features of nature Reflects dominant and pervasive features of nature

Vistas and site supremacy: Vistas and site supremacy: viewview of landscape from the of landscape from the city…beautifully framed countryside (panorama)city…beautifully framed countryside (panorama)

Expression: Expression: space markers /symbolgy/ ornamentation/detail e.g space markers /symbolgy/ ornamentation/detail e.g towers and minarets; landmarks; accent of urban landscape and towers and minarets; landmarks; accent of urban landscape and skylineskyline

Entrance/Approach:Entrance/Approach: profound impact of cities on the visitor profound impact of cities on the visitor who traverses long, crowded streets/water.who traverses long, crowded streets/water.

Colour and light: Colour and light: choicechoice ofof colour to reflect aesthetic colour to reflect aesthetic sensibility; quality of natural light an important visual factor.sensibility; quality of natural light an important visual factor.

Water: Water: proximity to water and possible interplay a natural proximity to water and possible interplay a natural asset; water edges, harbours, shorelines, islands, canals e.t.casset; water edges, harbours, shorelines, islands, canals e.t.c

Geometry: Geometry: form andform and relationships of angles, lines, curves relationships of angles, lines, curves e.t.ce.t.c

Human scale: Human scale: how each inhabitant would use space and how each inhabitant would use space and how they would feel in it.how they would feel in it.

Aspects of Urban Form Aspects of Urban Form (see BUR 203 notes)(see BUR 203 notes)

Imageability: Imageability: Physical Image v/s Functional Physical Image v/s Functional ImageImage

Form-Function RelationshipForm-Function Relationship Main Variations of urban form and Main Variations of urban form and

structure: structure: Linear, radial, grid, cluster e.t.cLinear, radial, grid, cluster e.t.c

Objectives of urban form Objectives of urban form (includes (includes growth; Meaning and identity e.t.c)growth; Meaning and identity e.t.c)

Growth and declineGrowth and decline

Existing Theories and Existing Theories and PracticePractice

Theories that have motivated and still inform Theories that have motivated and still inform the construction of cities are both the construction of cities are both normativenormative and and functional.functional.

Normative theoriesNormative theories attempt to specify attempt to specify "goodness“….what is good city form?... and "goodness“….what is good city form?... and discuss in detail the aspects that create good discuss in detail the aspects that create good cities…..cities…..PrescriptivePrescriptive…..…..What cities ought to What cities ought to be!be!

Functional theoriesFunctional theories attempt to explain how attempt to explain how cities perform by concentrating on city form cities perform by concentrating on city form processes, spatial and social structure, and processes, spatial and social structure, and form models……form models……DescriptiveDescriptive…………What cities What cities are! are!

Normative TheoriesNormative Theories (selected examples)(selected examples)

1. The Cosmic Model1. The Cosmic Model It assertions that the form of a permanent It assertions that the form of a permanent

settlement should be a magical model of the settlement should be a magical model of the universe and its gods. universe and its gods. 

Such a crystalline city has all of its parts fused into Such a crystalline city has all of its parts fused into a perfectly ordered whole and change is allowed to a perfectly ordered whole and change is allowed to happen only in a rhythmically controlled mannerhappen only in a rhythmically controlled manner

specific phenomena included: such as returning, specific phenomena included: such as returning, natural items, celestial measurement, fixing natural items, celestial measurement, fixing location, centeredness, boundary definition, earth location, centeredness, boundary definition, earth images, land geometry, directionality, place images, land geometry, directionality, place consciousness, and numerology consciousness, and numerology

2. The Machine Model2. The Machine Model The The analogy between city and machineanalogy between city and machine has a long has a long

history history (ref. Egyptian and classical “per strigas”, Ron (ref. Egyptian and classical “per strigas”, Ron Heron’s insect city; archigram movement; plug-in concept)Heron’s insect city; archigram movement; plug-in concept)

it occurs often when there is no long-term goal in it occurs often when there is no long-term goal in mind but the settlement has to be created mind but the settlement has to be created hurriedly and its future growth will be determined hurriedly and its future growth will be determined by still unforeseen forcesby still unforeseen forces

Its form requires a few simple rules of Its form requires a few simple rules of urbanization and the outcome is factual, urbanization and the outcome is factual, functional and devoid of the mystery of the functional and devoid of the mystery of the universe. universe. 

