Syria (3)

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

1/78

1

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

2/78

2

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Geography ......................................................................................................... 5

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 5

Location and Area ........................................................................................................... 5

Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features ........................................................... 6

Rivers and Lakes ............................................................................................................. 8

Climate .......................................................................................................................... 10

Major Cities .................................................................................................................. 11

Environmental Concerns ............................................................................................... 15

Natural Hazards ............................................................................................................ 16

Chapter 1: Assessment ...................................................................................................... 18

Chapter 2: History ............................................................................................................. 19

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 19

Ebla ............................................................................................................................... 19

Waves of Invaders......................................................................................................... 20

Aramaeans, Assyrians, and Persians ............................................................................. 21

Ancient Greek Conquest ............................................................................................... 22

The Roman and Byzantine Era ..................................................................................... 23

The Spread of Islam ...................................................................................................... 24

The Umayyad Era ......................................................................................................... 25

Fatimid Rule.................................................................................................................. 26

Saladin, the Ayyubids, and the Mamluks ..................................................................... 27

The Ottoman Era ........................................................................................................... 28

End of the Ottoman Era ................................................................................................ 29

World War I .................................................................................................................. 30

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

3/78

3

The French Mandate ..................................................................................................... 30

Coups ............................................................................................................................ 31

The Baathists ................................................................................................................. 32

Baath Ascendancy ......................................................................................................... 33

The Early Assad Years.................................................................................................. 35

Lebanon......................................................................................................................... 35

Bashar al-Assad ............................................................................................................ 36

Recent Events................................................................................................................ 37


Chapter 3: Economy ......................................................................................................... 41

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 41

Resources ...................................................................................................................... 42

Services ......................................................................................................................... 43

Industry ......................................................................................................................... 45

Agriculture .................................................................................................................... 45

Trade ............................................................................................................................. 47

Standard of Living ........................................................................................................ 48

Investment ..................................................................................................................... 50

Transportation ............................................................................................................... 50

Economic Outlook ........................................................................................................ 51


Chapter 4: Society ............................................................................................................. 53

Ethnic Groups ............................................................................................................... 53

Political Refugees ......................................................................................................... 54

Literature and Arts ........................................................................................................ 54

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

4/78

4

Social Customs.............................................................................................................. 55

MaleFemale Relationships .......................................................................................... 56

Sports ............................................................................................................................ 58


Chapter 5: Security ........................................................................................................... 60

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 60

U.S.Syrian Relations ................................................................................................... 60

Relations with Neighboring Countries.......................................................................... 62

Military ......................................................................................................................... 68

Terrorist Groups ............................................................................................................ 69

Other Security Issues .................................................................................................... 70


Final Assessment .............................................................................................................. 76

Further Reading ................................................................................................................ 78

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

5/78

5

Chapter 1: Geography

Introduction

Located on the east coast of the MediterraneanSea in the Middle East, Syria occupies a sensitivegeopolitical region that has traditionally been acrossroads between Asia, Africa, and Europe.Modern-day Syria was once part of a largergeographical territory that encompassed thecoastal and inland areas along the easternMediterranean Sea. Known as Greater Syria, orthe Levant, this region roughly included thecurrent states of Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, andSyria, as well as the present-day Palestinian territories and a portion of southern Turkey. 1

Most of Syria is semi-arid, desert plateau, punctuated by numerous rivers and mountains.The mountains, Jabal an Nusayriyah and the Anti-Lebanon Range in particular, shape thecountrys climate by preventing much of the Mediterranean winds and rains from passinginto Syrias interior. Along the coast, summers are hot and winters are rainy. The higherelevations receive rain and snow. East of the mountains, temperatures are more extremeand the air is typically dry. Throughout Syria, the spring and fall seasons are generallymild and pleasant as the temperature gradually increases or decreases according toseason.

In its modern form, Syria occupies the northern portion of the Greater Syrian region.

Location and Area

Syria is bound by five neighbors. The country

shares its northern border with Turkey, and to theeast and southeast, it shares a border with Iraq. Tothe south lies Jordan. On Syrias far southwesternedge lies the Golan Heights region, which Israelhas occupied since 1967. Site of Syrias ongoingterritorial dispute with Israel, the strategic GolanHeights includes three main tributaries of theJordan River, a major water supply for Israel. TheGolan Heights border between Syria and Israelmeasures 76 km (47 mi). Lebanon, which also claims a portion of Golan Heights, liesbetween the Mediterranean Sea and Syrias western border.2

1The extent of Greater Syria varies according to source.

Syrias short Mediterranean

coastline (193 km or 120 mi) begins at Lebanons northern border and runs to thesouthern border of Turkey.

