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There were several developments in different parts of the subcontinent during the long span of 1,500 years following the end of the Harappan civilisation. This was also the period during which the Rigveda was composed by people living along the Indus and its tributaries. Agricultural settlements emerged in many parts of the subcontinent, including north India, the Deccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka. Besides, there is evidence of pastoral populations in the Deccan and further south. New modes of disposal of the dead, including the making of elaborate stone structures known as megaliths, emerged in central and south India from the first millennium BCE . In many cases, the dead were buried with a rich range of iron tools and weapons. From c. sixth century BCE , there is evidence that there were other trends as well. Perhaps the most visible was the emergence of early states, empires and kingdoms. Underlying these political processes were other changes, evident in the ways in which agricultural production was organised. Simultaneously, new towns appeared almost throughout the subcontinent. Historians attempt to understand these developments by drawing on a range of sources – inscriptions, texts, coins and visual material. As we will see, this is a complex process. You will also notice that these sources do not tell the entire story. Kings, Farmers and Towns Ear Ear Ear Ear Early S y S y S y S y Stat at at at ates and Economies es and Economies es and Economies es and Economies es and Economies ( c. c. c. c. c. 600 600 600 600 600 BCE BCE BCE BCE BCE - 600 600 600 600 600 CE CE CE CE CE ) Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions. 1. Prinsep and Piyadassi Some of the most momentous developments in Indian epigraphy took place in the 1830s. This was when James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. He found that most of these mentioned a king referred to as Piyadassi – meaning “pleasant to behold”; there were a few inscriptions which also THEME T WO Fig. 2.1 An inscription, Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), c. second century BCE © NCERT not to be republished

T Kings, Farmers and Towns Early States and Economiess3-ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/.../2017/03/06131921/lehs102.pdf · An inscription, Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), c. second century

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THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY28

THEME TWO

There were several developments in different parts of thesubcontinent during the long span of 1,500 years followingthe end of the Harappan civilisation. This was also theperiod during which the Rigveda was composed by peopleliving along the Indus and its tributaries. Agricultural

settlements emerged in many parts of thesubcontinent, including north India, theDeccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka.Besides, there is evidence of pastoralpopulations in the Deccan and furthersouth. New modes of disposal of the dead,including the making of elaborate stonestructures known as megaliths, emerged incentral and south India from the firstmillennium BCE. In many cases, the deadwere buried with a rich range of iron toolsand weapons.

From c. sixth century BCE, there isevidence that there were other trends as well. Perhapsthe most visible was the emergence of early states, empiresand kingdoms. Underlying these political processes wereother changes, evident in the ways in which agriculturalproduction was organised. Simultaneously, new townsappeared almost throughout the subcontinent.

Historians attempt to understand these developmentsby drawing on a range of sources – inscriptions, texts,coins and visual material. As we will see, this is a complexprocess. You will also notice that these sources do nottell the entire story.

Kings, Farmers and TownsEarEarEarEarEarllllly Sy Sy Sy Sy Stttttatatatatates and Economieses and Economieses and Economieses and Economieses and Economies

(((((c.c.c.c.c. 600 600 600 600 600 BCEBCEBCEBCEBCE-600 600 600 600 600 CECECECECE)))))

Epigraphy is the study ofinscriptions.

1. Prinsep and PiyadassiSome of the most momentous developments in Indianepigraphy took place in the 1830s. This was whenJames Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the EastIndia Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi,two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions andcoins. He found that most of these mentioned a kingreferred to as Piyadassi – meaning “pleasant tobehold”; there were a few inscriptions which also

THEME

T WO

Fig. 2.1An inscription, Sanchi(Madhya Pradesh),c. second century BCE

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referred to the king as Asoka, one of the most famousrulers known from Buddhist texts.

This gave a new direction to investigations intoearly Indian political history as European andIndian scholars used inscriptions and textscomposed in a variety of languages to reconstructthe lineages of major dynasties that had ruled thesubcontinent. As a result, the broad contours ofpolitical history were in place by the early decadesof the twentieth century.

Subsequently, scholars began to shift their focusto the context of political history, investigatingwhether there were connections between politicalchanges and economic and social developments. Itwas soon realised that while there were links, thesewere not always simple or direct.

2. The Earliest States2.1 The sixteen mahajanapadasThe sixth century BCE is often regarded as a majorturning point in early Indian history. It is an eraassociated with early states, cities, the growinguse of iron, the development of coinage, etc. Italso witnessed the growth of diverse systems ofthought, including Buddhism and Jainism. EarlyBuddhist and Jaina texts (see also Chapter 4)mention, amongst other things, sixteen statesknown as mahajanapadas. Although the lists vary,some names such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala,Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti occurfrequently. Clearly, these were amongst the mostimportant mahajanapadas.

While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings,some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies(p. 30), where power was shared by a number ofmen, often collectively called rajas. Both Mahaviraand the Buddha (Chapter 4) belonged to such ganas.In some instances, as in the case of the Vajji sangha,the rajas probably controlled resources such as landcollectively. Although their histories are often difficultto reconstruct due to the lack of sources, some ofthese states lasted for nearly a thousand years.

Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which wasoften fortified. Maintaining these fortified cities aswell as providing for incipient armies andbureaucracies required resources. From c. sixth

InscriptionsInscriptions are writingsengraved on hard surfacessuch as stone, metal orpottery. They usually recordthe achievements, activitiesor ideas of those whocommissioned them andinclude the exploits of kings,or donations made bywomen and men to religiousinstitutions. Inscriptions arevirtually permanent records,some of which carry dates.Others are dated on thebasis of palaeography orstyles of writing, with a fairamount of precision. Forinstance, in c. 250 BCE

the letter “a” was written likethis: . By c. 500 CE, it waswritten like this: .

The earliest inscriptionswere in Prakrit, a name forlanguages used by ordinarypeople. Names of rulers suchas Ajatasattu and Asoka,known from Prakrit texts andinscriptions, have been spelt intheir Prakrit forms in thischapter. You will also findterms in languages such as Pali,Tamil and Sanskrit, whichtoo were used to writeinscriptions and texts. It ispossible that people spoke inother languages as well, eventhough these were not usedfor writing.