Among its attributes are Among its attributes are convenience, speed, convenience, speed, flexibility, legibility, equality, and speculationflexibility, legibility, equality, and speculation..

3. The Organic Model3. The Organic Model The The analogy between city and living organismanalogy between city and living organism is is

fairly recent arising with the growth of biology in fairly recent arising with the growth of biology in the 18th and 19th centuries the 18th and 19th centuries (ref. metabolists)(ref. metabolists)

Model is critical of others, especially the machine Model is critical of others, especially the machine model with its "simple grids" as “static”model with its "simple grids" as “static”

It asserts that an organism:It asserts that an organism:

- is an autonomous being, with a definite boundary and is of a - is an autonomous being, with a definite boundary and is of a specific size. specific size.

-does not change merely by adding parts but through reorganization -does not change merely by adding parts but through reorganization as it reaches limits or thresholds. as it reaches limits or thresholds. 

- contains differentiated parts but form and function are always - contains differentiated parts but form and function are always linked. linked. 

- is homeostatic, self-repairing and regulating toward a dynamic - is homeostatic, self-repairing and regulating toward a dynamic balance.balance.  

- undergoes cycles of life and death as is rhythmic passage - undergoes cycles of life and death as is rhythmic passage from one state to another.from one state to another.

Organic model (cont’d)Organic model (cont’d)   From this flows the notion of the form of the organic From this flows the notion of the form of the organic

city:city: - A separate spatial and social unit made up - A separate spatial and social unit made up

internally of internally of highly connected places and peoplehighly connected places and people..

- A - A healthy communityhealthy community of heterogeneous and diverse of heterogeneous and diverse nature nature

- The micro unit is - The micro unit is the neighborhoodthe neighborhood, a small , a small residential area, defined by Clarence Perry in 1929 as residential area, defined by Clarence Perry in 1929 as the support area for an elementary school, to which the support area for an elementary school, to which children, the most vulnerable of the human species, children, the most vulnerable of the human species, can safely walk. can safely walk. 

- Like organisms, - Like organisms, settlements are born, grow and settlements are born, grow and maturemature, and if further growth is necessary, a new , and if further growth is necessary, a new entity has to be formed. Thus there are states of entity has to be formed. Thus there are states of optimum size, beyond which pathological conditions optimum size, beyond which pathological conditions ensue.ensue.

Organic model (cont’d)Organic model (cont’d) - - Greeenbelts Greeenbelts not only ensure an intimate contact not only ensure an intimate contact

with nature but enclose healthy growth.with nature but enclose healthy growth.   -A model with -A model with typical physical formstypical physical forms, among which , among which

radial patterns, anti-geometrical layouts, and a radial patterns, anti-geometrical layouts, and a proclivity for natural materials. proclivity for natural materials.

- Often the - Often the organic idea is extended regionallyorganic idea is extended regionally to to connect settlements to valleys, trails and other connect settlements to valleys, trails and other extended natural systems. extended natural systems. 

-There is an attraction to -There is an attraction to small-scale modes of small-scale modes of production or servicesproduction or services as opposed to large-scale as opposed to large-scale synthetic processes. Often the model aligns itself synthetic processes. Often the model aligns itself with a socio-economic philosophy that sees with a socio-economic philosophy that sees increases in urban value as the result of increases in urban value as the result of communal communal rather than individual endeavor. rather than individual endeavor.

4. The Contextual Model4. The Contextual Model This This relates new development to an analysis of existing urban relates new development to an analysis of existing urban

structurestructure. .

