T h e A r t i o s H o m e C o m p a n i o n S e r i e s ... · not live in temples built by human hands. And he is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything. Rather, he

Early Modern: Middle School Unit 4: The Spread of the Reformation - Page 1

T h e A r t i o s H o m e C o m p a n i o n S e r i e s

Unit 4: The Spread of the Reformation

T e a c h e r O v e r v i e w

“In England the Reformation ran a different course from that in France or Germany. In these countries Protestantism spread in spite of the strenuous opposition of the rulers. In England it was aided by the ruler, King Henry VIII…” - H. E. Marshall

Canterbury Cathedral

Vocabulary

Lesson 1: denounced sumptuous imbued coerced Lesson 2: None Lesson 3: obscurity extempore eloquence contention exile picturesque

Key People

Henry VIII John Knox Thomas Wolsey Sir Thomas More Thomas Cromwell Charles V – Emperor Francis I John Knox Mary Queen of Scots Bloody Mary Thomas Cranmer George Wishart

Reading and Assignments

In this unit, students will:

Complete three lessons in which they will learn about the Reformation in England and Scandinavia, journaling and answering discussion questions as they read.

Define vocabulary words.

Read selected chapters from The Pilgrim’s Progress, journaling as they read.

Complete literature assignments including creating an outline for their essay.

Read notes and complete grammar exercises on Subject & Verb.

Explore the following website: Resource for creating an outline of essays. http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/Outline.html

Visit www.ArtiosHCS.com for additional resources.

http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/Outline.html

http://www.artioshcs.com/


Leading Ideas

History is HIS Story. God’s story of love, mercy, and redemption through Christ. He made known to us the mystery of his will according to his good pleasure, which he purposed in Christ, to be put into effect when the times reach their fulfillment—to bring unity to all things in heaven and on earth under Christ. — Ephesians 1:9-10 God’s providential hand governs and times all events and provides for his Creation according to His plan and purposes. The God who made the world and everything in it is the Lord of heaven and earth and does not live in temples built by human hands. And he is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything. Rather, he himself gives everyone life and breath and everything else. From one man he made all the nations, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he marked out their appointed times in history and the boundaries of their lands. God did this so that they would seek him and perhaps reach out for him and find him, though he is not far from any one of us. — Acts 17:24-27 Godly leadership and servanthood are necessary for one to be a true reforming influence. Whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever wants to be first must be your slave—just as the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many. — Matthew 20:26-28 God raises up and removes leaders. He changes times and seasons; he deposes kings and raises up others. He gives wisdom to the wise and knowledge to the discerning. — Daniel 2:21


L i t e r a t u r e , C o m p o s i t i o n , a n d G r a m m a r

Unit 4: Allegory and Literary Criticism

The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan

Literature for Units 1 - 6

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bunyan/pilgrim.ii.html

Middle School students may find it easier to read an abridged version of the text.

Unit 4 – Assignments

Literature and Composition

Activity While Reading: As you read the novel, you will conduct a literary analysis by writing the answers to the following questions in your journal. Note that all of the questions may not be applicable in each reading. Answer the ones which are applicable to this unit’s reading assignment.

Questions to answer in a literary analysis: ▪ Who is the author of this work? ▪ What is the reason or intent of the author in writing this novel? ▪ Who is the protagonist (main character of the story)? ▪ What is the protagonist doing, or what is his/her goal? ▪ What new characters were introduced in this section? ▪ What do their names mean or represent? ▪ What lessons can we learn from these characters? ▪ What major events happened in this section? ▪ What Christian beliefs or ideals are illustrated by these events?

Read the assignment background information, then read The Pilgrim’s Progress from Part I, Ninth Stage through Part I, Conclusion.

Remember to answer the literary analysis questions in your reading journal.

Complete an outline for your essay. Find information on outlines here: http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/Outline.html

Grammar

Read the notes on Subject & Verb, beginning on page 5.

Complete the grammar exercises on the Artios Home Companion website.

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bunyan/pilgrim.ii.html

http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/Outline.html


Unit 4 – Assignment Background

John Bunyan, Pilgrim for God By Mary Elizabeth Hall, Christian fiction author and editor

John Bunyan’s famous allegory, The

Pilgrim’s Progress, tells the gripping story

of a man who learns through great trials

and adventures to trust and follow God.

But it was only after traveling a long, dark

path that Bunyan found the wisdom to

write this great book. In his autobiography,

Grace Abounding, he says he was a

dreadful sinner during his youth. But even

as conviction of sin grew in his heart, doubt

and confusion tormented him for many

years before he became convinced by

Scripture that he was accepted and loved

by God. Through passages like Hebrews

12:22-24 and many others, Bunyan was

assured of his salvation and felt called by

God into preaching ministry.

Finding himself in disagreement with

the local Quakers on certain doctrinal

matters, he preached according to English

Puritan theology. The Puritans desired to

“purify” the Church of England of practices

it derived from the Roman Catholic

Church. Often wrongly characterized by

outsiders as overly strict, intolerant of

others, and harshly repressive, Puritans

actually encouraged deep love for God,

enjoyed rich fellowship, and were generous

to the poor.

Demanding reforms, the Puritans

insisted that the affairs of church and civil

government were to be carried out under

the authority of the Bible. Parliament

responded to these demands by enacting

laws such as the Conventicle Act of 1664,

which outlawed the assembly of more than

five people for religious purposes outside of

the Church of England. The Pilgrim’s

Progress, written at least partly while

Bunyan was imprisoned for violating this

law, portrays many elements of Protestant

theology, such as salvation by the grace of

God, the authority of Scripture, and the

need for dependence on God alone through

times of trial.

Although John Bunyan was from a poor

family and had little education, he was an

excellent writer. Combining Scripture with

familiar happenings from everyday life, he

wrote The Pilgrim’s Progress making

skillful use of humor, poetry, and

adventure to proclaim that Christianity is

the only way to heaven and perfect joy. The

story has never been out of print, has been

translated into hundreds of languages, and

has been a favorite in Protestant homes

and schools for centuries.


G r a m m a r N o t e s f o r U n i t 4 U s e d b y p e r m i s s i o n : w w w . a n a l y t i c a l g r a m m a r . c o m

Subject & Verb

The first thing we must discuss in this unit is the verb. In our language we have two kinds of verbs: action verbs

and linking verbs. This unit will be about action verbs; we will learn about linking verbs in a later unit.