2Central Intelligence Agency, Lebanon, in The World Factbook, 6 April 2011,https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.htmlhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.htmlhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

6/78

6

As a whole, Syrias total surface area measures 185,180 sq km (71,498 sq mi), (includinga 1,295 sq km (500 sq mi) region of Golan Heights).3At this size, Syria is slightly largerthan the state of North Dakota.4

Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features

Syrias topography demonstrates significantdiversity as one moves from the Mediterraneancoast (in the west) to the Syrian Desert (in thesoutheast). The western region of the country ischaracterized by a narrow coastal plain and twomajor mountain chains. The expansive easternregion largely consists of steppe or desert plateauinterspersed with river basin, low elevationmountain ranges, and occasional oases.

Coastal Plain

Bounded by mountains to the immediate east, a narrow plain runs along SyriasMediterranean coast from Turkey in the north to Lebanon in the south. The width of theplain varies according to the reach of the nearby mountains; the plain is widest in thenorth near the port city of Latakia and in the south near the Lebanese border. Because ofits extremely fertile soil and Mediterranean climate, the coastal plain is the site of intenseagricultural development. It is also densely populated. The terrain along the coastlinevaries from sandy shores to rugged, rocky promontories and cliffs.5

Mountains

The Jabal an Nusayriyah mountain range risesfrom the coastal plain to form a rugged north

south boundary running parallel to the coast. Thepeaks of the Jabal an Nusayriyah average 1,212 m(3,976 ft), with a highpoint of 1,524 m(5,000 ft)marking the northern end of the range. 6Theranges western slope, indented with deepravines, receives significant moisture from theMediterranean Sea. Numerous historic castles andfortresses built by either Arabs or Crusaderspopulate the mountains of this region. The ranges eastern slope descends rapidly into therichly fertile Ghab Depression, which is part of the Great Rift Valley.7

3Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Syria: Geography, April 2005, 4,

At the southern

http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdf4Central Intelligence Agency, Syria, in The World Factbook, 6 April 2011,https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html5TerriDougherty,From Sea to Desert, in Syria(San Diego: Thomson Gale, 2004), 1112.6Alison Behnke,The Land, in Syria in Pictures(Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 2005), 9.7Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Environment, in Syria and Lebanon(Footscray,Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 57.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.htmlhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.htmlhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.htmlhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdf

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

7/78

7

end of the range, the Jabal an Nusayriyah descends into Homs Gap, a traditional tradeand passage route separating the Jabal anNusayriyah and another major Syrian range tothe south, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains.8

Running roughly northeastsouthwest, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains form the boundarybetween Syria and Lebanon. Jabal al-Shaykh, also known as Mt. Hermon (2,814 m; 9,232ft), is located in the southern reaches of this range, which averages 2,000 m (6,500 ft).

9

Additional ranges populate the southern and central areas of Syria. The Jabal al-Arabrange, also known as the Jabal Druze, is in the far south, near the Jordanian border. Thesevolcanic peaks are the traditional home of the Druze, one of Syrias many religiousgroups.

These mountains are often capped with snow in winter months. From Mt. Hermon, therange descends southward into the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights region.

10The Jabal ar Ruwaq, the Jabal Abu Rujmayn, and the Jabal Bishri are lowelevationranges that extend northeastward across the central plateau and southerndesert.11

Eastern Plateau and the Syrian DesertEast of the western mountains and the GhabDepression, northern Syria largely consists ofsemiarid to arid plateau, with vegetation rangingfrom agricultural crops to grass and shrub. In thenorth and northeast, the Euphrates River and itstributaries intersect the plateau and carry preciouswater through the region, allowing foragricultural development and human settlement.The far northeastern region of Syria is the JaziraPlain. Located between the Euphrates and Tigris

Rivers, this expanse of grassland is an important agricultural region, particularly forcereal crops.As the northern region of Mesopotamia, the Jazira Plain extendssoutheastward into Iraq.12

Moving south from the Euphrates River Basin, the terrain transitions from steppe into theSyrian Desert, which comprises most of southeastern Syria and extends into Iraq andJordan. The terrain in this region is dry, rocky, and largely barren, although there areoccasional oases and some patches of scrub grass. (The oases were once caravan towns

8The name Anti-Lebanon Mountains means that the range lies geographically opposite the Lebanon

Mountain range.9Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: The Land: Relief: The Mountains, 2008,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria#10Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: The Land: Relief: The Mountains, 2008,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria#11Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment:Geography and Population: Land, Water, and Climate,inSyria: A Country Study, April 1987,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030)12Warwick Ball, Chapter 1: Introduction, in Syria: A Historical and Architectural Guide(Northampton,Massachusetts: Interlink Publishing Group, Inc., 2007), 111.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

8/78

8

on the Silk Road trade route.) Small populations of Bedouin, a tribe of nomadicpastoralists, live in this area.13Originating in the southwest, a few low elevationmountain ranges extend across the desert plateau towards the northeast. The Hawran, avolcanic lava field interspersed with patches of fertilesoil, is in the southwest near theJabal al-Arab range and the SyrianJordanian border.14

The Fertile Crescent

In the far southwest is the

contested region of Golan Heights, which consists of foothills descending into plateau.The most important regional cities in the far southwest are As Suwayda and Daraa,which became the epicenter of mass anti-government protests in the spring of 2011.