A prominent concept of this canon is that of A prominent concept of this canon is that of “serial vision” “serial vision” …. …. the sequential and unfolding nature of urban experience the sequential and unfolding nature of urban experience (foreground/middle ground/background),(foreground/middle ground/background), ………………with its ………………with its corners, divisions/modules, protrusions, and recesses/setbacks corners, divisions/modules, protrusions, and recesses/setbacks e.t.c creating aspects of interest and surprise. e.t.c creating aspects of interest and surprise.

Context is something that has no clear or common spatial Context is something that has no clear or common spatial definition; thus the impact of contextualism will vary with definition; thus the impact of contextualism will vary with geographical location and cultural influence. geographical location and cultural influence.

The mainstream urban design has been strongly influenced by The mainstream urban design has been strongly influenced by contextualism in terms of a new respect for the overall form of contextualism in terms of a new respect for the overall form of the traditional urban street and block and a concern for public the traditional urban street and block and a concern for public realmrealm

(ref:(ref:ImageabilityImageability (Kevin Lynch); (Kevin Lynch); permeabilitypermeability (Jane Jacobs); (Jane Jacobs); adaptability/robustnessadaptability/robustness (Standford Anderson). These ideas were later (Standford Anderson). These ideas were later published as published as Responsive EnvironmentsResponsive Environments (Alcock et al) (Alcock et al)

5. The pragmatic Model5. The pragmatic Model This is whereby urban design is defined according This is whereby urban design is defined according

to the needs of the epoch….. where the tools and to the needs of the epoch….. where the tools and concepts are used selectively and exclusively in concepts are used selectively and exclusively in regard to the locality.regard to the locality.

The danger with this model lies in:The danger with this model lies in: -Likely loss of understanding of the larger -Likely loss of understanding of the larger

processes affecting urban formprocesses affecting urban form - Possible inability of making informed decisions at - Possible inability of making informed decisions at

urban scales urban scales - Failure to embrace environmental disciplines that - Failure to embrace environmental disciplines that

are currently excluded and isolated from are currently excluded and isolated from mainstream urban design.mainstream urban design.

6. The Constructivist model6. The Constructivist model This explores techniques of form to create urban This explores techniques of form to create urban

interventions that express the spatial and temporal interventions that express the spatial and temporal complexity of a given age. complexity of a given age.

““Deconstructionists”Deconstructionists” are constructivists who use are constructivists who use unconventional techniques of form to express the essential unconventional techniques of form to express the essential fragmentation in city environments.fragmentation in city environments.

Ref. Ref. Peter EisenmanPeter Eisenman applies an approach that is more mathematical applies an approach that is more mathematical

and rational in nature, which tends to reject any hint of historical and rational in nature, which tends to reject any hint of historical contextualism.contextualism.

Rem KoolhaasRem Koolhaas makes free use of the typologies of modernism, makes free use of the typologies of modernism, recombining them in new and ironic waysrecombining them in new and ironic ways

Bernard TschumiBernard Tschumi,, exploits the random collisions that results from exploits the random collisions that results from the layering of unrelated activity frameworks.the layering of unrelated activity frameworks.

Frank GheryFrank Ghery and and Zaha HadidZaha Hadid use unconventional techniques of use unconventional techniques of form to express order among chaos of modern citiesform to express order among chaos of modern cities

7. Functionalist Model7. Functionalist Model

This was dedicated to exploring new This was dedicated to exploring new interwoveninterwoven urban structures that would urban structures that would allow opportunities for social allow opportunities for social encounter/contactencounter/contact and and exchangeexchange whose whose end result is a humanising influence. end result is a humanising influence.

