System Design:System Design:Organizational and Social AspectsOrganizational and Social Aspects

Systems ErgonomicsSystems ErgonomicsApplying knowledge of ergonomics to the Applying knowledge of ergonomics to the

design of systems.design of systems.

Steps needed for an ergonomic approach:

Formulation of goals.

Analysis and allocation of function.

Design concept.

Detailed design.

Realization, implementation and validation.

Evaluation.

Formulation of the System’s GoalsFormulation of the System’s Goals

Obviously, you need to know what the system you’re Obviously, you need to know what the system you’re making needs to be capable of before you can design it. making needs to be capable of before you can design it. This step involves selecting specific requirements, but This step involves selecting specific requirements, but does not establish any methods to accomplishing the does not establish any methods to accomplishing the goals.goals.

Methods for deciding on specifications:Methods for deciding on specifications:• Unstructured and structured interviews.Unstructured and structured interviews.

• Unobtrusive observation of existing systems.Unobtrusive observation of existing systems.• Questionnaire surveys.Questionnaire surveys.• Market research.Market research.

• Make stuff up – because nobody will notice anyway and you can blow the rest of your Make stuff up – because nobody will notice anyway and you can blow the rest of your budget at the bar.budget at the bar.

Analysis and Allocation of FunctionAnalysis and Allocation of Function

In identifying and describing functions to be performed, In identifying and describing functions to be performed, abstract terms (abstract functional thinking) may prove abstract terms (abstract functional thinking) may prove helpful in finding new methods, breaking through helpful in finding new methods, breaking through semantic barriers, and allowing for a wider range of semantic barriers, and allowing for a wider range of components.components.

After required functions have been identified, they are After required functions have been identified, they are allocated between operators and machines. That is, the allocated between operators and machines. That is, the level of automation in the system is defined, generally level of automation in the system is defined, generally into three catagories:into three catagories:

• Functions that must be performed by machines.Functions that must be performed by machines.

• Functions that must be performed by humans.Functions that must be performed by humans.

• Functions that can be carried out by either or both together.Functions that can be carried out by either or both together.

Design ConceptDesign Concept

At this point, the specifications and function allocations are At this point, the specifications and function allocations are put together into a design concept, using methods of put together into a design concept, using methods of concept generation (like value engineering) or through concept generation (like value engineering) or through simple brainstorming. Although merely a concept, it simple brainstorming. Although merely a concept, it should be detailed enough to describe the work system’s should be detailed enough to describe the work system’s structure and the interactions between components of structure and the interactions between components of the system.the system.

Functions allocated to workers are sorted into tasks, roles, Functions allocated to workers are sorted into tasks, roles, and jobs.and jobs.

Detailed DesignDetailed Design

Human and machine components are developed in parallel Human and machine components are developed in parallel to save development time. Ergonomics should act as a to save development time. Ergonomics should act as a link between the two.link between the two.

This stage should include the design of work organization, This stage should include the design of work organization, work tasks, jobs, work environment, work equipment work tasks, jobs, work environment, work equipment (along with work hardware and software), and (along with work hardware and software), and workspaces and workstations.workspaces and workstations.

Realization, Implementation, and ValidationRealization, Implementation, and Validation

Realization – Procurement and installation of the new Realization – Procurement and installation of the new system on site.system on site.

Implementation – Management and changeover from the Implementation – Management and changeover from the old system, including training of operators.old system, including training of operators.

Validation – Observing that the system is functioning in a Validation – Observing that the system is functioning in a way to meet the requirements.way to meet the requirements.

EvaluationEvaluation

Seeks to determine how well the system meets identified Seeks to determine how well the system meets identified requirements.requirements.

Quality Control – A system is said to be of good quality if it Quality Control – A system is said to be of good quality if it meets the set requirements. Quality control should be meets the set requirements. Quality control should be monitored during the design stages to ensure that monitored during the design stages to ensure that nothing is designed against ergonomic standards.nothing is designed against ergonomic standards.

Organizational AspectsOrganizational Aspects

Sociotechnical systems theorySociotechnical systems theory• Linking of technical and social subsystems through the use of Linking of technical and social subsystems through the use of

work organization.work organization.• Table 16.2 – Principles of sociotechnical job design.Table 16.2 – Principles of sociotechnical job design.1. Compatibility1. Compatibility2. Minimal critical specification2. Minimal critical specification3. The sociotechnical criterion 3. The sociotechnical criterion 4. The multifunction principle4. The multifunction principle5. Boundary location5. Boundary location6. Information flow6. Information flow7. Support congruence7. Support congruence8. Design and human values8. Design and human values9. Incompletion9. Incompletion

OSHAOSHA (the Occupational Safety and Health (the Occupational Safety and Health

Administration)Administration)

Monitors about 6 million workplaces and 93 million workers.Monitors about 6 million workplaces and 93 million workers.