The cultivated region of the country extends in an arc from the Jazira plain and theEuphrates River basin through northern Syria and south along the coastal plains. Thisarea is part of the Fertile Crescent. Stretching from Mesopotamia in Iraq to the NileValley in Egypt, the Fertile Crescent is a swath of productive, hospitable land borderedby inhospitable desert. Endowed with precious water resources, the region has given riseto some of the worlds earliest civilizations.15Today, Syrias population remains heavily

centered in pockets within the Fertile Crescent, namely the coastal plain, the historiccities of Aleppo and Damascus, and the Jazira.16

Rivers and Lakes

Euphrates River

The Euphrates River, or Nahr al-Furat, is theprincipal source of water in Syria; it isresponsible for roughly 80% of the countryswater supply.17Although only a fraction of itslength is in Syria, the Euphrates is the countryslongest river. In north-central Syria, a large damon the Euphrates feeds a massive reservoir calledBuhayrat al Assad, or Lake Assad. At roughly 60km in length, thereservoir is the nations largestbody of water.18Constructed in the 1960s and1970s, the Euphrates Dam (also known as the Tabaqa Dam) allows for intensiveirrigation and serves as a source of hydroelectric power. To the east, two rivers, th eBalikh and the Khabur, flow southward into the Euphrates as left-bank tributaries. 19

13Terri Dougherty, From Sea to Desert, in Syria(San Diego: Thomson Gale, 2004), 10.14WarwickBall, Chapter 1: Introduction, in Syria: A Historical and Architectural Guide(Northampton,

Massachusetts: Interlink Publishing Group, Inc., 2007), 1011.15Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Fertile Crescent, 2008,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/205250/Fertile-Crescent#16Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Syria, April 2005,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdf17Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Syria, April 2005,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdf18TerryCarter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Palmyra to the Euphrates, in Syria and Lebanon(Footscray, Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 216.19TerriDougherty, From Sea to Desert, in Syria(San Diego: Thomson Gale, 2004), 13.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/205250/Fertile-Crescenthttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/205250/Fertile-Crescenthttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/205250/Fertile-Crescent

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

9/78

9

Seasonal waterways, known as wadis, may also flow east and west into the Euphratesfrom the desert.20

Orontes River

The Orontes River, or Nahr al-Asi, is an essential water source for western Syria.

Originating in Lebanon, the Orontes enters Syria near Homs Gap and flows northwardthrough the Ghab Depression and into Turkey, where it empties into the Mediterranean.On its route, the river supplies the Syrian cities of Homs and Hama; each city uses damsto direct irrigation water into their respective regions.21

Barada River

Lake Qatinnah, a reservoirlocated southwest of Homs, is supplied by the Orontes, as is Lake Rastan, a reservoirfound between Homs and Hama. In the north, the river is an important source ofirrigation water in the heavily cultivated Ghab Depression.

Originating in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, the Barada River supplies water toDamascus, the capital of Syria. As the river approaches Damascus from the west, a series

of ancient channels directs its flow across a large expanse of land, creating the Al-GhutahOasis. Before reaching Damascus, the river is fed by the Fijah Spring, a source ofdrinking water for the city. Beyond Damascus, the river drains into the desert. 22

Yarmuk River

In the southwest, the Yarmuk River forms a smallportion of the SyrianJordanian border beforeflowing into the Jordan River as a tributary. Theriver originates in Syria, from the volcanic lavaplateau near the Jabal al-Arab range.23Regionalsprings that supply the Yarmuk are used for

irrigation in the Hawran Plateau.24

Al-Kabir River

The Al-Kabir River forms a substantial segmentof the SyrianLebanese border, which runs roughly eastwest from the northern end ofthe Lebanon Mountains to the Mediterranean coast. Fed by mountain springs andsnowmelt, the river flows westward through the coastal Akkar Plain and empties into theMediterranean Sea. Pollution from raw sewage and agricultural and industrial chemicals

20

Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Syria, April 2005,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdf21Alison Behnke, The Land, in Syria in Pictures(Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 2005), 12.22Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Barada River, 2008,http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9013259/Barada-River23Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Yarmuk River, 2008,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/652081/Yarmuk-River#24Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment:Geography and Population: Land, Water, and Climate, in Syria: A Country Study, April 1987,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030)
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9013259/Barada-Riverhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9013259/Barada-Riverhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9013259/Barada-Riverhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9013259/Barada-Riverhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/652081/Yarmuk-Riverhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/652081/Yarmuk-Riverhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/652081/Yarmuk-Riverhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9013259/Barada-Riverhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9013259/Barada-Riverhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdf

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

10/78

10

has detrimentally affected the river, which remains an important source of water in theregion.25

Underground Springs

Underground springs and rivers are a significant source of drinking and irrigation water

in Syria, and they often contribute to surface rivers. The Ghab Depression is known forits wealth of subterranean water resources, as numerous springs and underground riverscontribute to the regional supply.26

Lakes

Springs also occur occasionally in the desert, creatingsources for precious oases.