The interpretation of this philosophy, The interpretation of this philosophy, however, varied widely in practice: however, varied widely in practice: low-, low-, medium-, and high- density; vehicular and pedestrian medium-, and high- density; vehicular and pedestrian segregationsegregation e.t.c e.t.c

(( Ref: Ref:Aldo van Eyck, Ralph erskine, Giancarlo De Carlo)Aldo van Eyck, Ralph erskine, Giancarlo De Carlo)

8. Rationalist Model8. Rationalist Model This offered a morphological/structural approach to urban This offered a morphological/structural approach to urban

design that design that related new urban development to the historical related new urban development to the historical structure of the city and typologies of urban spacestructure of the city and typologies of urban space. .

The figure-ground drawing was widely used as a design tool. The figure-ground drawing was widely used as a design tool.

As “critical reconstruction”, this method was used to As “critical reconstruction”, this method was used to maintain and restore the traditional 19th century street maintain and restore the traditional 19th century street pattern and form of the urban block, street and square, pattern and form of the urban block, street and square, without constraining the contemporary architectural without constraining the contemporary architectural expression of new building additions.expression of new building additions.

This was not a plea for unthinking preservation or for This was not a plea for unthinking preservation or for regarding the city as a museum; rather, the aim was to regarding the city as a museum; rather, the aim was to explore the deep structure inherent in building types and explore the deep structure inherent in building types and how built forms accommodate changing, living uses over how built forms accommodate changing, living uses over time.time.

(ref. (ref. Robert Venturi, Aldo Rossi, Scott Brown, Colin Rowe, Rob & Robert Venturi, Aldo Rossi, Scott Brown, Colin Rowe, Rob & Leon Krier)Leon Krier)

Functional Functional DescriptiveTheoriesDescriptiveTheories

These are founded on the following characteristics:These are founded on the following characteristics: Urban historyUrban history: : the city is regarded as a unique historic the city is regarded as a unique historic

process... explaining cities as derivative of their own culture (ref process... explaining cities as derivative of their own culture (ref Sjoberg, Rapoport).Sjoberg, Rapoport).

Urban Ecology:Urban Ecology: city is regarded as an ecology of people, city is regarded as an ecology of people, each social group occupying space according to economic each social group occupying space according to economic position and class. position and class. (Ref. Burgess [concentric model], (Ref. Burgess [concentric model], Weber, Simmel and Spengler)Weber, Simmel and Spengler)

City economy:City economy: regards the city as an economic engine in regards the city as an economic engine in which space, unlike in the previous category, is both a which space, unlike in the previous category, is both a resource and an additional cost imposed on the economy resource and an additional cost imposed on the economy for production or consumption….location of cities an for production or consumption….location of cities an optimization of raw materials, labour and market locations optimization of raw materials, labour and market locations (ref. Isard,Von Thunen,Christaller)(ref. Isard,Von Thunen,Christaller)

Functional Descriptive Theories Functional Descriptive Theories (cont’d)(cont’d)

Urban Communication:Urban Communication: regards the city as a field of forces, a regards the city as a field of forces, a communications network of particles which attract and repel communications network of particles which attract and repel each other much as they do in physics. each other much as they do in physics.

Sub-sets of these ideas include population potential maps, Sub-sets of these ideas include population potential maps, gravity models, communications flows, and various gravity models, communications flows, and various topological models. topological models.

Urban Politics/Governance:Urban Politics/Governance: understanding the city as a understanding the city as a system of linked decisions...affluence, imminent domain, system of linked decisions...affluence, imminent domain, citizen participation in a democratic city; the game theory, in citizen participation in a democratic city; the game theory, in which people interact together according to fixed rules and which people interact together according to fixed rules and produce agreed-upon outcomesproduce agreed-upon outcomes

Urban Chaos: Urban Chaos: rejects previous theories of competition and rejects previous theories of competition and posits the city as an arena of conflict, in which the city's form posits the city as an arena of conflict, in which the city's form is the residue and sign of struggle, and also something which is the residue and sign of struggle, and also something which is shaped and used to wage it. (Castells, Harvey. Lefebvre, is shaped and used to wage it. (Castells, Harvey. Lefebvre, Gordon)Gordon)