Has attempted to establish workplace standards in response to the Has attempted to establish workplace standards in response to the growing number of musculoskeletal injuries that are being filed for growing number of musculoskeletal injuries that are being filed for compensation by injured workers.compensation by injured workers.

Aims to “prevent, eliminate and reduce ergonomic hazards in the Aims to “prevent, eliminate and reduce ergonomic hazards in the workplace.”workplace.”

General guidelines for most industries, and specific ones for “high-risk” General guidelines for most industries, and specific ones for “high-risk” industries (i.e. construction).industries (i.e. construction).

Worksite analysis plays a large role in adjusting tasks to be more Worksite analysis plays a large role in adjusting tasks to be more ergonomic (best repeated annually with high-risk jobs).ergonomic (best repeated annually with high-risk jobs).

Table 16.3 – Key features of OSHA’s program guidelines for Table 16.3 – Key features of OSHA’s program guidelines for meatpacking plants.meatpacking plants.

Legislation in the European UnionLegislation in the European Union

Directives require each state to introduce legislation that covers:Directives require each state to introduce legislation that covers:• Management of health and safetyManagement of health and safety• Manual handling of loadsManual handling of loads• Work with display screen equipment (VDUs)Work with display screen equipment (VDUs)• Use of personal protective equipmentUse of personal protective equipment• Use of work equipmentUse of work equipment• Workplace design (health, safety and welfare)Workplace design (health, safety and welfare)

Responsibility of worker’s health is placed on the employer, who is Responsibility of worker’s health is placed on the employer, who is required to carry out risk assessments, monitor employee health, required to carry out risk assessments, monitor employee health, and make sure workers are suited for their jobs (in competence, and make sure workers are suited for their jobs (in competence, training, and with proper equipments for health and safety).training, and with proper equipments for health and safety).

Dwyer and RafteryDwyer and Raftery

Provided further evidence for the need of a systems Provided further evidence for the need of a systems approach that considers ergonomics by investigating approach that considers ergonomics by investigating industrial accidents.industrial accidents.

Organizational factors that are related to accident Organizational factors that are related to accident frequencyfrequency

Working on a piece rate basisWorking on a piece rate basis Under-nutrition of employeesUnder-nutrition of employees Extended work hoursExtended work hours Absence of integration between different work groupsAbsence of integration between different work groups

Incentive schemesIncentive schemes

Use of positive reinforcement rather than negative.Use of positive reinforcement rather than negative.

Incentives can be of many different formsIncentives can be of many different forms Cash bonusesCash bonuses Points or stamps that can be traded in for fun new stuff!!Points or stamps that can be traded in for fun new stuff!! Employee of the Month awardsEmployee of the Month awards

These schemes show gains for the short term.These schemes show gains for the short term.

Implementing new technologyImplementing new technology

New technologies take time to mature.New technologies take time to mature.

New technologies can introduce secondary tasks which New technologies can introduce secondary tasks which negate their benefits.negate their benefits.

Productivity paradoxesProductivity paradoxes

QualityQuality

Lack of technologyLack of technology

Time lagsTime lags

Inappropriate expectationsInappropriate expectations

Computerization of administrative functions can end up Computerization of administrative functions can end up costing more to maintain.costing more to maintain.

Disadvantages of ITDisadvantages of IT

Waiting for programs to run or for help to arrive.Waiting for programs to run or for help to arrive.

Double checking printouts for accuracy.Double checking printouts for accuracy.

Rearranging files.Rearranging files.

Games.Games.

Internet – not just because of browsing, but when Internet – not just because of browsing, but when systems are used over it, there is more wait.systems are used over it, there is more wait.

Overemphasis on quality.Overemphasis on quality.

Employees having to cope with new, more complex Employees having to cope with new, more complex systems.systems.

User attention becomes focused on software.User attention becomes focused on software.

Organizational braking factors on IT productivity – Organizational braking factors on IT productivity – Hopwood says decision makers use cost-benefit Hopwood says decision makers use cost-benefit analysis, and often weigh cost much more heavily.analysis, and often weigh cost much more heavily.

Incremental alternatives – The use of ‘Information Incremental alternatives – The use of ‘Information Appliances’ that help people carry out specific functions Appliances’ that help people carry out specific functions may be a better way to get IT into the workplace.may be a better way to get IT into the workplace.

Containerization – Greatly reduced shipping costs by Containerization – Greatly reduced shipping costs by loading the trucks on the boat and eliminating dock loading the trucks on the boat and eliminating dock workers. Macroergonomic interventions bring workers. Macroergonomic interventions bring improvements by redesign of organization, rather than improvements by redesign of organization, rather than user interfaces and workspaces.user interfaces and workspaces.

Trading patterns – International trade has changed from Trading patterns – International trade has changed from low-value goods to high-value added goods.low-value goods to high-value added goods.

ShiftworkShiftworkProductivity has a natural rise and fall as the work day Productivity has a natural rise and fall as the work day progresses because of psychological cues (such as progresses because of psychological cues (such as lunch time getting closer, etc).lunch time getting closer, etc).