Janapada means the landwhere a jana (a people, clan ortribe) sets its foot or settles. Itis a word used in both Prakritand Sanskrit.

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Map 1Early states and their capitals

Arabian SeaBay of Bengal

KAMBOJA

GANDHARA

Pushkalavati

Taxila

SHURASENA

MathuraMATSYA

IndraprasthaAhichchhatra

KURUPANCHALA

Kaushambi

CHEDIAVANTI

Ujjayini

ASHMAKA

VATSA

Shravasti

VANGA

Champa

ANGA

RajgirMAGADHA

VaishaliVAJJI (VRIJJI)KusinagaraMALLA

Varanasi

KASHIKOSHALA

Sketch map not to scale

century BCE onwards, Brahmanas began composingSanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras. Theselaid down norms for rulers (as well as for othersocial categories), who were ideally expected to beKshatriyas (see also Chapter 3). Rulers were advisedto collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, tradersand artisans. Were resources also procuredfrom pastoralists and forest peoples? We do notreally know. What we do know is that raids onneighbouring states were recognised as a legitimatemeans of acquiring wealth. Gradually, some statesacquired standing armies and maintained regularbureaucracies. Others continued to depend onmilitia, recruited, more often than not, from thepeasantry.

Oligarchy refers to a form ofgovernment where power isexercised by a group of men.The Roman Republic, aboutwhich you read last year, wasan oligarchy in spite of its name.

Which were the areaswhere states and cities weremost densely clustered?

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2.2 First amongst the sixteen: MagadhaBetween the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE,Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the mostpowerful mahajanapada. Modern historians explainthis development in a variety of ways: Magadha wasa region where agriculture was especially productive.Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) wereaccessible and provided resources for tools andweapons. Elephants, an important component of thearmy, were found in forests in the region. Also, theGanga and its tributaries provided a means of cheapand convenient communication. However, earlyBuddhist and Jaina writers who wrote aboutMagadha attributed its power to the policies ofindividuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of whomBimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda arethe best known, and their ministers, who helpedimplement their policies.

Initially, Rajagaha (the Prakrit name for present-day Rajgir in Bihar) was the capital of Magadha.Interestingly, the old name means “house of theking”. Rajagaha was a fortified settlement, locatedamongst hills. Later, in the fourth century BCE, thecapital was shifted to Pataliputra, present-dayPatna, commanding routes of communication alongthe Ganga.

Discuss...What are the differentexplanations offered by earlywriters and present-dayhistorians for the growth ofMagadhan power?

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Fig. 2.2Fortification walls at Rajgir

Why were these walls built?

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3. An Early EmpireThe growth of Magadha culminated in the emergenceof the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta Maurya, whofounded the empire (c. 321 BCE), extended control asfar northwest as Afghanistan and Baluchistan, andhis grandson Asoka, arguably the most famous rulerof early India, conquered Kalinga (present-daycoastal Orissa).

3.1 Finding out about the MauryasHistorians have used a variety of sources toreconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire.These include archaeological finds, especiallysculpture. Also valuable are contemporary works,such as the account of Megasthenes (a Greekambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya),which survives in fragments. Another source thatis often used is the Arthashastra, parts of whichwere probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya,traditionally believed to be the minister ofChandragupta. Besides, the Mauryas are mentionedin later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature, aswell as in Sanskrit literary works. While these areuseful, the inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231BCE) on rocks and pillars are often regarded asamongst the most valuable sources.

Asoka was the first ruler who inscribed hismessages to his subjects and officials on stonesurfaces – natural rocks as well as polished pillars.He used the inscriptions to proclaim what heunderstood to be dhamma. This included respecttowards elders, generosity towards Brahmanas andthose who renounced worldly life, treating slavesand servants kindly, and respect for religions andtraditions other than one’s own.

3.2 Administering the empireThere were five major political centres in theempire – the capital Pataliputra and the provincialcentres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri,al l mentioned in Asokan inscriptions. I f weexamine the content of these inscriptions, we findvirtually the same message engraved everywhere– from the present-day North West FrontierProvinces of Pakistan, to Andhra Pradesh, Orissaand Uttarakhand in India. Could this vast empirehave had a uniform administrative system?Historians have increasingly come to realise that

Languages and scriptsMost Asokan inscriptions were inthe Prakrit language whilethose in the northwest ofthe subcontinet were in Aramaicand Greek. Most Prakritinscriptions were written in theBrahmi script; however, some, inthe northwest, were written inKharosthi. The Aramaic andGreek scripts were used forinscriptions in Afghanistan.

Fig. 2.3The lion capital

Why is the lion capitalconsidered important today?

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this is unlikely. The regions included within theempire were just too diverse. Imagine the contrastbetween the hilly terrain of Afghanistan and thecoast of Orissa.

It is likely that administrative control wasstrongest in areas around the capital and theprovincial centres. These centres were carefullychosen, both Taxila and Ujjayini being situatedon important long-distance trade routes, whileSuvarnagiri (literally, the golden mountain) waspossibly important for tapping the gold minesof Karnataka.

KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS

Arabian Sea

Bay of Bengal

MansehraShahbazgarhi

Kandahar

Taxila

Kalsi

Topra MeerutBahapur

Bairat

Bhabru

Girnar

Sopara

Ujjayini Sanchi

Nigalisagar RummindeiRampurwaLauriya NandangarhLauriya Araraj

GujarraKaushambiAhraura

Sarnath

SahasramPataliputra

ShishupalgarhJaugada

KALINGA

Sannati

MaskiGavimath

PalkigunduJatinga Rameshwar

SiddapurBrahmagiriNittur

Rajula MandagiriUdegolam

CHOLAS

PANDYAS

KERALAPUTRAS

Sketch map not to scale

MAJOR ROCK EDICTSMINOR ROCK EDICTSPILLAR INSCRIPTIONS

Map 2Distribution of Asokan inscriptions

Could rulers haveengraved inscriptions in areasthat were not included withintheir empire?

