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THE PRACTICE OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
Chapter 4 – Research Design
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
Three Purposes of Research The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation Necessary and Sufficient Causes Units of Analysis The Time Dimension How to Design a Research Project The Research Proposal The Ethics of Research Design Quick Quiz
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THREE PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
1. Exploration To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity and desire
for better understanding To test the feasibility of undertaking a more
extensive study To develop the methods to be employed in any
subsequent study
Examples?
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THREE PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
2. Description Describe situations and events through
scientific observation
Examples?
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THREE PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
3. Explanation Descriptive studies answer questions of what,
where, when, and how Explanatory studies answer questions of why
Examples?
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THE LOGIC OF NOMOTHETIC EXPLANATION
Goal: to find a few factors that can account for many of the variations in a given phenomenon
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EXAMPLE: LEGALIZATION OF MARIJUANA
Information from parents, teachers, clergy
Previous experiences
Others?
Political orientation
Others?
Idiographic Approach Nomothetic Approach
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THE LOGIC OF NOMOTHETIC EXPLANATION
Criteria for Nomothetic Causality1. The variables must be correlated
Correlation – an empirical relationship between two variables such that changes in one are associated with changes in the other, or particular attributes in one are associated with particular attributes in the other.
2. The cause takes place before the effect3. The variables are nonspurious
Spurious Relationship – a coincidental statistical correlation between two variables shown to be caused by some third variable
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THE LOGIC OF NOMOTHETIC EXPLANATION
Nomothetic Causal Analysis and Hypothesis Testing Hypotheses are not required in nomothetic
research. To test a hypothesis:
Specify variables you think are related Specify measurement of variables Hypothesize correlation, strength of relationship,
statistical significance Specify tests for spuriousness
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THE LOGIC OF NOMOTHETIC EXPLANATION
False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality Complete Causation Exceptional Cases Majority of Cases
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NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CAUSES
A necessary cause represents a condition that must be present for the effect to follow.
A sufficient cause represents a condition that, if it is present, guarantees the effect in question.
Most satisfying outcome in research includes both necessary and sufficient causes.
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UNIT OF ANALYSIS
Unit of Analysis – the what or whom being studied (most often individuals in social science research).
Individuals versus Aggregates
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UNIT OF ANALYSIS
Individuals Most common unit of analysis for social research
Groups
Organizations
Social Interactions
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UNIT OF ANALYSIS Individuals
Students, voters, parents, children, Catholics
Groups Gang members, families, married couples,
friendship groups
Organizations Corporations, social organizations, colleges
Social Interactions Telephone calls, dances, online chat rooms,
fights
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UNIT OF ANALYSIS
Social Artifacts Social Artifact – any product of social beings or
their behavior.
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UNIT OF ANALYSIS
Faulty Reasoning about Units of Analysis The Ecological Fallacy – erroneously drawing
conclusions about individuals solely from the observations of groups.
Reductionism – a strict limitation (reduction) of the kinds of concepts to be considered relevant to the phenomenon under study. Sociobiology – a paradigm based on the view that
social behavior can be explained solely in terms of genetic characteristics and behavior.
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THE TIME DIMENSION
Cross-Sectional Study – a study based on observations representing a single point in time, a cross section of a population.
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THE TIME DIMENSION
Longitudinal Study – a study design involving the collection of data at different points in time. Trend Study – a study in which a given
characteristic of some population is monitored over time.
Cohort Study – a study in which some specific subpopulation, or cohort, is studied over time.
Panel Study – a study in which data are collected from the same set of people at several points in time.
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THE TIME DIMENSION
Comparing Types of Longitudinal Studies - example: Religious Affiliation Trend Study – looks at shifts in religious affiliation
over time.
Cohort Study – follows shifts in religious affiliation among those born during the Depression.
Panel Study – follows the shifts in religious affiliation among a specific group of people over time.
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THE TIME DIMENSION
Approximating Longitudinal Studies Researchers can draw approximate conclusions
about longitudinal processes even when cross-sectional data is not available.
1. Imply processes over time2. Make logical inferences3. Ask individuals to recall past behavior4. Cohort analysis
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THE TIME DIMENSION
Examples of Research Strategies Exploration, Description, or Explanation? Sources of data? Unit of analysis? Dimensions of time relevant?
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HOW TO DESIGN A RESEARCH PROJECT
1. Define the purpose of your project – exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory?
2. Specify the meanings of each concept you want to study
3. Select a research method
4. Determine how you will measure the results
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HOW TO DESIGN A RESEARCH PROJECT
5. Determine whom or what to study
6. Collect empirical data
7. Process the data
8. Analyze the data
9. Report your findings
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THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Elements of a Research Proposal1. Problem or Objective2. Literature Review3. Subjects for Study4. Measurement5. Data Collection Methods6. Analysis7. Schedule8. Budget
QUICK QUIZ
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
1. Social researchers tend to choose _____ as their units of analysis.
A. social interactionsB. social artifactsC. groupsD. individualsE. aggregates
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
ANSWER: D.Social researchers tend to choose individuals as their units of analysis.
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
2. Scientific inquiry comes down to
A. making observations.B. interpreting what you have observed.C. both of the aboveD. none of the above
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
ANSWER: C.Scientific inquiry comes down to making
observations and interpreting what you have observed.
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
3. A _____ is an empirical relationship between two variables such that changes in one are associated with changes in the other.
A. nomothetic explanationB. regression analysisC. correlationD. spurious relationship
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
ANSWER: C.A correlation is an empirical relationship between two variables such that changes in one are associated with changes in the other.
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
4. Which of these are among the purposes of research?
A. explorationB. descriptionC. explanationD. all of the above
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
ANSWER: D.Exploration, description, and explanation are among the purposes of research.
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
5. What do social researchers mean when they say there is a causal relationship between education and racial tolerance?
A. There is a statistical correlation between the two variables.B. A person’s educational level occurred before their current level of tolerance.C. There is no third variable that can explain the observed correlation.D. All of these choices.
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
ANSWER: D.When social researchers say there is a casual
relationship between education and racial tolerance they mean: there is a statistical correlation between the two variables, a person’s educational level occurred before their current level of tolerance, and there is no third variable that can explain the observed correlation.
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
6. A _____ is probabilistic and usually incomplete.
A. nomothetic explanationB. correlationC. spurious relationshipD. theory
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
ANSWER: A.A nomothetic explanation is probabilistic and usually incomplete.
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
7. A _____ represents a condition that, if present, guarantees the effect in question.
A. hypothesisB. sufficient causeC. practical issueD. necessary causeE. dependent variable
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CHAPTER 4 QUIZ
ANSWER: B.A sufficient cause represents a condition that, if present, guarantees the effect in question.