DEFINITION: An action verb is a word that expresses mental or physical action.

EXAMPLES: physical actions: jump, search, carry, run, examine

mental actions worry, think, believe, consider

A verb has a SUBJECT. The subject is the noun or pronoun that is DOING THE ACTION OF THE VERB.

art n pp art n av pp art adj n

T h e h o r s e ( i n t h e l e a d ) r a c e d ( a c r o s s t h e f i n i s h l i n e ) .

The verb is “raced”. Who or what “raced”? The horse, right? So, “horse” is the subject of “raced”.

HANDY HINT: The subject will NEVER be inside a prepositional phrase.

NOTE: If you find a word that looks like a verb but doesn’t have a subject, you call it a “verbal.”

We’ll learn all about verbals in later units. For now, if you find a verbal just mark it “v.” If

it does have a subject, then it’s a real verb, so for now mark it “av.”

pn av v art pn pp adj n

J o e h o p e s t o g e t a n A ( o n t h i s t e s t ) .

“To get” looks like a verb, but if you asked, “Who or what to get?” there is no stated answer in the sentence. A

subject and verb always GO TOGETHER and sound right when spoken together. So “to get” in this sentence is a

verbal. NOTE: Many verbals end in “ing” and any verb with “to” in front of it (“to see,” “to throw”) is always a

verbal.

SIMPLE SUBJECT AND SIMPLE PREDICATE: These are terms that many language teachers and

textbooks use, but they will not be used in this course. Just for your information, a “simple subject” is the noun

or pronoun that is doing the action of the verb, without any of its modifiers. A “simple predicate” is just the verb

by itself, without any modifiers. (We’ll learn about those verb modifiers in the next unit.)

Following is the beginning of a “flow chart” which will be called THE PROCESS. It represents the mental steps

you must take in order to figure out what the words in a sentence are doing, specifically the verbs.

I. DIAGRAMMING THE SUBJECT & VERB:

A diagram shows the structure of a sentence by making a “picture” of it. Every diagram starts with a BASE LINE

which contains the subject and the verb.

n av

L i o n s r o a r .

Notice that the base line is a horizontal line and that the subject and verb are separated by a vertical line which

goes ALL THE WAY THROUGH the horizontal line. In a diagram, you capitalize the first word of the sentence,

but you don’t include punctuation.


II. TO FIND THE SUBJECT AND VERB:

After marking n, art, adj, pp, and putting parentheses around the prepositional phrases, mark any word that

looks like a verb “v.” Then ask “Who or what (say the verb)?” The answer, a noun or a pronoun, will be the

subject of that verb.

adj n av adj n adj n

M y u n c l e r u n s f i v e m i l e s e v e r y m o r n i n g .

1. The verb is “runs.” uncle runs

2. “Who or what runs?” Answer: uncle

III. HOW TO DIAGRAM ARTICLES AND ADJECTIVES:

A. Adjectives and articles are diagrammed on diagonal lines attached to the noun or pronoun they

modify. They should be diagrammed in the order in which they come in the sentence.

adj adj n av

O u r s p e c i a l g u e s t s a n g .

B. Two or more adjectives joined by a conjunction (“and,” “but,” or “or”) are diagrammed like this:

adj adj adj n av

M y b l a c k a n d w h i t e d o g b a r k e d .

IV. HOW TO DIAGRAM PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES:

From now on, if a prepositional phrase modifies the subject, you must diagram it. Remember, if it modifies a

noun, it will tell you “Which?” about that noun. In the sentence below, the phrase “in the lead” tells you which

horse. Look at the diagram below.

art n pp art n av pp art adj n

T h e h o r s e ( i n t h e l e a d ) r a c e d ( a c r o s s t h e f i n i s h l i n e ) .

V. HOW TO DIAGRAM A COMMAND:

It is a bit tricky to diagram a command or request, because it may appear that there is no subject.

av adj n

B r u s h y o u r t e e t h .

The verb is “brush,” but if you ask “Who or what brush?” - it doesn’t say. In the case of commands or requests,

the subject is an understood “you.” The diagram will look like this:

(you) Brush - Notice that the “you” is in parentheses; this indicates that it is “understood.”


No Answer?

It’s a verbal.

Leave it marked “v” and go on.

Answer?

It’s an action verb. Draw a

baseline and fill in the subject, and

verb.

Complete your diagram with the

modifiers that go with the subject.

VI. HOW TO DIAGRAM AN “INVERTED” SENTENCE.

“Inverted” sentences are sentences which begin with “here” and “there.” We use these sentences all the time in

our language, but they may be a bit tricky to diagram. Once you find the verb and ask, “Who or what comes?” in

the sentence below, you’ll see that the subject is “principal.” It’s tricky because you’re used to seeing the subject

in front of the verb - and these sentences are “inverted”!

v art n

H e r e c o m e s t h e p r i n c i p a l .

The following chart, which we call “The Process,” represents the mental steps you must go through to analyze a

sentence grammatically. We will be adding steps to this chart, but at this point, as long as you understand what

you see now, you’re in fine shape!

THE PROCESS

Step 1 Find and mark n all the nouns in the sentence. (pn over proper nouns)

Step 2 Find all the articles and adjectives (Ask, “Which (say the noun)?”)

Step 3 Find all the pronouns.

Step 4 Find all the prepositions and put parentheses ( ) around the prepositional phrases.

Step 5 Find all words that look like verbs and mark them v.

Step 6 Ask, “Who or what (say the verb)?”


L e s s o n O n e

H i s t o r y O v e r v i e w a n d A s s i g n m e n t s

The Reformation in England and Scandinavia

“When Martin Luther first published his theses, Henry VIII denounced him loudly, and as loudly upheld the headship of the pope. He even wrote a book called “The Defence of the Seven Sacraments,” a copy of which, sumptuously bound, he sent to the pope. In return, Leo X bestowed upon him the title of Defender of the Faith…” H. E. Marshall

However, when Henry VIII asked the pope to grant him a divorce from Katharine of Aragon in order to marry Anne Boleyn and produce a male heir to the throne, his request was denied. This led to Henry leading England to separate from the Church in Rome.

Henry VIII

Key People

Henry VIII John Knox


Review the discussion questions and vocabulary, then read the article: Reformation Period – England and Scandinavia, pages 9-11.