The largest natural lake in Syria is Lake al-Jabbul, a seasonal saline lake located to thesoutheast of Aleppo. Other saline lakes are found outside the cities of Damascus and AlHasakah. A small freshwater lake, Lake Muzayrib, lies to the northwest of Daraa. 27

Climate

Forming a barrier between the humidMediterranean coast and the arid eastern plateau,the mountain ranges in Syrias west help shapethe countrys climate. Specifically, the dualmountain chains of the Jabal an Nusayriyah andthe Anti-Lebanon Range prevent Mediterraneanwinds and rains from passing into Syrias interior.Thus, the climate of the coastal plains andwestern slope tend to be wetter and milder thanthat of the eastern slope and plateau, whichexperience drier conditions and greater extremes in temperature.

Syrias Mediterranean climate cools the hot, humid conditions of the coastal plain duringthe summer (MayAugust) and causes temperatures to drop below freezing in themountains during winter (NovemberFebruary).28Along the coast, the average daily highis 29C (84F) during summer, while winter temperatures range from 920C (4868F).29

25Nadia El-Awady and Patrick Kavanagh, Thirsty Sea, Tainted River: Shedding Light on the Middle

Easts Threatened Border Waters, Rural Poverty and Environment Program, International ResearchDevelopment Centre, n.d.,

In the western mountains, average summer temperatures (22C; 72F) are coolerthan anywhere else in the country.

http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11600768441Transboundary_water_eng.pdf26Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment:Geography and Population: Land, Water, and Climate, in Syria: A Country Study,April 1987,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030)27Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: The Land: Drainage: Surface Water, 2008,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria#28Alison Behnke, The Land, in Syria in Pictures(Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 2005), 13.29Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: The Land: Climate: Temperature and Precipitation, 2008,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria#
http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11600768441Transboundary_water_eng.pdfhttp://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11600768441Transboundary_water_eng.pdfhttp://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11600768441Transboundary_water_eng.pdfhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11600768441Transboundary_water_eng.pdf

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

11/78

11

In the near eastern plateau, the cities of Damascus and Aleppo experience average dailyhighs of 3337C (9199F) in the summer and average daily lows of 14C (3440F)in the winter. Further east, in the desert, average daily highs range from 3740C (99104F) in the summer while winter temperatures drop to freezing levels. 30Temperatureextremes often occur when hot, sand-bearing winds (called khamsin) blow in from the

Arabian Desert during the summer months.

31

Syrias rainy season runs from NovemberMay and DecemberFebruary receive the mostprecipitation.

32The coastal plains and mountains receive approximately 76102 cm (3040 in) of rainfall per year. With the mountains trapping Mediterranean moisture on thewestern slope, the eastern plateau experiences markedly less rainfall. In the FertileCrescent region of the eastern plateau, annual precipitation ranges from 2551 cm (1020in).33Beyond the semiarid steppe, in the true desert of the southeast, annual rainfall maybe as minimal as 813 cm (35 in).34

Major Cities

Historically, most of Syrias population lived inrural areas. Urban traditions from the Greeks,Romans, and Islamic Empires left their mark inLatakia, Tadmur, Damascus, and Aleppo, whichwere trade centers over the centuries, but theurbanization rate was slow. In the past fewdecades, however, rapid urbanization hasbasically split the population into rural and urbanareas. Urban populations have settled mainly inpockets within the Fertile Crescent. Thenorthwest, northeast, and southwest have the highest densities.35

Damascus (Dimashq)

The lowest density areasare the desert steppe, which are inhabited by oasis dwellers and the Bedouin.

Damascus is the capital of Syria and the nations center for government, commerce, andculture. It has an estimated 1.7 million people living in the city proper plus 2.7 millionliving in the greater metropolitan area.36

30Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: The Land: Climate: Temperature and Precipitation, 2008,

The city lies within the irrigated oasis of al-Ghutah.Damascus is commonly known as al-Sham, which refers to its relative location

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria#31BBC Weather, Country Guide: Syria, 2008,

http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT00285032BBC Weather, Country Guide: Syria, 2008,http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT00285033Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: The Land: Climate: Temperature and Precipitation, 2008,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria#34AlisonBehnke, The Land, in Syria in Pictures(Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 2005), 13.35Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: People, 2010,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria36Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, Background Note: Syria, 18 March 2011,http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002850http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002850http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002850http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002850http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htmhttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htmhttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002850http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002850http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

12/78

12

in the northwest Arabian Desert.37One of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in theworld, Damascus is an intercontinental crossroads of the Middle East with a long historyof trade and cultural exchange.38

Today, the city exhibits a mixture of antiquity and modernity. The famous UmayyadMosque and Straight Street are found in the old city. With such a rich heritage, the city isalso a center of Islamic study and practice. Modern Damascus has rail and highway linksto major cities within Syria and to neighboring countries. As such, it is a marketing hubfor handicrafts and products in the cement, food processing, textiles, and chemicalindustries.