Design Principles and Design Principles and

TechniquesTechniques Together these help in the correlation and Together these help in the correlation and

synthesis of spaces, functions, circulation, synthesis of spaces, functions, circulation, sites, and orientation…sites, and orientation…

Their choice and application (singly or Their choice and application (singly or combined) will depend on the problem combined) will depend on the problem context context (modus operandi)(modus operandi)

Overall they facilitate the conceptualizing Overall they facilitate the conceptualizing process…..entailing decisions and choicesprocess…..entailing decisions and choices

1. Design Principles1. Design Principles

i)i) Scale:Scale: refers to any system of measurement refers to any system of measurement appropriate to the context. appropriate to the context. ProportionProportion as an as an aspect of measurement introduces the aspect of aspect of measurement introduces the aspect of relativity…between two objects…the measured relativity…between two objects…the measured and a universally known object…e.g headroom and a universally known object…e.g headroom describes space relative to human height.describes space relative to human height.

A moduleA module is one part of a system of relative is one part of a system of relative proportions, where one part can combine with proportions, where one part can combine with other parts to form a larger object other parts to form a larger object

(ref. Le corbusier’s Modulor)(ref. Le corbusier’s Modulor)

Applications of Scale in urban Applications of Scale in urban designdesign

Scale and Human vision:Scale and Human vision: our eyse have two fields our eyse have two fields of view – general and detailed. General cone of vision of view – general and detailed. General cone of vision 30 deg up; 45 deg down; 65 deg to either side.30 deg up; 45 deg down; 65 deg to either side.

The above determines urban scale in several ways: The above determines urban scale in several ways: we cannot see an object that is further from us than we cannot see an object that is further from us than 3500 times its size…8 feet is normal conversation 3500 times its size…8 feet is normal conversation distance; a person between 3 and 10 ft is in close distance; a person between 3 and 10 ft is in close relationship to us…use of normal voices; we can pick relationship to us…use of normal voices; we can pick facial details up to about 75ft. Beyond this, there is facial details up to about 75ft. Beyond this, there is need to complement with gestures…up to about need to complement with gestures…up to about 450ft…also maximum for distinguishing man from 450ft…also maximum for distinguishing man from woman…maximum viewing distance for human woman…maximum viewing distance for human figures is around 4000ft. figures is around 4000ft.

Scale and circulation:Scale and circulation: scale is determined by scale is determined by the means we employ for movement around the means we employ for movement around the city as well as the way we move between the city as well as the way we move between cities across the country.cities across the country.

Scale is determined by the different modes of Scale is determined by the different modes of movement based on their speeds and sizes, movement based on their speeds and sizes, but also characteristics in movement…but also characteristics in movement…express versus stop-over/interactive…express versus stop-over/interactive…

Scale and neighbourhood size:Scale and neighbourhood size: The citizen The citizen numbers and levels of services will numbers and levels of services will determine the scale of a neighbourhood…the determine the scale of a neighbourhood…the scale of a network of neighbourhoods would scale of a network of neighbourhoods would determine the scale of the entire town. determine the scale of the entire town.

Scale in neighbouring buildings and Scale in neighbouring buildings and spaces:spaces:

Buildings and spaces have to be in scale Buildings and spaces have to be in scale with people, as well as in scale with each with people, as well as in scale with each other….this will also apply to other other….this will also apply to other variables like materials, colour, bulk, and variables like materials, colour, bulk, and siting.siting.

Intentional variations in scale could be used Intentional variations in scale could be used to achieve emphasis and hierarchy in to achieve emphasis and hierarchy in design of buildings and spacesdesign of buildings and spaces

Scale and parameters: Scale and parameters: This is where we This is where we use attributes of familiar and known use attributes of familiar and known objects and details such as cars, trees, objects and details such as cars, trees, humans, light poles e.t.c to judge the sizes humans, light poles e.t.c to judge the sizes of other things near themof other things near them

Scale versus Age, time, convenience and habit:Scale versus Age, time, convenience and habit: Our sense of urban scale varies with our ages and Our sense of urban scale varies with our ages and

habits….the world of a child begins with the home…habits….the world of a child begins with the home…as one grows the world enlarges and separate parts as one grows the world enlarges and separate parts are linked together…the scale of their world enlargesare linked together…the scale of their world enlarges

Our sense of urban scale is also determined by what Our sense of urban scale is also determined by what we are accustomed to…people adapt to we are accustomed to…people adapt to environments with time…say getting used to the environments with time…say getting used to the skyscrapers around us.skyscrapers around us.