Narrate about today’s reading using the appropriate notebook page. Be sure to answer the discussion questions and include key people, events, and dates within the narration.

Define the vocabulary words in the context of the reading and put the word and its definition in the vocabulary section of your history notebook.

Be sure to visit www.ArtiosHCS.com for additional resources.

Vocabulary

denounced sumptuous imbued coerced

Discussion Questions

1. What changes did Henry VIII make to the Church in England?

2. Describe the effect of the Reformation in Scandinavia.

3. After the Stockholm Bath of Blood, who did the Swedes choose as a leader?


Adapted from the book:

The Story of Europe by H. E. Marshall

Reformation Period – England and Scandinavia

In England, the Reformation ran a

different course from that in France or

Germany. In these countries,

Protestantism spread in spite of strenuous

opposition by the rulers. In England, it was

aided by the ruler, King Henry VIII.

When Martin Luther first published his

theses, Henry VIII denounced him loudly,

and as loudly upheld the headship of the

pope. He even wrote a book called “The

Defence of the Seven Sacraments,” a copy

of which, sumptuously bound, he sent to

the pope. In return, Leo X bestowed upon

him the title of Defender of the Faith.

A few years after this, Henry desired to

divorce his wife, Katharine of Aragon, in

order to marry Anne Boleyn. He professed

a fear that he had sinned against heaven in

marrying Katharine at all, as she was the

widow of his elder brother Arthur, and he

asked the pope, now Clement VII, to grant

him a divorce.

Now Katharine was the daughter of

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and the

aunt of the Emperor Charles V. So Henry’s

demand placed Clement in a difficult

position. If he refused to grant Henry’s

request, he would offend him. If he granted

it, he would offend Charles V. He dared not

offend Charles, so he temporized. But

Henry grew weary of awaiting the pope’s

pleasure and induced Archbishop Cranmer

to pronounce the divorce without further

appeal to Rome.

Henry VIII Supreme

Head of the English Church

Upon this, the pope ordered Henry to

take back his wife upon pain of

excommunication. Instead of obeying, Henry

replied by cutting the Church of England free

from Rome.

Acts of Parliament were speedily passed

declaring that the king of England, and not

the pope of Rome, was the supreme head of

the English Church, and forbidding the

payment of any moneys to the pope. It was

also declared that the bishop of Rome had no

more jurisdiction in the kingdom of England

than any other foreign bishop. Mass was

ordered to be said in English instead of in

Latin. Masses for the dead, pilgrimages,

adoration of relics and images were

forbidden, and the Doctrine of Purgatory was

denied. Beyond this, Henry made little

alteration in the teaching or services of the

Church.

He, indeed, suppressed monasteries and

convents. But this had nothing to do with

religious conviction. He was in need of

money, the religious houses were rich in land

and money; therefore, he suppressed them

and took their wealth to himself.

Henry needed an excuse for doing this.

His excuse was that the monks and nuns led

wicked and idle lives, which were a disgrace

to religion. In many cases this was true.

Henry, however, did not distinguish between

the houses of good or ill repute, but treated

all alike. But the monasteries and convents

were the hospitals, almshouses, and schools

of the day, and the closing of them brought


misery on the people. The land was soon

filled with homeless, beggared monks, and

a rising known as the Pilgrimage of Grace

took place. But the rebellion was put down,

and Henry continued his suppressions.

Although England was thus separated

from Rome not by the zeal of a reformer

but by the command of a selfish and

stubborn king, king and people were at

one. The king’s action in breaking with the

pope coincided with the wishes of the

people; they both chafed at papal

interference, and both clung to the old

theology.

But besides this, there was a real desire

for reform, and to many it seemed that the

king’s reform was not radical enough. For

many of the people had become imbued

with the doctrines of Luther and Calvin,

and wished to see England a Protestant

country. This was not the king’s will. He

would brook no opposition to his will, and

he put to death without partiality both

Catholics who denied his supremacy as

head of the Church and Protestants who

adhered to Calvinistic theories about the

Holy Sacrament.

So, in England, no more than in other

countries, was the Reformation

accomplished without bloodshed and

persecution. The new English Church

persecuted those who refused adherence,

but not till Mary Tudor came to the throne

did the fires of persecution burn fiercely.

She was an ardent Catholic, yet as queen of

England she was supreme head of the

Anglican Church, a church that she was

bound to hate. In her fervent devotion to

Rome, she endeavored to bring England

back to its allegiance. But in spite of cruel

persecution, she failed.

Henry VIII had been able to impose his

religion on the people of England because

they themselves desired to break with Rome.

Mary failed to impose her religion on them,

because her will was not aligned with theirs.

In her blind fealty to Rome, she plunged her

country into blood. She repealed all the

religious legislation of her father and of her

brother Edward VI. But all her efforts were

in vain. The awakening intellect of England

became more and more Protestant and

national, and no laws of princes could

prevent its final severance from Rome.

John Knox

In Scotland, also, the new religion took

root. The great reformer there was John

Knox, a follower of Calvin. The success of the

Reformation in Scotland was of great

importance to the history of Europe. The

young queen of Scots, Mary, brought up in

France, was heart and soul with the Roman

Church. If she had had a united country

behind her, she might, with the help of Rome

and France, have made good her claim to the

throne of England. Then in England, the

Protestant religion might have been wiped

out forever, even as it was destined to be in

France. At least, so it seemed to the

politicians of the day. Looking back, it seems

very doubtful that the awakened spirit of

liberty in England could have been so

coerced.

As it was, Scotland was divided between

the old religion and the new. English

Protestants and Scottish Protestants had

common cause against the French and the

Catholics, and the allied Protestants

triumphed. In this first union of religion may

be seen the beginnings of united Britain.

Sweden, Denmark, and Norway

The Reformation spread even to


Scandinavia and the far north. There, at

first, it was imposed by the rulers

somewhat after the manner of the English

Reformation. But there, too, the people

were ready for reform, and the countries

soon became entirely Protestant.

During the centuries when the

countries of southwestern Europe had been

rising to importance, Scandinavia had had

little effect on them, and had been little

affected by them. Its history is chiefly a

record of internal struggles between the

three kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and

Denmark for supremacy. In 1397, by the

Union of Calmar, these three kingdoms

were at length united under one ruler. But

still, although they had only one ruler,

there was no real union among them.

The Swedes especially hated the

domination of Denmark, and more than

once tried to regain their independence.