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Communication along both land and riverineroutes was vital for the existence of the empire.Journeys from the centre to the provinces could havetaken weeks if not months. This meant arrangingfor provisions as well as protection for those whowere on the move. It is obvious that the army wasan important means for ensuring the latter.Megasthenes mentions a committee with sixsubcommittees for coordinating military activity. Ofthese, one looked after the navy, the second managedtransport and provisions, the third was responsiblefor foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth forchariots and the sixth for elephants. The activitiesof the second subcommittee were rather varied:arranging for bullock carts to carry equipment,procuring food for soldiers and fodder for animals,and recruiting servants and artisans to look afterthe soldiers.

Asoka also tried to hold his empire together bypropagating dhamma, the principles of which, as wehave seen, were simple and virtually universallyapplicable. This, according to him, would ensure thewell-being of people in this world and the next.Special officers, known as the dhamma mahamatta,were appointed to spread the message of dhamma.

3.3 How important was the empire?When historians began reconstructing early Indianhistory in the nineteenth century, the emergenceof the Mauryan Empire was regarded as a majorlandmark. India was then under colonial rule, andwas part of the British empire. Nineteenth andearly twentieth century Indian historians foundthe possibility that there was an empire in earlyIndia both challenging and exciting. Also, some ofthe archaeological f inds associated with theMauryas, including stone sculpture, wereconsidered to be examples of the spectacular arttypical of empires. Many of these historians foundthe message on Asokan inscriptions very differentfrom that of most other rulers, suggesting thatAsoka was more powerful and industrious, as alsomore humble than later rulers who adoptedgrandiose titles. So it is not surprising thatnationalist leaders in the twentieth centuryregarded him as an inspiring figure.

What the king’sofficials did

Here is an excerpt from theaccount of Megasthenes:

Of the great officers of state,some … superintend therivers, measure the land, asis done in Egypt, and inspectthe sluices by which water islet out from the main canalsinto their branches, so thatevery one may have anequal supply of it. The samepersons have charge alsoof the huntsmen, and areentrusted with the power ofrewarding or punishing themaccording to their deserts.They collect the taxes, andsuperintend the occupationsconnected with land; as thoseof the woodcutters, thecarpenters, the blacksmiths,and the miners.

Why were officialsappointed to supervise theseoccupational groups?

Discuss...Read the excerpts fromMegasthenes and theArthashastra (Sources 1 and2). To what extent do youthink these texts are useful inreconstructing a history ofMauryan administration?

Source 1

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Yet, how important was the Mauryan Empire? Itlasted for about 150 years, which is not a very longtime in the vast span of the history of thesubcontinent. Besides, if you look at Map 2, you willnotice that the empire did not encompass the entiresubcontinent. And even within the frontiers of theempire, control was not uniform. By the secondcentury BCE, new chiefdoms and kingdoms emergedin several parts of the subcontinent.

4. New Notions of Kingship4.1 Chiefs and kings in the southThe new kingdoms that emerged in the Deccan andfurther south, including the chiefdoms of the Cholas,Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam (the name of theancient Tamil country, which included parts ofpresent-day Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, in additionto Tamil Nadu), proved to be stable and prosperous.

Chiefs and chiefdomsA chief is a powerful man whose position may or maynot be hereditary. He derives support from his kinfolk.His functions may include performing special rituals,leadership in warfare, and arbitrating disputes. Hereceives gifts from his subordinates (unlike kings whousually collect taxes) and often distributes these amongsthis supporters. Generally, there are no regular armiesand officials in chiefdoms.

We know about these states from a variety ofsources. For instance, the early Tamil Sangam texts(see also Chapter 3) contain poems describing chiefsand the ways in which they acquired anddistributed resources.

Many chiefs and kings, including theSatavahanas who ruled over parts of western andcentral India (c. second century BCE-second centuryCE) and the Shakas, a people of Central Asian originwho established kingdoms in the north-western andwestern parts of the subcontinent, derived revenuesfrom long-distance trade. Their social origins wereoften obscure, but, as we will see in the case of theSatavahanas (Chapter 3), once they acquired powerthey attempted to claim social status in a varietyof ways.

Capturing elephantsfor the army

The Arthashastra lays downminute details of administrativeand military organisation. This iswhat it says about how tocapture elephants:

Guards of elephant forests,assisted by those who rearelephants, those whoenchain the legs ofelephants, those who guardthe boundaries, those wholive in forests, as well as bythose who nurse elephants,shall, with the help of five orseven female elephants tohelp in tethering wild ones,trace the whereabouts ofherds of elephants byfollowing the course of urineand dung left by elephants.

According to Greek sources,the Mauryan ruler had astanding army of 600,000foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalryand 9,000 elephants. Somehistorians consider theseaccounts to be exaggerated.

Source 2

If the Greek accountswere true, what kinds ofresources do you think theMauryan ruler would haverequired to maintain sucha large army?

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4.2 Divine kingsOne means of claiming high status was to identifywith a variety of deities. This strategy is bestexemplified by the Kushanas (c. first century BCE-first century CE), who ruled over a vast kingdomextending from Central Asia to northwest India. Theirhistory has been reconstructed from inscriptions andtextual traditions. The notions of kingship theywished to project are perhaps best evidenced in theircoins and sculpture.

Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have beenfound installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura(Uttar Pradesh). Similar statues have been found ina shrine in Afghanistan as well. Some historiansfeel this indicates that the Kushanas consideredthemselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers alsoadopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”, possiblyinspired by Chinese rulers who called themselvessons of heaven.

By the fourth century there is evidence of largerstates, including the Gupta Empire. Many of thesedepended on samantas, men who maintainedthemselves through local resources including controlover land. They offered homage and provided militarysupport to rulers. Powerful samantas could becomekings: conversely, weak rulers might find themselvesbeing reduced to positions of subordination.