Urban scale may also vary with the temporal cycles Urban scale may also vary with the temporal cycles of the city…the rush hour with its fast traffic has a of the city…the rush hour with its fast traffic has a different view of scale to the sluggish period of the different view of scale to the sluggish period of the day, when people have all the time to observe and day, when people have all the time to observe and pick details about the city.pick details about the city.

ii) Urban Space:ii) Urban Space: may be isolated or may be isolated or linked; may be purposely designed to linked; may be purposely designed to display linkage or to emphasize buildings display linkage or to emphasize buildings and objects they contain.and objects they contain.

Space may be linear/corridors; squares; or Space may be linear/corridors; squares; or reserves…based on their sizes they define reserves…based on their sizes they define the hierarchy of spatial types…..from small the hierarchy of spatial types…..from small intimate sizes to urban squares and the intimate sizes to urban squares and the natural space within which the city is set.natural space within which the city is set.

Spaces may also be enclosed or open….45 Spaces may also be enclosed or open….45 deg is full enclosure; 30deg is optimal; 18 deg is full enclosure; 30deg is optimal; 18 deg is minimum…anything less is lack of it!deg is minimum…anything less is lack of it!

iii) Urban Mass;iii) Urban Mass; This refers to the arrangement of This refers to the arrangement of ground surface, buildings, and objects to influence ground surface, buildings, and objects to influence the quality of urban space and to shape urban the quality of urban space and to shape urban activity patterns on both large and small scales.activity patterns on both large and small scales.

In terms of massing, buildings may be projecting In terms of massing, buildings may be projecting into space, be on a space, or in a space.into space, be on a space, or in a space.

Our vision and light conditions govern the way we Our vision and light conditions govern the way we perceive masses…perceive masses…

Vision:Vision: 45deg is for details; 30deg is for whole 45deg is for details; 30deg is for whole objects; 18deg is for object plus contextobjects; 18deg is for object plus context

Light:Light: under bright, clear sunlight the individual under bright, clear sunlight the individual parts of objects will tend to stand out…..as light parts of objects will tend to stand out…..as light subdues we tend to see less of details and more of subdues we tend to see less of details and more of the overall object. Sculptured objects are best the overall object. Sculptured objects are best viewed under even light such as shadow light…viewed under even light such as shadow light…thus northern and southern facades may transmit thus northern and southern facades may transmit details differently…..depending our position in details differently…..depending our position in relation to solar patterns. relation to solar patterns.

iv) Responsiveness; iv) Responsiveness; these could be these could be sensualsensual or or environmentalenvironmental

Sensual: Sensual: attempt to cater for all the senses:attempt to cater for all the senses: Visual,Tactile, Auditory, Olfactory, KinaestheticVisual,Tactile, Auditory, Olfactory, Kinaesthetic

Environmental; Environmental; that which provides users with that which provides users with essentially democratic settings and enrich their essentially democratic settings and enrich their opportunities by maximising the degree of choice opportunities by maximising the degree of choice available to them; the available techniques available to them; the available techniques include:include:

i) i) Permeability Permeability This refers to the number of alternative routes This refers to the number of alternative routes

through an environment; it affects where people through an environment; it affects where people can go and where they cannot. This offers choice can go and where they cannot. This offers choice through accessibility and must be considered at through accessibility and must be considered at early stages of design.early stages of design.