The citys population has rapidly expanded in recent decades and infrastructure, watersupply, and services have been severely strained. The region also suffers pollutionproblems. Furthermore, urban sprawl has eliminated much of the surrounding farmlandsand vegetation.

In recent years, Damascus hasbeen the site of several terrorist attacks, including

bombings in 2006 and 2008.39

The city is also headquarters for certain terroristorganizations, including Hamas, the Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and the Palestine-GeneralCommand (PFLP-GC) all of whom Syria supports as national liberation movements. 40

Aleppo (Halab)

Located on the plateau in northwestern Syria, Aleppo(population 4.6 million) is an important regional hub forcommerce and industry.41Like Damascus, Aleppo is thought tobe one of the oldest continuously populated cities in the world.42For centuries, the city was a major trading post onintercontinental commercial routes, and, like Damascus, it has

been occupied by a number of different peoples and powers.Throughout its history Aleppo has also suffered a number ofdevastating earthquakes, which, at various times, leveled the cityand killed large numbers of inhabitants.43

Aleppos ancient center, or Old City, is surrounded by themodern metropolis, which contains a central district known as

37Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Damascus, 2008,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus#38TerryCarter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Damascus, in Syria and Lebanon(Footscray,

Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 77.39START, Syria, 2010,http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?country=20040Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, Chapter 3: State Sponsors of Terrorism, in CountryReports on Terrorism 2009, 5 August 2010,http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140889.htm41Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, Background Note: Syria, 18 March 2011,http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm42Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Aleppo, 2008,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13837/Aleppo#43Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Aleppo, in Syria and Lebanon(Footscray,Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 1745.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascushttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascushttp://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?country=200http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?country=200http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?country=200http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140889.htmhttp://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140889.htmhttp://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140889.htmhttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htmhttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13837/Aleppohttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13837/Aleppohttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13837/Aleppohttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htmhttp://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140889.htmhttp://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?country=200http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

13/78

13

the New City. Aleppos most prominent feature is a large citadel constructed on a raisedmound in the northeastern quarter of the Old City. Also located in the Old City, Aleppossouq, or bazaar, is one of the most famous in the Middle East due to its immense size andauthenticity. Today, it remains the center of the citys commercial activity.44

Major components of Aleppos local industry include textile manufacturing, mostfamously of silk, and food processing, predominantly of nuts and dried fruits. The cityssouqacts as a market for regional agricultural produce, which is heavily supported by thenearby Euphrates River and al-Assad reservoir to the east. Aleppo is an importanttransportation corridor for the region. Aleppo is also a center for intellectual pursuits, as itis home to a major university, several madrassas, or Islamic theological schools, andother educational institutions.

45Aleppo has a significant Christian population, includingmany descendents of Armenians expelled from nearby Turkey in the early 20th century. 46

Homs (Hims)

Homs, is situated in the Orontes River Valley inthe western region of the country. Homs Gap liesdirectly west of Homs, making the city a majortransit point for travel between the coast and theinterior, as well as between Aleppo andDamascus. The Orontes River and nearbyreservoir, Lake Qatinnah, are essential forsupplying the city and the fertile farmlands in thesurrounding region. Local produce ranges fromfruits and vegetables to grains, such as wheat andcorn, and cotton.47However, Homs is better known as a major industrial hub, mostnotably as the site of Syrias largest oil refinery. Silk manufacturing and the productionof fertilizers (using phosphates) are also important components of local industry. 48Thecity is also home to a major military academy. The population of the greater Homs regionis approximately 1.7 million.49

Before the advent of Islam, Homs was a hub for Christian practice, and the city retains asmall Christian population to this day. In terms of architecture and layout, much of theold city has been torn down and removed. Although not within the city itself, a majorregional monument is the Krak des Chevaliers, a Crusader fortress located in the nearbyJabal an Nusayriyah. The city is home to a mosque built in honor of Khalid ibn al-Walid,

44

Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Aleppo, in Syria and Lebanon(Footscray,Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 178, 181.45Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Aleppo, 2008,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13837/Aleppo#46Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Aleppo, in Syria and Lebanon (Footscray,Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 173.47Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Hims, 2008,http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9040501/Hims48Terri Dougherty, From Sea to Desert, in Syria(San Diego: Thomson Gale, 2004), 16.49Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, Background Note: Syria, 18 March 2011,http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13837/Aleppohttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13837/Aleppohttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9040501/Himshttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9040501/Himshttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9040501/Himshttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htmhttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htmhttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htmhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9040501/Himshttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13837/Aleppo