Histories of the Gupta rulers have beenreconstructed from literature, coins and inscriptions,including prashastis, composed in praise of kings inparticular, and patrons in general, by poets. Whilehistorians often attempt to draw factual informationfrom such compositions, those who composed andread them often treasured them as works of poetry

The Pandya chiefSenguttuvan visits

the forest

This is an excerpt from theSilappadikaram, an epic writtenin Tamil:

(When he visited the forest)people came down themountain, s inging anddancing … just as the defeatedshow respect to the victoriousking, so did they bring gifts –ivory, fragrant wood, fans madeof the hair of deer, honey,sandalwood, red ochre,antimony, turmeric, cardamom,pepper, etc. ... they broughtcoconuts, mangoes, medicinalplants, fruits, onions, sugarcane,flowers, areca nut, bananas, babytigers, lions, elephants, monkeys,bear, deer, musk deer, fox,peacocks, musk cat, wild cocks,speaking parrots, etc. …

Fig. 2.4A Kushana coinObverse: King KanishkaReverse: A deity

How has the king beenportrayed?

Source 3

Why did people bringthese gifts? What would thechief have used these for?

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rather than as accounts that were literally true. ThePrayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad PillarInscription) composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, thecourt poet of Samudragupta, arguably the mostpowerful of the Gupta rulers (c. fourth century CE),is a case in point.

What are the elements inthe sculpture that suggestthat this is an image of a king?

Discuss...Why do you think kingsclaimed divine status?

In praise of Samudragupta

This is an excerpt from the PrayagaPrashasti:

He was without an antagonist on earth;he, by the overflowing of the multitudeof (his) many good qualities adornedby hundreds of good actions, haswiped off the fame of other kings withthe soles of (his) feet; (he is) Purusha(the Supreme Being), being the causeof the prosperity of the good and thedestruction of the bad (he is)incomprehensible; (he is) one whosetender heart can be captured only bydevotion and humility; (he is)possessed of compassion; (he is) thegiver of many hundred-thousands ofcows; (his) mind has receivedceremonial initiation for the uplift ofthe miserable, the poor, the forlorn andthe suffering; (he is) resplendent andembodied kindness to mankind; (he is)equal to (the gods) Kubera (the god ofwealth), Varuna (the god of theocean), Indra (the god of rains) andYama (the god of death)…

Fig. 2.5Sandstone sculpture of aKushana king

Source 4

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5. A Changing Countryside5.1 Popular perceptions of kingsWhat did subjects think about their rulers?Obviously, inscriptions do not provide all the answers.In fact, ordinary people rarely left accounts of theirthoughts and experiences. Nevertheless, historianshave tried to solve this problem by examining storiescontained in anthologies such as the Jatakas andthe Panchatantra. Many of these stories probablyoriginated as popular oral tales that were latercommitted to writing. The Jatakas were written inPali around the middle of the first millennium CE.

One story known as the Gandatindu Jatakadescribes the plight of the subjects of a wicked king;these included elderly women and men, cultivators,herders, village boys and even animals. When theking went in disguise to find out what his subjectsthought about him, each one of them cursed him fortheir miseries, complaining that they were attackedby robbers at night and by tax collectors during theday. To escape from this situation, people abandonedtheir village and went to live in the forest.

As this story indicates, the relationship betweena king and his subjects, especially the ruralpopulation, could often be strained – kingsfrequently tried to fill their coffers by demandinghigh taxes, and peasants particularly found suchdemands oppressive. Escaping into the forestremained an option, as reflected in the Jataka story.Meanwhile, other strategies aimed at increasingproduction to meet growing demand for taxes alsocame to be adopted.

5.2 Strategies for increasing productionOne such strategy was the shift to ploughagriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial rivervalleys such as those of the Ganga and the Kaverifrom c. sixth century BCE. The iron-tippedploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil inareas which had high rainfall. Moreover, in someparts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy wasdramatically increased by the introduction oftransplantation, although this meant back-breakingwork for the producer.

While the iron ploughshare led to a growth inagricultural productivity, its use was restricted tocertain parts of the subcontinent – cultivators in

Transplantation is used forpaddy cultivation in areaswhere water is plentiful. Here,seeds are first broadcast; whenthe saplings have grown theyare transplanted in waterloggedfields. This ensures a higherratio of survival of saplings andhigher yields.

The Sudarshana(beautiful) lake in Gujarat

Find Girnar on Map 2. TheSudarshana lake was an artificialreservoir. We know aboutit from a rock inscription(c. second century CE) inSanskrit, composed to recordthe achievements of the Shakaruler Rudradaman.

The inscription mentions thatthe lake, with embankments andwater channels, was built by alocal governor during therule of the Mauryas. However,a terrible storm brokethe embankments and watergushed out of the lake.Rudradaman, who was thenruling in the area, claimed tohave got the lake repaired usinghis own resources, withoutimposing any tax on his subjects.

Another inscription on thesame rock (c. fifth century)mentions how one of the rulersof the Gupta dynasty got thelake repaired once again.

Source 5

Why did rulers makearrangements forirrigation?

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areas which were semi-arid, such as parts of Punjaband Rajasthan did not adopt it till the twentiethcentury, and those living in hilly tracts in the north-eastern and central parts of the subcontinentpractised hoe agriculture, which was much bettersuited to the terrain.

Another strategy adopted to increase agriculturalproduction was the use of irrigation, throughwells and tanks, and less commonly, canals.Communities as well as individuals organised theconstruction of irrigation works. The latter, usuallypowerful men including kings, often recorded suchactivities in inscriptions.

5.3 Differences in rural societyWhile these technologies often led to an increase inproduction, the benefits were very uneven. What isevident is that there was a growing differentiationamongst people engaged in agriculture – stories,especially within the Buddhist tradition, refer tolandless agricultural labourers, small peasants, aswell as large landholders. The term gahapati wasoften used in Pali texts to designate the second andthird categories. The large landholders, as well asthe village headman (whose position was oftenhereditary), emerged as powerful figures, and oftenexercised control over other cultivators. Early Tamilliterature (the Sangam texts) also mentions differentcategories of people living in the villages – largelandowners or vellalar, ploughmen or uzhavar andslaves or adimai. It is likely that these differenceswere based on differential access to land, labourand some of the new technologies. In such asituation, questions of control over land must havebecome crucial, as these were often discussed inlegal texts.

