T & D PRESENTATION T & D PRESENTATION

BY MEHWISH AMJAD(3285)BY MEHWISH AMJAD(3285)

COMPONENT DISPLAY THEORYCOMPONENT DISPLAY THEORY

Component Display Theory (CDT) is Component Display Theory (CDT) is proposed by M. D. Merrill. proposed by M. D. Merrill.

This theory classifies learning along This theory classifies learning along two dimensions: two dimensions:

(i) content (facts, concepts, (i) content (facts, concepts, procedures, and principles) and procedures, and principles) and

(ii) performance (remembering, using, (ii) performance (remembering, using, generalities). generalities).

=>The theory specifies four primary =>The theory specifies four primary presentation forms: presentation forms:

rules (expository presentation of a generality),rules (expository presentation of a generality), examples (expository presentation of examples (expository presentation of

instances),instances), recall (inquisitory generality) and recall (inquisitory generality) and practice (inquisitory instance). practice (inquisitory instance).

=>Secondary presentation forms include: =>Secondary presentation forms include: prerequisites, objectives, helps, mnemonics, prerequisites, objectives, helps, mnemonics, and feedbackand feedback

PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES

Instruction will be more effective if all Instruction will be more effective if all three primary performance forms three primary performance forms (remember, use, generality) are present. (remember, use, generality) are present.

Primary forms can be presented by either Primary forms can be presented by either an explanatory or inquisitory learning an explanatory or inquisitory learning strategy strategy

The sequence of primary forms is not The sequence of primary forms is not critical provided they are all present. critical provided they are all present.

Students should be given control over the Students should be given control over the number of instances or practice items they number of instances or practice items they receivereceive

CONDITIONS OF LEARNING CONDITIONS OF LEARNING THEORYTHEORY

This theory stipulates that there are This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of several different types or levels of learning and each different type learning and each different type requires different types of instruction requires different types of instruction (internal and external). The five (internal and external). The five major categories of learning are: major categories of learning are: verbal information, intellectual skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. attitudes.

PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES

1. Different instruction is required for 1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. different learning outcomes.

2. Events of learning operate on the 2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning. conditions of learning.

3. The specific operations that constitute 3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each instructional events are different for each different type of learning outcome. different type of learning outcome.

4. Learning hierarchies define what 4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction. sequence of instruction.

CONNECTIONISM THEORYCONNECTIONISM THEORY

The learning theory of Thorndike The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology: framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. frequency of the S-R pairings.

Thorndike's theory consists of three Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws: primary laws:

(1) law of effect (1) law of effect (2) law of readiness (2) law of readiness (3) law of exercise - (3) law of exercise -

1)LAW OF EFFECT– 1)LAW OF EFFECT– Responses to a situation Responses to a situation

which are followed by a rewarding state of which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, habitual responses to that situation,

(2)LAW OF READINESS– (2)LAW OF READINESS–

A series of responses can A series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked, which will result in annoyance if blocked,

(3)LAW OF EXERCISE– (3)LAW OF EXERCISE– Connections become strengthened Connections become strengthened

with practice and weakened when with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. practice is discontinued.

PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES

1. Learning requires both practice and 1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise) rewards (laws of effect /exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be 2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (law of same action sequence (law of readiness). readiness).

3. Transfer of learning occurs because 3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations. of previously encountered situations.

4. Intelligence is a function of the 4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned. number of connections learned.

CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORYCONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY

This theory proposed that learning is This theory proposed that learning is an active process in which learners an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. upon their current/past knowledge.

The learner selects and transforms The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) structure (i.e., schema, mental models)

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major instruction should address four major aspects: aspects:

predisposition towards learning, predisposition towards learning, the ways in which a body of knowledge the ways in which a body of knowledge

can be structured so that it can be most can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, readily grasped by the learner,

the most effective sequences in which to the most effective sequences in which to present material, and present material, and

the nature and pacing of rewards and the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. punishments.

PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES

1. Instruction must be concerned with the 1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). student willing and able to learn (readiness).

2. Instruction must be structured so that it 2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization). organization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate 3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given). beyond the information given).

CONTIGUITY THEORYCONTIGUITY THEORY

Guthrie's contiguity theory specifies that Guthrie's contiguity theory specifies that "a combination of stimuli which has "a combination of stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that recurrence tend to be followed by that movement". movement".

In contiguity theory, rewards or In contiguity theory, rewards or punishment play no significant role in punishment play no significant role in learning since they occur after the learning since they occur after the association between stimulus and association between stimulus and response has been made. response has been made.

PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES

1. In order for conditioning to occur, the 1. In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must actively respond (i.e., do organism must actively respond (i.e., do things). things).

2. Since learning involves the conditioning 2. Since learning involves the conditioning of specific movements, instruction must of specific movements, instruction must present very specific tasks. present very specific tasks.

3. Exposure to many variations in stimulus 3. Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable in order to produce a patterns is desirable in order to produce a generalized response. generalized response.

4. The last response in a learning situation 4. The last response in a learning situation should be correct since it is the one that should be correct since it is the one that will be associated. will be associated.

CONVERSATION THEORYCONVERSATION THEORY

The Conversation Theory developed The Conversation Theory developed by G. Pask and attempts to explain by G. Pask and attempts to explain learning in both living organisms and learning in both living organisms and machines. The fundamental idea of machines. The fundamental idea of the theory was that learning occurs the theory was that learning occurs through conversations about a through conversations about a subject matter which serve to make subject matter which serve to make knowledge explicit. knowledge explicit.