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

14/78

14

a revered Arab general known as the sword of Allah. Al-Walid famously brought Islamto Syria in 636 C.E.50

Latakia (Al-Ladhiqiyah)

Located on a harbor on Syrias northern Mediterranean coast, Latakia is the countrys

chief port city. Numerous earthquakes and prolonged battles between Muslims andChristian Crusaders severely damaged much of the citys ancient architecture. Today, theRoman ruins of theTemple of Bacchus and the Triumphal Arch are virtually the onlyremaining artifacts.51

The fertile coastal plain surrounding the city is a major agricultural region, particularlyfor the production of tobacco, fruits, cotton, and grains. These goods make up many ofthe citys primary exports. Latakias other industries include vegetable oil processing,cotton ginning, sponge fishing, and tourism.

52

Hama (Hamah)

With its Mediterranean location and influxof diverse cultures, Latakia is known as the most cosmopolitan and least conservative cityin Syria.

Hama is located north of Homs in the OrontesValley. The Orontes River flows through thecenter of Hama, providing for the citys famousgardens and tree-lined river banks. Along theriver, the city retains a number of huge medievalwaterwheels, known as noriaformerly used toirrigate the surrounding region. Like Homs, Hamaserves as a marketplace and processing center forthe produce grown in the fertile Orontes Valley;

major crops include grains, cotton, fruits, andvegetables. Textile manufacturing, cement production, and flour milling are componentsof local industry. As a center of Sunni Islam, the majority Islamic sect in Syria, Hama isknown for its traditional and conservative character. The citys history is marked by arecent, notorious event when, in 1982, the al-Assad regime violently suppressed theMuslim Brotherhood insurgent group. After weeks of fighting between Syrian soldiersand Muslim Brotherhood rebels, thousands of people were left dead and up to one-fourthof Hamas old city was destroyed.53

50TerryCarter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Orontes Valley, in Syria and Lebanon(Footscray, Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 155158.51Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, The Coast and Mountains, in Syria and Lebanon(Footscray, Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 143144.52Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Latakia, 2008,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/331236/Latakia#53Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Hamah, 2008,http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9038991/Hamah
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/331236/Latakiahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/331236/Latakiahttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9038991/Hamahhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9038991/Hamahhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9038991/Hamahhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9038991/Hamahhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9038991/Hamahhttp://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9038991/Hamahhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/331236/Latakia

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

15/78

15

Environmental Concerns

Syrias many environmental concerns largelystem from overuse or mismanagement of thenations limited land, water, and timber resources.Agriculture remains a major component of the

Syrian economy, and its intensive practices andmonopolization of resources has produced anumber of detrimental effects.

Syria uses most of its annual water supply foragricultural purposes, largely for the irrigation ofcereal crops. The resulting depletion of some regional water sources, includingfreshwater springs, and overall declines in groundwater levels have led to seriousshortages. In some areas, water deficiencies have forced agricultural activity to cease,thus requiring local residents to relocate. The pollution of groundwater and surface riverswith raw sewage, agricultural additives, and industrial chemicals has further strained the

countrys water supply. In addition, as underground aquifers have been depleted, thesalinity of the groundwater has increased and overall water quality has declined.This, inturn, has led to increased health concerns and higher costs for water treatment. 54

Intensive agricultural and industrial practices have seriously affected the land as well. Insome areas, the long-term use of rudimentary irrigation methods has increased thesalinity of the soil; this has reduced its fertility and diminished overall crop yields.

55Deforestation (largely due to demand for timber) and the overgrazing and unsustainabledevelopment of rangelands in the Syrian steppe have also led to serious degradation. 56,57

Air pollution, particularly in the large cities of Damascus and Aleppo, is also a problem,in part due to a prevalence of older vehicles that produce higher levels of emissions.

With the removal of trees and surface vegetation, many areas have been increasinglyexposed to erosive forces, which, in turn, have heightened the risk of desertification.About half of the countrys surface area may be affected or threatened by desertification.

58

54United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Country Team in Syria, Syrian ArabRepublic: Common Country Assessment 2005, 2005, 5152,

Syria has made some effort to combat these trends. Overall, the country has had some

http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf555World Bank/METAP, Syrian Arab Republic Cost Assessment of Environmental Degradation, 9February 2004, 15,http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEn

g.pdf56AlisonBehnke, The Land, in Syria in Pictures(Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 2005), 15.57World Bank/METAP, Syrian Arab Republic Cost Assessment of Environmental Degradation, 9February 2004, 17,http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdf58World Bank/METAP, Syrian Arab Republic Cost Assessment of Environmental Degradation, 9February 2004, 11,http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdf
http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEng.pdfhttp://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