Then, in 1520, Christian II of Denmark, in

the hope of forever crushing Swedish

independence, massacred all the nobles at

Stockholm in cold blood.

This horrible deed was called the

Stockholm Bath of Blood, and instead of

crushing Sweden’s desire for

independence, it roused the national spirit

as it had never been roused before. The

Swedes threw off all semblance of

allegiance to Denmark, and chose a young

noble named Gustavus Vasa for their

leader. In 1523 there was a revolution in

Denmark. Christian II was driven from the

throne, and Gustavus Vasa became king of

Sweden, and Frederick I of Holstein king of

Denmark and Norway.

With the reign of Gustavus Vasa, the

history of Sweden as an independent

kingdom may be said to begin. But

meanwhile, the kingdom was wasted by

war. The royal treasury was empty, and

Gustavus knew not where to turn for money.

But although king and people were poor, the

Church was rich, and Gustavus determined

to take the Church revenues for state

purposes.

At a meeting of the Diet in 1527, he made

clear his intentions. He was met with fierce

opposition on the part of the bishops who

were present; and finding he could not bend

the Diet to his will, he rose in anger.

“Then I will no more be your king,” he

cried, “and if you can find another who will

please you better I will rejoice. Pay me for

my possessions in the land, give me back

what I have spent in your service. Then I

shall go. And I swear solemnly I shall never

come back to this debased and ungrateful

country of mine.” And with that he left them.

But the Swedes could not do without

Gustavus. It was he alone who held the

country together, and in three days they

yielded to his demands. Thus, by the will of

one man the Reformation was established in

Sweden.

A little later the Reformation was

established in Denmark. Christian II had

been attracted to the new religion, and had

intended to introduce it, when his subjects

rebelled and drove him from the throne. His

successor, Frederick, was a Protestant and

favored the religion, but it was not until the

reign of his son Christian III that it was fully

established in the country.

During his reign the new religion was

also established in Norway. For unlike

Sweden, Norway had failed to assert her

independence and had even lost her old

status as a separate kingdom, and became a

mere dependency of the kingdom of

Denmark.


L e s s o n T w o


Henry VIII and the Reformation

Henry VIII became king of England in 1509. He was handsome and had been educated in the new learning of the Renaissance. The people of England thought they had a king who would serve them well. However, the only thing Henry VIII truly cared about was himself. He demonstrated his selfishness by persecuting all who disagreed with him or who stood in the way of his getting what he wanted. This selfishness eventually led to England separating from the Church in Rome so that Henry VIII could divorce one wife and marry another. Although his reasons for leaving the Church in Rome were not religious, the separation did lay the foundation needed for the Reformation to spread to England.

Henry VIII at 18 years old


Review the discussion questions, then read the article: Henry VIII and the Separation from Rome, pages 13-17.



Key People

Henry VIII Thomas Wolsey Sir Thomas More Thomas Cromwell Charles V – Emperor Francis I


1. Who was Thomas Wolsey? Why was he important?

2. What ambition did Wolsey have?

3. What positions did Wolsey hold?

4. What did Wolsey mean when he said, “Had I but served my God as faithfully as I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my old age!”?

5. Who was Sir Thomas More? Why was he important?

6. Who was Thomas Cromwell? Why was he important?



The Story of England by Samuel B. Harding

Henry VIII and the Separation from Rome

Upon the death of his father, in 1509,

Henry VIII became king. He was a

handsome youth of eighteen years, and was

educated in the New Learning, as well as

skilled in all manner of athletic games.

Scholars believed that they at last had a

king after their own heart; but he soon

showed that the glory of war weighed more

with him than the New Learning, and that

the ruling motive of his life was to gratify

his own will and his own pleasures.

Henry VIII

Three strong young kings had begun to

rule in Western Europe within a few years

of each other — Henry VIII of England,

Francis I of France, and Charles of Spain.

From his grandparents, Ferdinand and

Isabella, King Charles inherited Spain,

Sicily, southern Italy, and the vast Spanish

possessions in America and the Far East.

From his father he received Holland and

Belgium (called the Netherlands, or “Low

Countries”). Then (in 1519), he was chosen

Emperor, over both Francis I and

Henry VIII, and, as Charles V, became the

head of Germany, also.

Already France and Spain had been at

war over Italy; and now a new war broke

out between them, which lasted (with some

interruptions) for forty years.

Henry VIII, at first, sought to take

advantage of this war to win back what he

called “our inheritance of France.” But a

wiser mind than his own soon pointed out

that it was to England’s interest rather to

maintain a balance of power between

France and Spain, and in this way increase

England’s power among nations.

The man who gave this advice was

Thomas Wolsey. He was the son of humble

parents, but rose to be the first man in

England, after the king. At the age of

fifteen, he was graduated from the

University of Oxford; then, becoming a

priest, he was appointed chaplain to

Henry VIII. His energy and attention to

business attracted the king’s notice. When

Henry sent him as a messenger to the

Emperor, in Flanders, Wolsey made the

journey and back in four days. When he

presented himself before the king, Henry

reproached him with his delay in starting.

He then learned, to his surprise, that

Wolsey had gone and returned. He

informed Wolsey that he had sent after him

a courier, with fuller instructions.

“Sire,” replied Wolsey, “I met him on

my way back, but I had already taken it

upon myself to fulfill what I foresaw would

be your intentions.”

Such intelligence and industry won


rapid advancement for Wolsey, and soon

he was Henry’s principal minister. He was

made Chancellor of the kingdom, and

Archbishop of York; and Henry secured

from the pope his appointment as cardinal

and the pope’s legate or representative in

England. Soon all the business of the

government passed through his hands. He

conducted himself with haughtiness, and

lived in great state. In this way, he made

enemies of the ancient nobles, who

considered him a low-born upstart. Not

content with the position he held in

England, Wolsey planned, with the aid of

Henry VIII and the Emperor Charles V, to

secure his own election as pope, and thus

win the highest position to which man

might aspire. But the Emperor’s promises

were not sincere, and Wolsey’s hopes were

disappointed.

Wolsey

Under Wolsey’s skillful guidance,

England was soon raised to a position of

great importance. Her alliance was eagerly

sought by both the king of France and the

Emperor. In 1520, a great meeting took

place in France between King Henry and

King Francis, at the “Field of the Cloth of

Gold.” Henry VIII came with 5,000

personal attendants, while his queen

brought 1,000. Stately palaces of wood

were erected for the occasion in the flat

meadows; and everything was more

splendid than had ever before been seen.