GahapatiA gahapati was the owner, master or head of ahousehold, who exercised control over the women,children, slaves and workers who shared a commonresidence. He was also the owner of the resources –land, animals and other things – that belonged to thehousehold. Sometimes the term was used as a markerof status for men belonging to the urban elite, includingwealthy merchants.

The importance ofboundaries

The Manusmrti is one of thebest-known legal texts of earlyIndia, written in Sanskrit andcompiled between c. secondcentury BCE and c. secondcentury CE. This is what the textadvises the king to do:

Seeing that in the worldcontroversies constantly arisedue to the ignorance ofboundaries, he should …have … concealed boundarymarkers buried – stones,bones, cow ’s hair, chaff,ashes, potsherds, dried cowdung, bricks, coal, pebblesand sand. He should alsohave other similar substancesthat would not decay inthe soil buried as hiddenmarkers at the intersectionof boundaries.

Would these boundarymarkers have been adequateto resolve disputes?

Source 6

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5.4 Land grants and new rural elitesFrom the early centuries of the Common Era, wefind grants of land being made, many of which wererecorded in inscriptions. Some of these inscriptionswere on stone, but most were on copper plates(Fig. 2.13) which were probably given as a record ofthe transaction to those who received the land. Therecords that have survived are generally about grantsto religious institutions or to Brahmanas. Mostinscriptions were in Sanskrit. In some cases, andespecially from the seventh century onwards, partof the inscription was in Sanskrit, while the restwas in a local language such as Tamil or Telugu.Let us look at one such inscription more closely.

Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of one of themost important rulers in early Indian history,Chandragupta II (c. 375-415 CE). She was marriedinto another important ruling family, that of theVakatakas, who were powerful in the Deccan (seeMap 3). According to Sanskrit legal texts, womenwere not supposed to have independent access toresources such as land. However, the inscriptionindicates that Prabhavati had access to land, whichshe then granted. This may have been because shewas a queen (one of the few known from early Indianhistory), and her situation was therefore exceptional.It is also possible that the provisions of legal textswere not uniformly implemented.

The inscription also gives us an idea about ruralpopulations – these included Brahmanas andpeasants, as well as others who were expected toprovide a range of produce to the king or hisrepresentatives. And according to the inscription,they would have to obey the new lord of the village,and perhaps pay him all these dues.

Land grants such as this one have been found inseveral parts of the country. There were regionalvariations in the sizes of land donated – rangingfrom small plots to vast stretches of uncultivatedland – and the rights given to donees (the recipientsof the grant). The impact of land grants is a subjectof heated debate among historians. Some feel thatland grants were part of a strategy adopted by rulinglineages to extend agriculture to new areas. Otherssuggest that land grants were indicative ofweakening political power: as kings were losingcontrol over their samantas, they tried to win allies

How would you classifythe people described in thetext in terms of theiroccupations?

Life in a small village

The Harshacharita is a biographyof Harshavardhana, the ruler ofKanauj (see Map 3), composedin Sanskrit by his court poet,Banabhatta (c. seventh centuryCE). This is an excerpt fromthe text, an extremely rarerepresentation of l i fe in asettlement on the outskirts of aforest in the Vindhyas:

The outskirts being for themost part forest, manyparcels of rice-land, threshingground and arable land werebeing apportioned by smallfarmers … it was mainlyspade culture … owing to thedifficulty of ploughing thesparsely scattered f ieldscovered with grass, with theirfew clear spaces, their blacksoil stiff as black iron …

There were people movingalong with bundles of bark …countless sacks of pluckedflowers, … loads of flax andhemp bundles, quantitiesof honey, peacocks’ tai lfeathers, wreaths of wax,logs, and grass. Village wiveshastened en route forneighbouring villages, allintent on thoughts of sale andbearing on their headsbaskets filled with variousgathered forest fruits.

Source 7

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An agrahara was land grantedto a Brahmana, who wasusually exempted from payingland revenue and other dues tothe king, and was often given theright to collect these dues fromthe local people.

Discuss...Find out whether ploughagriculture, irrigation andtransplantation are prevalentin your state. If not, are thereany alternative systems inuse?

Source 8

by making grants of land. They also feel that kingstried to project themselves as supermen (as we sawin the previous section) because they were losingcontrol: they wanted to present at least a façade ofpower.

Prabhavati Gupta and thevillage of Danguna

This is what Prabhavati Gupta states in her inscription:

Prabhavati Gupta … commands the gramakutumbinas(householders/peasants l iving in the vi l lage),Brahmanas and others living in the village of Danguna…

“Be it known to you that on the twelfth (lunar day)of the bright (fortnight) of Karttika, we have, in orderto increase our religious merit donated this village withthe pouring out of water, to the Acharya (teacher)Chanalasvamin … You should obey all (his) commands…

We confer on (him) the following exemptions typicalof an agrahara …(this village is) not to be entered bysoldiers and policemen; (it is) exempt from (theobligation to provide) grass, (animal) hides as seats,and charcoal (to touring royal officers); exempt from(the royal prerogative of) purchasing fermenting liquorsand digging (salt); exempt from (the right to) minesand khadira trees; exempt from (the obligation tosupply) flowers and milk; (it is donated) together with(the right to) hidden treasures and deposits (and)together with major and minor taxes …”

This charter has been written in the thirteenth(regnal) year. (It has been) engraved by Chakradasa.

What were the things produced in the village?

Land grants provide some insight into therelationship between cultivators and the state.However, there were people who were often beyondthe reach of officials or samantas: pastoralists,fisherfolk and hunter-gatherers, mobile or semi-sedentary artisans and shifting cultivators.Generally, such groups did not keep detailed recordsof their lives and transactions.

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6. Towns and Trade6.1 New citiesLet us retrace our steps back to the urban centresthat emerged in several parts of the subcontinentfrom c. sixth century BCE. As we have seen, many ofthese were capitals of mahajanapadas. Virtually allmajor towns were located along routes ofcommunication. Some such as Pataliputra were onriverine routes. Others, such as Ujjayini, were alongland routes, and yet others, such as Puhar, werenear the coast, from where sea routes began. Manycities like Mathura were bustling centres ofcommercial, cultural and political activity.