16/78

16

success, such as in its reforestation and water sanitation programs.59In any case, asclimate conditions have become more extreme and the Syrian population continues togrow, the country will continue to face serious environmental threats. 60

Natural Hazards

Syrias climate and geographic location make itvulnerable to a variety of natural disasters,including droughts, floods, earthquakes, duststorms, and sandstorms. Syria is prone to periodsof limited rainfall, and with its inherently hot anddry conditions, it occasionally suffers devastatingdroughts. Most recently, in 2007 and 2008, asevere drought affected 1.3 million people anddiminished the nations wheat yields.61

Floods are also a serious hazard in Syria, particularly during the winter rainy season andthe spring, when the snow melts. In recent years, the most infamous flood was manmade.In June of 2002, the Zeyzoun Dam in northwestern Syria burst. The flood wiped out fivevillages in its wake and killed 80 people.

62

Situated within the region where the Arabian, African, and Eurasian continental platesconverge, Syria is exposed to significant seismic activity. Specifically, Damascus islocated near the Dead Sea Fault System and its active arm, the Sergaya fault.

63While themajority of recent earthquakes have been minor, the region has experienced majorseismic events in the past. In 1759, a massive earthquake (estimated at more than 7.0 onthe Richter scale) destroyed Damascus and the Lebanese city of Beirut. 64

59United Nations Development Programme, Syria MDGs at a Glance, n.d.,

In the 12thcentury, an earthquake near Aleppo killed upwards of 230,000 people in one of the

http://www.undp.org.sy/index.php?page=content&id=mdg%20nat60The World Bank, Syrian Arab Republic: Country Brief, September 2010,http://go.worldbank.org/HUSX4L9ZB061

Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Emergency Events Database, Syrian Arab Rep:Country ProfileNatural Disasters, 2011,http://www.emdat.be/result-country-profile62Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Emergency Events Database, Syrian Arab Rep:Country ProfileNatural Disasters, 2011,http://www.emdat.be/result-country-profile63United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Country Team in Syria, Syrian ArabRepublic: Common Country Assessment 2005, 2005, 52,http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf564United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Country Team in Syria, Syrian ArabRepublic: Common Country Assessment 2005, 2005, 52,http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5
http://www.undp.org.sy/index.php?page=content&id=mdg%20nathttp://www.undp.org.sy/index.php?page=content&id=mdg%20nathttp://go.worldbank.org/HUSX4L9ZB0http://go.worldbank.org/HUSX4L9ZB0http://www.emdat.be/result-country-profilehttp://www.emdat.be/result-country-profilehttp://www.emdat.be/result-country-profilehttp://www.emdat.be/result-country-profilehttp://www.emdat.be/result-country-profilehttp://www.emdat.be/result-country-profilehttp://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5http://www.emdat.be/result-country-profilehttp://www.emdat.be/result-country-profilehttp://go.worldbank.org/HUSX4L9ZB0http://www.undp.org.sy/index.php?page=content&id=mdg%20nat

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

17/78

17

deadliest seismic events in world history.65Today, Syrias western region continues to bethe most susceptible to seismic activity.66

Dust storms and sandstorms are also significant natural disaster threats in Syria. Spawnedby the khamsindesert winds, sandstorms can blow at great speeds and carry enough sandto darken the sky and decrease visibility to zero. In addition to damage caused by strongwinds, sandstorms also frequently lead to traffic accidents and can cause seriousrespiratory issues for persons exposed to the air.

65Earthquake Hazards Program, United States Geologic Survey, Most Destructive Known Earthquakes onRecord in the World, 16 July 2008,http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.php66United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Country Team in Syria, Syrian ArabRepublic: Common Country Assessment 2005, 2005, 5253,http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.phphttp://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.phphttp://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.phphttp://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.php

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

18/78

18

Chapter 1: Assessment

1. Modern-day Syria was once part of a larger geographical territory known as GreaterSyria.

True

In its modern form, Syria occupies the northern portion of the former Greater Syrianregion. Greater Syria, or the Levant, roughly included the current states of Israel, Jordan,Lebanon, and Syria, as well as the present-day Palestinian territories and a portion ofsouthern Turkey.

2. The cultivated region of Syria extends in an arc known as the Fertile Crescent.

True

The cultivated region of Syria that extends in an arc from the Jazira Plain and theEuphrates River basin through northern Syria and south along the coastal plains is part ofa region known as the Fertile Crescent. Syrias population remains heavily centered inpockets within the Fertile Crescent.

3. Underground springs are the principal source of water for all of Syria.

False

The Euphrates River, or Nahr al-Furat, is Syrias longest river and principal source ofwater. It is responsible for roughly 80% of the countrys water supply.

4.

Damascus is the capital of Syria and the nations center for government, commerce,culture, and Islamic study.

True

Damascus is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It has a longhistory as an important site of trade and cultural exchange along the intercontinentalcrossroads of the Middle East.