King Francis believed that he had gained

his end, and that thenceforth England was

his ally. But Wolsey steadily followed the

policy of favoring now one and now the

other party to the war, and so increased

England’s power and reputation.

Scene from a War of Henry VIII Against France

The end of Wolsey’s rule is connected

with King Henry’s divorce, which

introduced the Reformation into England.

When Henry VIII became king, he

married Catherine of Aragon, his older

brother Arthur’s widow. This marriage was

against the law of the Church, but a

“dispensation” was granted by the pope, as

head of the Church, which claimed to

remove the difficulty. For many years, little


more was thought of the matter; but, at

last, Henry began to have doubts of the

power of the pope to grant such a

“dispensation,” and to question whether

Catherine was really his wife. Perhaps he

was influenced, too, by the fact that their

only living child was a girl (later

Queen Mary), and that it was doubtful

whether a woman would be permitted to

succeed him on the English throne. On the

other hand, it is certain that he had grown

tired of Catherine, and that he had

shamelessly fallen in love with a young

noblewoman of the court named Anne

Boleyn.

If the pope had been willing to grant

Henry a divorce, all might have been well.

But, in addition to the great injustice which

would thereby be done to Queen Catherine,

there was the fact that she was the aunt of

the Emperor Charles V, whom the pope did

not wish to offend. So, in spite of long

negotiations, the pope would not grant the

divorce.

In furious anger, Henry turned against

his minister, Wolsey, who for fifteen years

had served him faithfully and well.

Unfortunately for himself, Wolsey was

“feared by all, but loved by few or none at

all.” Henry VIII dismissed him from his

office of Chancellor, confined him to his

duties as Archbishop of York, and soon

afterward had him arrested on a charge of

treason. Wolsey’s health and spirits were

now broken, and he died while on the road

to London to be imprisoned in the Tower.

In his last hours he said:

“Had I but served my God as faithfully

as I have served the king, he would not

have given me over in my old age!”

Failing to obtain a divorce from the

pope, the king obtained one from Cranmer,

Archbishop of Canterbury; and soon it was

announced that the king had married Anne

Boleyn. The pope was thus defied. All the

ties which bound the English Church to

Rome were now broken. Appeals to the

pope’s courts were forbidden; all payments

to Rome were stopped; and the pope’s

authority in England was abolished. By act

of Parliament, Henry was declared

“Supreme head of the Church of England.”

To deny this title was made an act of

treason.

Parliament also reformed a series of

practical abuses in the Church. The laws,

which protected clergymen who committed

crimes (called “benefit of the clergy”), were

done away with, and many payments to the

clergy were discontinued. Also, the Bible

was translated into English, and printed

copies were placed in the churches. To

prevent their being carried off, the great

heavy volumes were chained to the reading

desks. In St. Paul’s Church, London, six

copies were provided, but even this

number was not sufficient. The practice

arose of having someone read aloud from

one of the Bibles; and “many well-disposed

people,” we are told, “used to resort to the

hearing thereof, especially when they could

get anyone who had a good voice to read to

them.”

More important than these charges was

the breaking up of the monasteries. In spite

of the vows of “poverty” taken by the

monks as individuals, the monasteries had

become very wealthy; and with wealth had

come idleness and moral decay. The

monasteries were said to be dens of vice

and evil living; but no doubt the desire to

obtain monastery lands and goods was a

powerful motive in the attack. Parliament

took the king’s word about the abuses and


ordered first the smaller monasteries, and

then all of them, to be dissolved, and the

monks and nuns to be scattered. Their

lands and goods were turned over to the

king.

Thus, one of the greatest features of the

medieval Church was wiped out in

England. In the northern part of the

kingdom, the people rose in rebellion in

favor of the monks; but their “Pilgrimage of

Grace,” as it was called, was put down with

bloody cruelty. The lands of the

dispossessed monks were largely given to

favorites of the king. Thus, a large part of

the nobles and gentry became financially

interested in continuing the separation

from the Roman Church.

In Germany and Switzerland,

meanwhile, a religious Reformation, much

deeper than that in England, had been

growing and spreading. Martin Luther, a

German monk and university professor,

protested against the sale of “indulgences,”

by which it was claimed that the pope

wiped out the penalty of sin without real

repentance on the part of the sinner. The

dispute widened until Luther threw off all

obedience to the pope and carried out a

reform of the German Church which

touched not only its government, but also

its doctrine or teaching, and its ritual or

worship. Unlike that in England, the

“Protestant” movement in Germany and

Switzerland began with the people, not the

rulers, and was mainly religious, not

political, in its motives.

It was not long before these Protestant

ideas began to spread into England. One

who opposed them wrote that “even the

chiefest and most weighty matters of our

religion and faith are called in question,

babbled, talked, and jangled upon.”

Although Henry VIII had reformed the

government of the Church in England to

suit his convenience, he would not permit

changes to be made in its doctrine. Indeed,

before he began his divorce suit, he wrote

so well against Luther that the pope

granted him the title “Defender of the

Faith”— a title which his successors still

bear!

Accordingly, Henry VIII now

persecuted equally the Catholics who

would not go as far as he did, and

Protestants who went further. His most

important victim, for religion’s sake, was

Sir Thomas More, a learned and noble-

minded Englishman, who was Henry’s

Chancellor after Wolsey’s fall. As

Chancellor, More had put to death

Protestants, and now it was his turn to

suffer death, on a charge of treason, for

denying that the king was the supreme

head of the Church of England. His gentle

bearing and courage on the scaffold

aroused the pity and admiration of all. As

he laid his head on the block, he moved his

beard aside, saying with sad humor:

“It is a pity that that should be cut

which has committed no treason.”

Henry VIII did not content himself with

putting to death those who differed from

him in religion. He was six times married,

and two of his wives were executed. Anne

Boleyn bore the king one child, the

Princess Elizabeth; then after a few brief

years she lost the king’s favor and was put

to death on a charge of unfaithfulness. A

few days later, the king married his third

wife, who died in little more than a year,

after having given to Henry his only son —

the future Edward VI. Henry’s fourth wife

behaved badly, and she, too, was executed.

Then Thomas Cromwell, who, after


Wolsey and More, was the king’s chief

minister, brought about a marriage

between Henry VIII and a Protestant

German princess; to whom, however,

Henry took such a dislike that he divorced

her at the earliest possible moment.