6.2 Urban populations:Elites and craftspersons

We have seen that kings and ruling elites lived infortified cities. Although it is difficult to conductextensive excavations at most sites because peoplelive in these areas even today (unlike the Harappancities), a wide range of artefacts have been recoveredfrom them. These include fine pottery bowls anddishes, with a glossy finish, known as Northern BlackPolished Ware, probably used by rich people, andornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, madeof a wide range of materials – gold, silver, copper,bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.

The history ofPataliputra

Each city had a history of its own.Pataliputra, for instance,began as a village known asPataligrama. Then, in the fifthcentury BCE, the Magadhanrulers decided to shift theircapital from Rajagaha to thissettlement and renamed it. Bythe fourth century BCE, it wasthe capital of the MauryanEmpire and one of the largestcities in Asia. Subsequently,i ts importance apparentlydeclined. When the Chinesepilgrim Xuan Zang visited thecity in the seventh century CE,he found it in ruins, and with avery small population.

Fig. 2.6The gift of an imageThis is part of an image fromMathura. On the pedestal is aPrakrit inscription, mentioningthat a woman named Nagapiya,the wife of a goldsmith (sovanika)named Dharmaka, installed thisimage in a shrine.

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Map 3Some important kingdomsand towns

Sketch map not to scale

ARABIAN SEA

BAY OF BENGAL

Taxila

MathuraKanauj

Ujjayini

Bharukachchha

Sopara Paithan

Kodumanal Puhar

Dhanyakataka

Shishupalgarh

Chandraketugarh

MahasthanRajgir

Vidisha

Kaushambi

ShravastiVaishali

Varanasi Pataliputra

CHOLAS

CHERASPANDYAS

SHAKAS

KUSHANAS

VAKATAKAS

SATAVAHANAS

GUPTAS

By the second century BCE, we find short votiveinscriptions in a number of cities. These mentionthe name of the donor, and sometimes specify his/her occupation as well. They tell us about peoplewho lived in towns: washing folk, weavers, scribes,carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths,officials, religious teachers, merchants and kings.

Sometimes, guilds or shrenis, organisations ofcraft producers and merchants, are mentioned aswell. These guilds probably procured rawmaterials, regulated production, and marketed thefinished product. It is likely that craftspersonsused a range of iron tools to meet the growingdemands of urban elites.

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Votive inscriptions record giftsmade to religious institutions.

Were there any cities in theregion where the Harappancivilisation flourished in thethird millennium BCE?

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6.3 Trade in the subcontinent and beyondFrom the sixth century BCE, land and river routescriss-crossed the subcontinent and extended invarious directions – overland into Central Asia andbeyond, and overseas, from ports that dotted thecoastline – extending across the Arabian Sea to Eastand North Africa and West Asia, and through theBay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China. Rulersoften attempted to control these routes, possibly byoffering protection for a price.

Those who traversed these routes includedpeddlers who probably travelled on foot andmerchants who travelled with caravans of bullockcarts and pack-animals. Also, there were seafarers,whose ventures were risky but highly profitable.Successful merchants, designated as masattuvanin Tamil and setthis and satthavahas in Prakrit,could become enormously rich. A wide range ofgoods were carried from one place to another – salt,grain, cloth, metal ores and finished products,stone, timber, medicinal plants, to name a few.Spices, especially pepper, were in high demand inthe Roman Empire, as were textiles and medicinalplants, and these were all transported across theArabian Sea to the Mediterranean.

6.4 Coins and kingsTo some extent, exchanges were facilitated by theintroduction of coinage. Punch-marked coins madeof silver and copper (c. sixth century BCE onwards)were amongst the earliest to be minted and used.These have been recovered from excavations at anumber of sites throughout the subcontinent.Numismatists have studied these and other coins toreconstruct possible commercial networks.

Attempts made to identify the symbols on punch-marked coins with specific ruling dynasties,including the Mauryas, suggest that these wereissued by kings. It is also likely that merchants,bankers and townspeople issued some of these coins.The first coins to bear the names and images ofrulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, whoestablished control over the north-western part ofthe subcontinent c. second century BCE.

The first gold coins were issued c. first century CE

by the Kushanas. These were virtually identical inweight with those issued by contemporary Roman

“Periplus” is a Greek wordmeaning sailing around and“Erythraean” was the Greekname for the Red Sea.

The Malabar coast(present-day Kerala)

Here is an excerpt from Periplusof the Erythraean Sea,composed by an anonymousGreek sailor (c. first century CE):

They (i .e. traders fromabroad) send large ships tothese market-towns onaccount of the great quantityand bulk of pepper andmalabathrum (possiblycinnamon, produced in theseregions). There are importedhere, in the first place, a greatquantity of coin; topaz …antimony (a mineral used asa colouring substance), coral,crude glass, copper, tin, lead… There is exported pepper,which is produced in quantityin only one region near thesemarkets … Besides this thereare exported great quantitiesof fine pearls, ivory, si lkcloth, … transparent stonesof all kinds, diamonds andsapphires, and tortoise shell.

Archaeological evidence of abead-making industry, usingprecious and semi-preciousstones, has been found inKodumanal (Tamil Nadu). It islikely that local traders broughtthe stones mentioned in thePeriplus from sites such asthese to the coastal ports.

Why did the authorcompile this list?

Source 9

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emperors and the Parthian rulers of Iran, and havebeen found from several sites in north India andCentral Asia. The widespread use of gold coinsindicates the enormous value of the transactionsthat were taking place. Besides, hoards of Romancoins have been found from archaeological sites insouth India. It is obvious that networks of trade werenot confined within political boundaries: south Indiawas not part of the Roman Empire, but there wereclose connections through trade.

Coins were also issued by tribal republics suchas that of the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana(c. first century CE). Archaeologists have unearthedseveral thousand copper coins issued by theYaudheyas, pointing to the latter’s interest andparticipation in economic exchanges.