ii) Varietyii) Variety This refers to the range of uses availed to This refers to the range of uses availed to

people in a given environment; it is the people in a given environment; it is the experience of a degree of choice provided experience of a degree of choice provided by intermix of usesby intermix of uses

iii) Legibilityiii) Legibility This refers to the ease with which people This refers to the ease with which people

can understand the layout of a given can understand the layout of a given environment and the kind of opportunities it environment and the kind of opportunities it offers.offers.

iv) Robustnessiv) Robustness This refers to the degree to which an This refers to the degree to which an

environment can be used for different environment can be used for different purposes as opposed to those with a single purposes as opposed to those with a single fixed use.fixed use.

v) Visual appropriatenessv) Visual appropriateness This refers to the detailed appearance of a place This refers to the detailed appearance of a place

that makes people aware of the possible uses; it that makes people aware of the possible uses; it affects the interpretations people put on places.affects the interpretations people put on places.

vi) Richnessvi) Richness This refers to the degree of choice in sensory This refers to the degree of choice in sensory

experiences that a place offers to its users.experiences that a place offers to its users.

vii) Personalisationvii) Personalisation This refers to the extent to which people can put This refers to the extent to which people can put

their own stamp on a place; decisions about their own stamp on a place; decisions about forms and materials of the scheme must be forms and materials of the scheme must be carefully made to support personalization but also carefully made to support personalization but also protect public role.protect public role.

Other techniquesOther techniques

Open space technique:Open space technique: where to build where to build versus where to keep open; a variety of versus where to keep open; a variety of uses…parks, watersheds, public transit uses…parks, watersheds, public transit lines, airports, e.t.clines, airports, e.t.c

An open space structure would be the An open space structure would be the framework for relating land development framework for relating land development to transportation and also allow for other to transportation and also allow for other decisions related to community life: decisions related to community life: schools, churches, playfields e.t.c. schools, churches, playfields e.t.c.

Transportation system technique; Transportation system technique; patterns of movement as primary land patterns of movement as primary land shapers; morphology of networks against shapers; morphology of networks against that of the land parcels they that of the land parcels they define….density of development versus define….density of development versus intensity of circulation. Varios levels of intensity of circulation. Varios levels of network, their hierarchic connectivity, as network, their hierarchic connectivity, as well as terminal facilities.well as terminal facilities.

Plug-in Technique; Plug-in Technique; where a modular where a modular system such as that of a grid is created and system such as that of a grid is created and within these defined uses and objects can within these defined uses and objects can be “inserted” and removed with ease be “inserted” and removed with ease (flexibility)…initially used as a technique for (flexibility)…initially used as a technique for design of functions in individual buildings design of functions in individual buildings but later replicated in city-wide designbut later replicated in city-wide design

Theory Versus PracticeTheory Versus Practice(Why urban design matters)(Why urban design matters)

We design spaces to attract people We design spaces to attract people (public (public realm) realm)

Urban design creates a framework for our Urban design creates a framework for our lives.lives.

understanding how humans perceive the understanding how humans perceive the physical scale and form of cities is essential to physical scale and form of cities is essential to mastering design.mastering design.

We feel and experience urban design every dayWe feel and experience urban design every day Every road width and building height delivers a Every road width and building height delivers a

message to their users on how to use the public realmmessage to their users on how to use the public realm

Design brings order and relation into human Design brings order and relation into human surroundingssurroundings

Different designs affect residents in different ways, Different designs affect residents in different ways, and make the city’s image more vivid and and make the city’s image more vivid and memorablememorable

Embedded in urban design theories is the Embedded in urban design theories is the fundamental goal of balancing private fundamental goal of balancing private development and public good in a way that development and public good in a way that incorporates the social, economic, and incorporates the social, economic, and cultural needs of a diverse urban population cultural needs of a diverse urban population

Urban design must solve practical problems of Urban design must solve practical problems of functionality first and foremost, as it creates tools functionality first and foremost, as it creates tools for people and their quality of life. for people and their quality of life.