Cromwell had been a faithful, though

unscrupulous, minister to the king; but for

making this unsatisfactory marriage, he

was now condemned unheard, and sent to

the block. With equal bloodthirstiness,

every possible rival to the throne was put to

death; and thus order and peace was kept

in the land.

In his later years, Henry VIII became

very fat, and grew feeble in health. His

sixth wife, strange to say, outlived him. He

died in 1547, after ruling for thirty-eight

important years. He was a strong king, but

was wholly selfish and cruel. England

prospered greatly in his time, both at home

and abroad. His reign is chiefly to be

remembered as the time when the old ties

were broken which bound the English

Church to Rome; but it was not until after

his death that changes were made in the

doctrine and worship of the Church.


L e s s o n T h r e e


John Knox

“Knox was both a lawyer and a schoolmaster. He lived as a tutor, now in this great house and now in that, and taught the children. Thus, he continued in peace and quiet till he was forty. But the Reformation was coming on. Luther nailed his theses to the door, and the sound of his hammer was heard all over Europe. Henry the Eighth destroyed the monasteries. Earnest men in Scotland were considering what to do. And Knox was reading the seventeenth chapter of St. John...” - George Hodges

John Knox soon became known as a leader of the Reformation in Scotland.

John Knox

Key People

Mary Queen of Scots John Knox Thomas Cranmer Bloody Mary George Wishart

Vocabulary

obscurity extempore eloquence contention exile picturesque


Review the discussion questions and vocabulary, then read the article: John Knox, pages 19-25.


Define the vocabulary words in the context of the reading, and put the word and its definition in the vocabulary section of your history notebook.

If time permits or your instructor assigns, please do additional research on George Wishart and/or the Massacre of St. Bartholomew.




1. In what country was John Knox born?

2. What effect did John 17 have on John Knox and why?

3. How did the Protestants react to the martyrdom of George Wishart? Was their reaction Biblical?

4. How did John Knox and George Wishart know each other?

5. What was a nickname given to John Knox?

6. How were Scotland and England related to each other both religiously and politically during this time?

7. In detail, describe the relationship and interactions between John Knox and Mary Queen of Scots.

8. What type of government was put into place during the year between the death of Mary of Lorraine and the coming of Mary Queen of Scots?

9. What is your reaction to that type of government and why?


Saints and Heroes since the Middle Ages by George Hodges

John Knox

1505-1572

John Knox, on the occasion of his first

appearance in public, carried a two-handed

sword. Up to that moment, he had lived for

forty years in obscurity; after that he lived

for twenty-five years in public activity.

In 1505, when Knox was born, Henry

the Seventh was king of England; Cranmer

was a college student in Cambridge;

Luther, in that very year, entered the

monastery. Calvin was not born till 1509.

There was already much dissatisfaction

with the condition of religion, but there

had been no great changes. The world was

still in the Middle Ages.

Knox was born at Haddington, due east

of Edinburgh, between the hills of

Lammermoor and the Firth of Forth. When

the wind blew from the south, it brought

the breath of the hills; when it blew from

the north, it brought the breath of the sea.

The town was small, but it contained three

monasteries. It was devoted to the old

ways. Whoever looked in any direction in

the streets saw a monk or a friar in his

gown of black or gray. The principal church

was called the “Lamp of Lothian.” There

was born the man who became the Lamp of

Scotland.

Knox’s parents were plain people,

perhaps farmers. He was always a

countryman; he loved the open fields and

disliked cities. He spoke of the crowded

population of great towns as the rascal

multitude.

Having studied in the schools at home,

he went, at the age of seventeen, to the


University of Glasgow, where a

Haddington man, John Major, was a

professor. Thus, he became a priest. It was

a time when almost all work which

demanded intelligence of the scholarly

kind was done by priests. Knox was both a

lawyer and a schoolmaster. He lived as a

tutor, now in this great house and now in

that, and taught the children. Thus, he

continued in peace and quiet till he was

forty.

But the Reformation was coming on.

Luther nailed his theses to the door, and

the sound of his hammer was heard all over

Europe. Henry the Eighth destroyed the

monasteries. Earnest men in Scotland were

considering what to do. And Knox was

reading the seventeenth chapter of

St. John. This we know because when Knox

was in his last illness, and one who stood

nearby read that chapter at his request,

“Here,” he said, “I first cast anchor.” “This

is life eternal,” it says there, “to know Thee

the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom

Thou hast sent.” The words seemed to clear

away all the old complications of religion,

and to make the long services and the

many priests unnecessary.

Under these conditions, with the

Reformation blazing in Germany and

England and scattering cinders over

Scotland, and the hearts of men beginning

to burn within them, the crisis came in two

tragedies. One was the martyrdom of

George Wishart, who was burned alive at

St. Andrews by the order of Cardinal

Beaton for teaching the Greek Testament

and supporting the new opinions. The

other was the assassination of Beaton by

the friends of Wishart, who burst in upon

him, stabbed him in his palace, and seized

the cathedral of St. Andrews.

With these tragedies, the obscurity of

Knox ended and his public activity began.

For Wishart was Knox’s friend. The house

in which he was arrested, and from which

he was carried to the stake, was the one in

which Knox was living as a tutor. As the

enemies of the reformer had increased and

it had become plain that he was in peril of

death, the tutor had become his body-

guard. That was why Knox had the two-

handed sword. But Wishart would not let

him use it. “One,” he said, “is sufficient for

a sacrifice.”

When the cardinal was killed, Knox

joined the garrison at St. Andrews, taking

his pupils with him. There he taught the

gospel of St. John, not only to his pupils,

but to an increasing company. It was plain

that he had learning, eloquence, and

courage. Then, one Sunday in the church,

the minister, in the midst of his sermon,

called on Knox to become a leader and a

preacher. The appeal had been planned

beforehand, but Knox knew nothing of it.

The time was one of excitement and great

danger. Everybody in the church knew that

before many days the place would be

besieged by an army to avenge the murder

of the cardinal. They had committed the

murder; they had done a thing which could

not be forgiven. The preacher in the pulpit

was afterwards burned at the stake, and the

man at whom he pointed his finger and

called to stand up and speak knew that the

summons was like the sending of a soldier

into the danger of death.

At first, Knox, in his surprise, rose up

and went out and hid himself in his room,

and there stayed for some days praying.