Some of the most spectacular gold coins wereissued by the Gupta rulers. The earliest issuesare remarkable for their purity. These coinsfacilitated long-distance transactions from whichkings also benefited.

From c. sixth century CE onwards, finds of goldcoins taper off. Does this indicate that there wassome kind of an economic crisis? Historians aredivided on this issue. Some suggest that with thecollapse of the Western Roman Empire long-distancetrade declined, and this affected the prosperity ofthe states, communities and regions that hadbenefited from it. Others argue that new towns andnetworks of trade started emerging around this time.They also point out that though finds of coins ofthat time are fewer, coins continue to be mentionedin inscriptions and texts. Could it be that there arefewer finds because coins were in circulation ratherthan being hoarded?

Numismatics is the study ofcoins, including visual elementssuch as scripts and images,metallurgical analysis and thecontexts in which they havebeen found.

Fig. 2.7A punch-marked coin, so namedbecause symbols were punched orstamped onto the metal surface

Fig. 2.9A Gupta coin

Discuss...What are the transactionsinvolved in trade? Which ofthese transactions areapparent from the sourcesmentioned? Are there anythat are not evident from thesources?

Fig. 2.8A Yaudheya coin

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7. Back to BasicsHow Are Inscriptions Deciphered?

So far, we have been studying excerpts frominscriptions amongst other things. But how dohistorians find out what is written on them?

7.1 Deciphering BrahmiMost scripts used to write modern Indian languagesare derived from Brahmi, the script used in mostAsokan inscriptions. From the late eighteenthcentury, European scholars aided by Indian panditsworked backwards from contemporary Bengaliand Devanagari (the script used to write Hindi)manuscripts, comparing their letters with olderspecimens.

Scholars who studied early inscriptions sometimesassumed these were in Sanskrit, although theearliest inscriptions were, in fact, in Prakrit. It wasonly after decades of painstaking investigations byseveral epigraphists that James Prinsep was able todecipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.

7.2 How Kharosthi was readThe story of the decipherment of Kharosthi, the scriptused in inscriptions in the northwest, is different.Here, finds of coins of Indo-Greek kings who ruledover the area (c. second-first centuries BCE) have

Fig. 2.10An Asokan inscription

Fig. 2.11Asokan Brahmi with Devanagariequivalents

Do some Devanagari lettersappear similar to Brahmi? Arethere any that seem different?

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facilitated matters. These coins contain the namesof kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts.European scholars who could read the formercompared the letters. For instance, the symbolfor “a” could be found in both scripts for writingnames such as Apollodotus. With Prinsep identifyingthe language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit,it became possible to read longer inscriptions as well.

7.3 Historical evidence from inscriptionsTo find out how epigraphists and historians work,let us look at two Asokan inscriptions more closely.

Note that the name of the ruler, Asoka, is notmentioned in the inscription (Source 10). What isused instead are titles adopted by the ruler –devanampiya, often translated as “beloved of thegods” and piyadassi, or “pleasant to behold”. Thename Asoka is mentioned in some other inscriptions,which also contain these titles. After examining allthese inscriptions, and finding that they match interms of content, style, language and palaeography,epigraphists have concluded that they were issuedby the same ruler.

You may also have noticed that Asoka claims thatearlier rulers had no arrangements to receive reports.If you consider the political history of thesubcontinent prior to Asoka, do you think thisstatement is true? Historians have to constantlyassess statements made in inscriptions to judgewhether they are true, plausible or exaggerations.

Did you notice that there are words withinbrackets? Epigraphists sometimes add these to makethe meaning of sentences clear. This has to be donecarefully, to ensure that the intended meaning ofthe author is not changed.

Fig. 2.12A coin of the Indo-Greek kingMenander

The orders of the king

Thus speaks king DevanampiyaPiyadassi:

In the past, there were noarrangements for disposingaffairs, nor for receivingregular reports. But Ihave made the following(arrangement). Pativedakasshould report to me about theaffairs of the people at alltimes, anywhere, whether Iam eating, in the innerapartment, in the bedroom,in the cow pen, being carried(possibly in a palanquin), orin the garden. And I willdispose of the affairs of thepeople everywhere.

Source 10

Epigraphists havetranslated the termpativedaka as reporter.In what ways would thefunctions of thepativedaka have beendifferent from those wegenerally associate withreporters today?

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Historians have to make other assessments aswell. If a king’s orders were inscribed on naturalrocks near cities or important routes ofcommunication, would passers-by have stopped toread these? Most people were probably not literate.Did everybody throughout the subcontinentunderstand the Prakrit used in Pataliputra? Wouldthe orders of the king have been followed? Answersto such questions are not always easy to find.

Some of these problems are evident if we look atan Asokan inscription (Source 11), which has oftenbeen interpreted as reflecting the anguish of theruler, as well as marking a change in his attitudetowards warfare. As we shall see, the situationbecomes more complex once we move beyond readingthe inscription at face value.

While Asokan inscriptions have been found inpresent-day Orissa, the one depicting his anguishis missing. In other words, the inscription has notbeen found in the region that was conquered. Whatare we to make of that? Is it that the anguish of therecent conquest was too painful in the region, andtherefore the ruler was unable to address the issue?

8. The Limitations of InscriptionalEvidence

By now it is probably evident that there are limits towhat epigraphy can reveal. Sometimes, there aretechnical limitations: letters are very faintlyengraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain.Also, inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing.Besides, it is not always easy to be sure about theexact meaning of the words used in inscriptions,some of which may be specific to a particular placeor time. If you go through an epigraphical journal(some are listed in Timeline 2), you will realise thatscholars are constantly debating and discussingalternative ways of reading inscriptions.

Although several thousand inscriptions have beendiscovered, not all have been deciphered, publishedand translated. Besides, many more inscriptionsmust have existed, which have not survived theravages of time. So what is available at present isprobably only a fraction of what was inscribed.

There is another, perhaps more fundamental,problem: not everything that we may consider

The anguish of the king

When the king DevanampiyaPiyadassi had been rulingfor eight years, the (countryof the) Kalingas (present-day coastal Orissa) wasconquered by (him).