Shiftwork can be very complicated to completely Shiftwork can be very complicated to completely implement because of social issues, and incomplete implement because of social issues, and incomplete adaptation can result in increases of employee absense.adaptation can result in increases of employee absense.

Considerations when designing shift systems include Considerations when designing shift systems include identifying employees who might prefer night work to identifying employees who might prefer night work to reduce the need for adaptation.reduce the need for adaptation.

Adaptation of a new shift system must take place over at Adaptation of a new shift system must take place over at least a week.least a week.

Where possible, minimize changes in work hours.Where possible, minimize changes in work hours.

Three-shift system may be the best compromise if Three-shift system may be the best compromise if voluntary night workers can’t be found.voluntary night workers can’t be found.

Permanent night shifts with rotating day shifts is the best Permanent night shifts with rotating day shifts is the best option.option.

Shift designers must take into account social settings Shift designers must take into account social settings such as night workers not having methods of such as night workers not having methods of transportation.transportation.

8 hour shifts are preferable, but some jobs may be better 8 hour shifts are preferable, but some jobs may be better suited to 12 hour shifts.suited to 12 hour shifts.

Psychosocial factorsPsychosocial factors

Much of the emphasis of ergonomics is on human capabilities and Much of the emphasis of ergonomics is on human capabilities and limitations, but other matters may require consideration as well.limitations, but other matters may require consideration as well.

Motivation – higher-level needs should not come into play until Motivation – higher-level needs should not come into play until lower-level needs are met.lower-level needs are met.

Job enlargement – gives operator more tasks to reduce risk of Job enlargement – gives operator more tasks to reduce risk of repetitive injuries.repetitive injuries.

Job enrichment – extend workers duties vertically, such as making Job enrichment – extend workers duties vertically, such as making them responsible for quality control as well. May result in workers them responsible for quality control as well. May result in workers wanting increased pay.wanting increased pay.

Job satisfaction – Hygiene factors (Table 16.4), Table 16.5 – how to Job satisfaction – Hygiene factors (Table 16.4), Table 16.5 – how to improve job design. Both are based on Hertzberg’s proposed improve job design. Both are based on Hertzberg’s proposed principles on job satisfaction.principles on job satisfaction.

Psychosocial factors cont’dPsychosocial factors cont’d

These factors can be used to mediate the prevalence of These factors can be used to mediate the prevalence of disorders or behaviors associated with the disorders.disorders or behaviors associated with the disorders.

Table 16.6 summarizes psychosocial risk factors for back Table 16.6 summarizes psychosocial risk factors for back and neck pain (as found by Lindon)and neck pain (as found by Lindon)

In designing experiments and field trials, subject reactivity, In designing experiments and field trials, subject reactivity, or changes in behavior brought about by being in an or changes in behavior brought about by being in an experiment, must be accounted for and dealt with.experiment, must be accounted for and dealt with.

Novel interventions, such as new office furniture, work Novel interventions, such as new office furniture, work because they’re novel, but are not long-term fixes.because they’re novel, but are not long-term fixes.

Placebo effects are very common.Placebo effects are very common.

LitigationLitigation

In cases where there is a real injury and it may be work In cases where there is a real injury and it may be work related, ergonomists are brought in to determine:related, ergonomists are brought in to determine:

Whether there were risk factors in the environmentWhether there were risk factors in the environment Whether the employer could reasonable have known about themWhether the employer could reasonable have known about them Whether the employer was negligent in not taking all reasonable Whether the employer was negligent in not taking all reasonable

steps to safeguard the employee’s health.steps to safeguard the employee’s health.

Cross-cultural ConsiderationsCross-cultural Considerations

Cognitive structures differ between cultures. That’s not Cognitive structures differ between cultures. That’s not to say any are better than others, but this must be to say any are better than others, but this must be considered when bringing new technologies to other considered when bringing new technologies to other cultures. cultures.

Having an understanding of cultural and religious beliefs Having an understanding of cultural and religious beliefs can be used in designing workplace slogans and can be used in designing workplace slogans and propaganda.propaganda.

Effectiveness and Cost-effectivenessEffectiveness and Cost-effectiveness

Three approaches to cost-effective ergonomic Three approaches to cost-effective ergonomic interventions:interventions:

Identify high risk areas. Even expensive interventions can be Identify high risk areas. Even expensive interventions can be cost-effective if they reduce risk.cost-effective if they reduce risk.

Identify problems that are extremely common and implement Identify problems that are extremely common and implement common interventions.common interventions.

Design new systems that work by using people and technology Design new systems that work by using people and technology more effectively that are designed with ergonomics in mind.more effectively that are designed with ergonomics in mind.

It must be kept in mind that arguments for cost-saving must specify It must be kept in mind that arguments for cost-saving must specify how ergonomics will save money, rather than just passing it off how ergonomics will save money, rather than just passing it off by saying “The solutions will pay for themselves.”by saying “The solutions will pay for themselves.”

Questions?Questions?