Then he came back, went into the pulpit,

and preached so that the ears of the

hearers tingled. Men said, “Wishart himself


never spoke so plainly.” They said, “Others

snipped the branches; this man strikes at

the root.”

The twenty-five remaining years of

Knox’s life fall into two clearly marked and

even divisions. During the first part of this

time, he lived mostly in exile; during the

second part, he lived in Scotland.

He went immediately into exile. The

Catholics did not sit silent and suffer their

cardinal to be killed in peace. They got help

from France: a French fleet besieged

St. Andrews, and the garrison had to

surrender. The reformers were put into the

galleys, and there, in chains, served at the

oars as slaves under the whip. In after

years, Knox rarely spoke of this bitter

experience. But two incidents are

remembered.

One time, he said, a priest who

ministered to the prisoners carried about

among them the image of a saint for them

to kiss, but one of them seized the image

and flung it overboard, crying, “Let us see if

she can swim: she is light enough!”

Another time, the ship sailed near the

coast of Scotland, and there in the distance

were the spires of St. Andrews. Knox was

very ill, so that they doubted if he would

recover, but they pointed out the land and

asked him if he recognized it. “Yes,” he

said, raising himself on his elbow, “I know

it well; for I see the steeple of that place

where God first, in public, opened my

mouth to His glory; and I am fully

persuaded, how weak so-ever I now

appear, that I shall not depart this life till

that my tongue shall glorify His godly

name in the same place.”

Somehow this pain came to an end,

probably because of the Protestant

supremacy in England under Edward the

Sixth. In 1549, the year the first English

Prayerbook was published, Knox was

preaching, by Cranmer’s appointment, at

Newcastle. Two years later, he was one of

the king’s six chaplains, and might have

been a bishop, if he would. Then Mary

came to the throne, the whole state of

religion was changed, and Knox, with other

reformers, fled to the continent. There he

ministered, at first in Frankfort, then in

Geneva.

At Frankfort, the refugees were of two

parties, moderate and radical. The

moderate reformers wished to use the

Prayerbook, which represented the English

Reformation. The radical reformers, led by

Knox, desired to depart from the old order

completely. One party was of the mind of

Cranmer; the other was of the mind of

Calvin. The moderates prevailed, and

Knox, after a visit to Scotland, settled in

Geneva.

“Geneva,” he said, “is the most perfect

school of Christ that ever was in the earth

since the days of the Apostles. In other

places, I confess, Christ is to be truly

preached; but manners and religion as

truly reformed have I not seen in any other

place.” There he published a book on

predestination, filled with the theology of

Calvin. There he published also a book

entitled “A First Blast Against the

Monstrous Regiment [or Government] of

Women,” declaring that it was a horrible

thing, contrary to Nature and to the will of

God that a woman should sit upon a

throne. The particular woman whom he

had in mind was Queen Mary, but

unhappily for him she was followed by

Queen Elizabeth, who so disliked the book

that she would never permit the writer to

set foot again in England.


Nevertheless, the accession of Elizabeth

ended the exile of Knox. He returned to

Scotland.

Scotland is a land of picturesque

beauty, full of lakes and hills, and moors

covered with heather; and it has for its

capital one of the most beautiful cities in

the world. The land is rich in memories of

heroes, sung in ballads, and has been

glorified in the pages of one of the greatest

of novelists, Sir Walter Scott. But its

history is hard to read. This is mainly for

lack of central interest. In the old

contention between the barons and the

kings, the kings were victorious in

Scotland. Scotland, therefore, was a land of

barons, where a thousand little wars were

waged between castle and castle. The

history is for the most part like a canvas

crowded with small figures. Carlyle said

that it contained nothing of world-interest

but the reformation by Knox.

The events which followed the return of

Knox were of world-interest because, for

the moment, the destinies of the whole

reforming movement depended on

Scotland. On one side were Catholic France

and Spain; on the other side were

Protestant Germany and England. And the

two sides were evenly matched. Scotland,

therefore, held the balance. If it declared

itself Protestant, the Reformation was

saved; if it continued Catholic, the

Reformation was endangered, if not lost.

To this situation, dramatic interest was

added by the appearance on the stage of

affairs of the strong, distinct, and

contrasted figures, John Knox and Mary

Queen of Scots. The whole world looked on

at the contention between these two.

Mary was by temperament and training

a French woman. She was beautiful in

appearance, but her chief charm was in her

manner. She had a fascinating influence

over all who knew her. She was gay and

clever, graceful and accomplished. And she

was a Catholic, devoted to the Catholic

cause.

Knox was fifty-six years old when Mary,

at the age of nineteen, returned from

France to Scotland. He was a stern-faced

man with a long beard. Of the graces and

amusements of life, he had had no

experience. Born on a farm, chained to an

oar in a French gallery, the neighbor and

disciple of Calvin, his ideas of life were

totally different from Mary’s. He was not

disposed to soften or disguise the

difference. He had a terrific plainness of

speech. And he was devoted, heart and

soul, to the Protestant cause.

Knox had the advantage of appearing

first upon the scene. He found Scotland in

the midst of civil war. Protestants and

Catholics were fighting for supremacy. One

day in Edinburgh, after Knox had preached

against idolatry, a priest began to say the

mass. A boy threw a stone against the altar.

Thereupon, the congregation rose up in a

riot, and having destroyed the images in

the church, went out and pulled down

three great monasteries. And what was

done in Edinburgh was done in other

places also. The splendid churches were

defaced; the ancient services were stopped.

One side called for help from France; the

other side called for help from England.

The voice of Knox, it was said, was more

terrible than the sound of five hundred

trumpets.

For a year, between the death of Mary

of Lorraine and the coming of Mary Queen

of Scots, the throne was empty and the

power was in the hands of a parliament.


The parliament adopted a Confession of

Faith, which was composed by Knox and

was according to the doctrines of Calvin.

They abolished the authority of the pope in

Scotland. They forbade attendance at the

service of the mass, and declared that

anybody who was three times convicted of

this offense should be put to death. Thus,

in the place of the old Catholic intolerance,

they introduced a Protestant intolerance.

Meanwhile, the reformers were

gathering congregations, sometimes in the

parish churches and sometimes outside of

them, and now representatives of these

societies were summoned to meet in a

General Assembly. They adopted a Book of

Discipline. It was provided that ministers

should be appointed, not by the bishops,

but by the people. It was arranged that in

Scotland, as in Geneva, everybody’s daily

conduct should be watched and directed.