One hundred and fiftythousand men were deported,a hundred thousand werekilled, and many more died.

After that, now that (thecountry of) the Kalingas hasbeen taken, Devanampiya (isdevoted) to an intense studyof Dhamma, to the love ofDhamma, and to instructing(the people) in Dhamma.

This is the repentance ofDevanampiya on account ofhis conquest of the (countryof the) Kalingas.

For this is considered verypainful and deplorableby Devanampiya that,while one is conqueringan unconquered (country)slaughter, death anddeportation of people (takeplace) there …

Discuss...Look at Map 2 and discussthe location of Asokaninscriptions. Do you noticeany patterns?

Source 11

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politically or economically significant was necessarilyrecorded in inscriptions. For instance, routineagricultural practices and the joys and sorrows ofdaily existence find no mention in inscriptions, whichfocus, more often than not, on grand, unique events.Besides, the content of inscriptions almost invariablyprojects the perspective of the person(s) whocommissioned them. As such, they need to bejuxtaposed with other perspectives so as to arrive ata better understanding of the past.

Thus epigraphy alone does not provide a fullunderstanding of political and economic history. Also,historians often question both old and new evidence.Scholars in the late nineteenth and early twentiethcenturies were primarily interested in the historiesof kings. From the mid-twentieth century onwards,issues such as economic change, and the ways inwhich different social groups emerged have assumedfar more importance. Recent decades have seen amuch greater preoccupation with histories ofmarginalised groups. This will probably lead to freshinvestigations of old sources, and the developmentof new strategies of analysis.

Fig. 2.13A copperplate inscription fromKarnataka, c. sixth century CE

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Timeline 1Major Political and Economic Developments

c.600-500 BCE Paddy transplantation; urbanisation in theGanga valley; mahajanapadas; punch-marked coins

c. 500-400 BCE Rulers of Magadha consolidate power

c. 327-325 BCE Invasion of Alexander of Macedon

c. 321 BCE Accession of Chandragupta Maurya

c. 272/268-231 BCE Reign of Asoka

c. 185 BCE End of the Mauryan empire

c. 200-100 BCE Indo-Greek rule in the northwest; Cholas, Cherasand Pandyas in south India; Satavahanas in the Deccan

c. 100 BCE-200 CE Shaka (peoples from Central Asia) rulers inthe northwest; Roman trade; gold coinage

c. 78 CE? Accession of Kanishka

c.100-200 CE Earliest inscriptional evidence of landgrants by Satavahana and Shaka rulers

c. 320 CE Beginning of Gupta rule

c. 335-375 CE Samudragupta

c. 375-415 CE Chandragupta II; Vakatakas in the Deccan

c. 500-600 CE Rise of the Chalukyas in Karnataka and of the Pallavasin Tamil Nadu

c. 606-647 CE Harshavardhana king of Kanauj; Chinese pilgrimXuan Zang comes in search of Buddhist texts

c. 712 Arabs conquer Sind

(Note: It is difficult to date economic developments precisely. Also, there are enormoussubcontinental variations which have not been indicated in the timeline.Only the earliest dates for specific developments have been given. The date of Kanishka’saccession is not certain and this has been marked with a‘?’)

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Timeline 2Major Advances in Epigraphy

Eighteenth century

1784 Founding of the Asiatic Society (Bengal)

Nineteenth century

1810s Colin Mackenzie collects over 8,000 inscriptions inSanskrit and Dravidian languages

1838 Decipherment of Asokan Brahmi by James Prinsep

1877 Alexander Cunningham publishes a set of Asokaninscriptions

1886 First issue of Epigraphia Carnatica, a journal of southIndian inscriptions

1888 First issue of Epigraphia Indica

Twentieth century

1965-66 D.C. Sircar publishes Indian Epigraphy and IndianEpigraphical Glossary

Answer in 100-150 words

1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in EarlyHistoric cities. In what ways is this different fromthe evidence from Harappan cities?

2. Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.

3. How do historians reconstruct the lives ofordinary people?

4. Compare and contrast the list of things given tothe Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those producedin the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do younotice any similarities or differences?

5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.

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If you would like to knowmore, read:D.N. Jha. 2004.Early India: A Concise History.Manohar, New Delhi.

R. Salomon. 1998.Indian Epigraphy. MunshiramManoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd,New Delhi.

R.S. Sharma. 1983.Material Culture and SocialFormation in Early India.Macmillan, New Delhi.

D.C. Sircar. 1975.Inscriptions of Asoka.Publications Division, Ministry ofInformation and Broadcasting,Government of India, New Delhi.

Romila Thapar. 1997.Asoka and the Decline of theMauryas. Oxford University Press,New Delhi.

For more information,you could visit:http:/projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/index.html

Write a short essay (about500 words) on the following:

6. Discuss the main features of Mauryanadministration. Which of these elements are evidentin the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?

7. This is a statement made by one of the best-knownepigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar:“There is no aspect of life, culture and activities ofthe Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.”Discuss.

8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in thepost-Mauryan period.

9. To what extent were agricultural practicestransformed in the period under consideration?

Map work

10. Compare Maps 1 and 2, and list the mahajanapadasthat might have been included in the MauryanEmpire. Are any Asokan inscriptions found in theseareas?

Project (any one)

11. Collect newspapers for one month. Cut and paste allthe statements made by government officials aboutpublic works. Note what the reports say about theresources required for such projects, how theresources are mobilised and the objective of theproject. Who issues these statements, and how andwhy are they communicated? Compare and contrastthese with the evidence from inscriptions discussedin this chapter. What are the similarities anddifferences that you notice?

12. Collect five different kinds of currency notes and coinsin circulation today. For each one of these, describewhat you see on the obverse and the reverse (the frontand the back). Prepare a report on the commonfeatures as well as the differences in terms of pictures,scripts and languages, size, shape and any otherelement that you find significant. Compare these withthe coins shown in this chapter, discussing thematerials used, the techniques of minting, the visualsymbols and their significance and the possiblefunctions that coins may have had.

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