Conversations can be conducted at a Conversations can be conducted at a number of different levels: number of different levels:

natural language (general natural language (general discussion),discussion),

object languages (for discussing the object languages (for discussing the subject matter), subject matter),

Meta languages (for talking about Meta languages (for talking about learning/language). learning/language).

PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES

1. To learn a subject matter, students 1. To learn a subject matter, students must learn the relationships among the must learn the relationships among the concepts. concepts.

2. Explicit explanation or manipulation of 2. Explicit explanation or manipulation of the subject matter facilitates the subject matter facilitates understanding (e.g., use of teachback understanding (e.g., use of teachback technique). technique).

3. Individual's differ in their preferred 3. Individual's differ in their preferred manner of learning relationships (serialists manner of learning relationships (serialists versus holists). versus holists).

CRITERIAN REFERENCED CRITERIAN REFERENCED INSTRUCTION THEORYINSTRUCTION THEORY

The Criterion Referenced Instruction (CRI) The Criterion Referenced Instruction (CRI) framework developed by Robert Mager is a framework developed by Robert Mager is a comprehensive set of methods for the comprehensive set of methods for the design and delivery of training programs. design and delivery of training programs. Some of the critical aspects include: Some of the critical aspects include:

(1) goal/task analysis (1) goal/task analysis (2) performance objectives (2) performance objectives (3) criterion referenced testing (3) criterion referenced testing 4) development of learning modules tied 4) development of learning modules tied

to specific objectives. to specific objectives.

PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES

Instructional objectives are derived from job Instructional objectives are derived from job performance and reflect the competencies performance and reflect the competencies (knowledge/skills) that need to be learned. (knowledge/skills) that need to be learned.

Students study and practice only those skills Students study and practice only those skills not yet mastered to the level required by the not yet mastered to the level required by the objectives. objectives.

Students are given opportunities to practice Students are given opportunities to practice each objective and obtain feedback about each objective and obtain feedback about the quality of their performance. the quality of their performance.

Students should receive repeated Students should receive repeated practice in skills that are used often practice in skills that are used often or are difficult to learn. or are difficult to learn.

Students are free to sequence their Students are free to sequence their own instruction within the constraints own instruction within the constraints imposed by the pre-requisites and imposed by the pre-requisites and progress is controlled by their own progress is controlled by their own competence (mastery of objectives). competence (mastery of objectives).

DOUBLE LOOP LEARNING DOUBLE LOOP LEARNING THEORYTHEORY

Argyris (1976) proposes double loop Argyris (1976) proposes double loop learning theory which pertains to learning learning theory which pertains to learning to change underlying values and to change underlying values and assumptions. assumptions.

It is based upon a "theory of action“. An It is based upon a "theory of action“. An important aspect of the theory is the important aspect of the theory is the distinction between an individual's distinction between an individual's espoused theory and their "theory-in-use" espoused theory and their "theory-in-use" & bringing these two into congruence is a & bringing these two into congruence is a primary concern of double loop learning. primary concern of double loop learning.

PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES

Effective problem-solving about Effective problem-solving about interpersonal or technical issues interpersonal or technical issues requires frequent public testing of requires frequent public testing of theories-in-use. theories-in-use.

Double loop learning requires Double loop learning requires learning situations in which learning situations in which participants can examine and participants can examine and experiment with their theories of experiment with their theories of action. action.

DRIVE REDUCTION THEORYDRIVE REDUCTION THEORY

This theory was proposed by Hull, & he This theory was proposed by Hull, & he developed a version of behaviorism in developed a version of behaviorism in which the stimulus (S) affects the organism which the stimulus (S) affects the organism (O) and the resulting response (R) depends (O) and the resulting response (R) depends upon characteristics of both O and S. upon characteristics of both O and S.

In other behavior theories, reinforcement is In other behavior theories, reinforcement is the primary factor that determines the primary factor that determines learning. However, in Hull's theory, drive learning. However, in Hull's theory, drive reduction or need satisfaction plays a reduction or need satisfaction plays a much more important role in behavior much more important role in behavior

PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES

Drive is essential in order for Drive is essential in order for responses to occurresponses to occur

Stimuli and responses must be Stimuli and responses must be detected by the organism in order for detected by the organism in order for conditioning to occur conditioning to occur

Response must be made in order for Response must be made in order for conditioning to occur conditioning to occur

Conditioning only occurs if the Conditioning only occurs if the reinforcement satisfied a needreinforcement satisfied a need

DUAL CODING THEORYDUAL CODING THEORY

The dual coding theory proposed by The dual coding theory proposed by Paivio attempts to give equal weight Paivio attempts to give equal weight to verbal and non-verbal processing. to verbal and non-verbal processing.

Paivio (1986) states: "Human Paivio (1986) states: "Human cognition is unique in that it has cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events with nonverbal objects and events

Dual Coding theory identified three Dual Coding theory identified three types of processing: types of processing:

(1) representational(1) representational

(2) referential &(2) referential &

(3) associative processing(3) associative processing

PRINCIPLESPRINCIPLES

Recall/recognition is enhanced by Recall/recognition is enhanced by presenting information in both visual presenting information in both visual and verbal form. and verbal form.