The ministers were to see to it that the

people neither drank too much nor ate too

much, that they were honest in their

business and sober in their conversation. If

any man refused to obey the minister,

nobody was allowed to speak to him,

except his wife, his family, and the

minister. It was arranged also that the

minister and his wife and children should

be subject to the judgment of the

congregation. Attention was to be paid to

the way in which the minister spent his

salary: he must neither spend too much

nor save too much. The ministers were

directed to meet together every week and

discuss each other’s conduct. Each in turn

was to be frankly criticized by his brethren.

The Book of Discipline taught also that

out of the tithes or taxes the state should

pay, not only preachers, but teachers as

well, and should relieve the poor. There

were to be public schools and universities

for the instruction of all the youths of the

country, to be paid for out of the lands and

other possessions of the Catholic Church.

But this the lords and nobles declined to

undertake, preferring to keep these lands

and treasures for themselves, as had been

done in England.

Only one thing was now needed to

make Scotland like Geneva. The Confession

of Faith had substituted the theology of

Calvin for the theology of the past; the

Book of Discipline had substituted the New

Presbyterianism for the old Episcopacy;

and now the Book of Common Order did

away with the ancient services and put

preaching and extempore prayer in the

place of them.

Thus, when Mary came she found

herself the Catholic queen of a Protestant

nation. The rain was falling heavily on the

day when she landed in Scotland, the sky

was dark, and everything had a dismal and

forbidding look. The land seemed very

different from France, and she disliked it

greatly. Immediately, she found herself in

contention with her people.

On the Sunday after her arrival, the

mass was said in her chapel at Holyrood.

Knox, in his sermon at St. Giles, declared

that one mass was more dangerous to the

country than an invading army of ten

thousand men. The queen called the

preacher to the palace. “It seems,” she said,

“to be your purpose to make my subjects

obey you rather than me.” Knox answered

that his purpose was to lead both princes

and subjects to obey God. Thus, the two

first met. “Think ye,” said Mary, “that

subjects, having power, may resist their

princes?” “If their princes exceed their

bounds, Madam,” answered Knox, “they


may be resisted, and even deposed.”

The queen held a ball at Holyrood, in

celebration — it was said — of a victory of

the Catholics over the Protestants in

France. And Knox preached about it. When

the queen called him to account, he told

her that she had been misinformed. If she

would come to church, he said, she would

know what was being preached.

Meanwhile, the young queen was

making friends. Some of them liked the

pleasures of the court, where there were

good things to eat and drink, and plenty of

music and dancing. These were young

people. Knox and the ministers, with their

hard rules and stern questions, and their

long prayers and sermons, seemed out of

all sympathy with the natural desires of

youth. Other friends liked the ancient

Church and its rich services, the candles

and the singing, the colors and the

ceremonies. They felt it was unjust to

forbid them to say their prayers in their

own way. They hoped Mary would succeed

till all the new fashions in religion should

be abolished and Knox should be sent back

to Geneva.

It is possible these hopes might have

been fulfilled, if Mary had been wise.

Already, the mass was being said, in spite

of the law, not only at court, but in some of

the great houses of the nobility. And it was

reported that the queen was about to marry

the son of the Catholic king of Spain. It was

plain that such a marriage, bringing the

power of Spain to reinforce the Church,

would be the end of the authority of Knox.

He preached about it, and again the queen

called him to the palace.

“What have you to do with my

marriage?” she cried. “I have borne with

you in all your rigorous manner of

speaking, yea, I have sought your favor by

all possible means, and yet I cannot be quit

of you. I vow to God I shall be revenged.”

And she turned upon him, in tears and

great anger. “What are you within this

realm?”

To which Knox answered, “A subject

born within the same.”

Thus, he declared the right of the

people to rule themselves. Because he

represented the people, though he was but

a farmer’s son, he stood in equality with

kings.

Whatever influence the queen had

gained, she lost it by her own folly. She

married her cousin, Henry Darnley, and

within a year showed such favor to a young

Italian, Rizzio, that Darnley stabbed him to

death in the queen’s room. Then she fell in

love with the young Earl of Bothwell, and,

within a year of the murder of Rizzio,

Darnley was killed; the house in which he

slept being blown up by gunpowder,

exploded — it was believed — by the hands

of Bothwell. Three months afterwards,

Mary married Bothwell. This was more

than the country could endure. She was

seized by the people and compelled to

resign her crown. After one decisive battle

in which great numbers of the nobility

fought on her side, she was compelled to

flee to England, where she lived for twenty

years, till, in the contentions of the time,

accused of conspiracy against Elizabeth,

she was beheaded.

Great Britain was made Protestant by

the action of two queens. The people were

slow to change from the old religion to the

new. The Reformation was finally

established in Scotland, when the people

came to hate the Catholic Church because

of the follies of Mary Queen of Scots. It was


finally established in England when the

people came to hate the Catholics because

of the cruelties of Bloody Mary. The two

Marys were mainly responsible for it: one

of them by marrying Bothwell, the other by

burning Cranmer.

Knox preached at the coronation of

Mary’s infant son, King James. The pulpit

of St. Giles resounded with his sturdy

sermons. One time when the French

ambassador complained to the Town

Council that Knox had denounced the king

of France, the Council said, “It is very

likely. We cannot prevent him from

denouncing us.” Being driven out of

Edinburgh for a time by enemies, he went

to St. Andrews. One describes how the old

man went on preaching-days to the parish

church, fur about his neck, a staff in his

hand, and his servant, Richard, helping

him along. “Then, by the same Richard and

another servant, he was lifted up to the

pulpit, where he behoved to lean at his first

entrance; but, ere he had done with his

sermon, he was so active and vigorous that

he was like to ding the pulpit in blads and

fly out of it.” To “ding the pulpit in blads”

means to break it in pieces. It is an

interesting picture of Knox preaching.

Returning to Edinburgh, he was strong

enough to preach a fierce sermon about the

Massacre of St. Bartholomew. His last

public appearance was at the installation of

his successor. Out he went, after the

service, leaning on his staff.

Beside the grave of John Knox the Earl

of Morton said, “Here lieth a man who in

his life never feared the face of man.”

Documents

T h e A r t i o s H o m e C o m p a n i o n S e r i e s ... · not live in temples built by human hands. And he is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything. Rather, he