5. Syria has carefully managed the use of its limited land, water, and timber resources.

False

Syrias many environmental concerns, such as water shortages, deforestation,overgrazing, water pollution, soil erosion, and desertification, largely stem from overuseor mismanagement of the nations natural resources.

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

19/78

19

Chapter 2: History

Introduction

Syria is a relatively modern country, having existed as anindependent entity only in the years since World War II.However, the region known as Syria, which is not congruentwith the borders of modern Syria, has existed for millennia andhas one of the worlds richest histories. Cities such as Damascus,Aleppo, and Hama are among the worlds oldest inhabitedplaces and have been occupied by countless invaders through thecenturies. Religion has also played an essential role in Syriashistory, a theme that continues today. The worlds three majormonotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) have hadimportant historical chapters take place within the Syrianlandscape. In addition, several modern-day Islamic and Christianreligious communities emerged from ancient Syria.

Ebla

Between 3500 and 3100 B.C.E., urban culturewas gaining a foothold in the city of Ebla, some53 km (33 mi) southwest of the present city ofAleppo.67An excavation begun in the 1960sunearthed 17,000 cuneiform tablets that haveprovided an unparalleled insight into theeconomic, social, and political developments ofthat time.68The discoveries at Ebla also hadlinguistic importance, as Eblaite, the language ofEbla, proved to be much older than Amorite, atthe time considered to be the oldest known Semitic language.69

Eblas importance as a commercial center connected it to trading centers as far awayasEgypt to the south, modern-day Iran to the east, and the Aegean Sea to the west.

70,71

67The Encyclopedia of World History, 6th ed, II: Ancient and Classical Periods, 3500 B.C.E500 C.E. B.

Kingdoms of Western Asia and Africa, to 323 B.C.E., 5: Syria-Palestine, c. 3500323 B.C.E. c. Ebla andMari, Bartleby.com (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001),http://www.bartleby.com/67/102.html68Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Ebla, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177615/Ebla69Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 1: Historical Setting: Ancient Syria, in Syria:A Country Study,April 1987,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)70Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Syria, April 2005,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdf71Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Ebla, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177615/Ebla
http://www.bartleby.com/67/102.htmlhttp://www.bartleby.com/67/102.htmlhttp://www.bartleby.com/67/102.htmlhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177615/Eblahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177615/Eblahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177615/Eblahttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdfhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://www.bartleby.com/67/102.html

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

20/78

20

Waves of Invaders

At roughly the same time Ebla was expanding, so, too, was theAkkadian civilization in Mesopotamia. There is conflictingevidence on which ruler actually carried out Eblas destruction;either the Akkadian King Sargon or his grandson Naram-Sin

conquered and laid waste to the city between 2200 and 2300B.C.E. Ebla was rebuilt but did not thrive until it was once againsacked by invading Amorites around 2000 B.C.E. 72,73

For much of the latter half of the second millennium B.C.E.,modern-day Syria became the battlefield upon which numerousdynasties vied for power. The regions importance as acommercial crossroads provided motivation for regional rulersto extend their domain over the area.

74First to arrive were theHittites. They came from the north in what is today Turkey anddestroyed many of the Amorite cities in northern Syria and southern-most Turkey (e.g.,

Ebla, Aleppo, Alalakh) around 1600 B.C.E.75

During the early part of the 13th centuryB.C.E, the Hittites and Egyptians battled for supremacyat the Battle of Kadesh, locatednear the modern city of Homs along the Orontes River.76,77

To the east, in the Jazira Plain, lay the Mitanni kingdom, whose center was located on theKhabur River (a major tributary of the Euphrates). This kingdom was populated by theHurrians, a group of people thought to have moved westward from northernMesopotamia.

78During the mid-14th to early 13th centuries B.C.E., however, thiskingdom was conquered first by the Hittites and then by Assyria, the former Mitannivassal state lying to the east.79

72Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Mari, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/364795/Mari73Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Ebla, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177615/Ebla74Troy Fox, Who Were the Hittites?, TourEgypt.net, n.d.,http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm75

Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Early History, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria76Troy Fox, The Actual Battle of Kadesh (The Battle of Kadesh, Part II), TourEgypt.net, n.d.,http://touregypt.net/featurestories/kadesh.htm77Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Battle of Kadesh, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/309464/Battle-of-Kadesh78Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Hurrian, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277330/Hurrian79Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Mitanni, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/385882/Mitanni
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/364795/Marihttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/364795/Marihttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177615/Eblahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177615/Eblahttp://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htmhttp://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://touregypt.net/featurestories/kadesh.htmhttp://touregypt.net/featurestories/kadesh.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/309464/Battle-of-Kadeshhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/309464/Battle-of-Kadeshhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277330/Hurrianhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277330/Hurrianhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/385882/Mitannihttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/385882/Mitannihttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/385882/Mitannihttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277330/Hurrianhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/309464/Battle-of-Kadeshhttp://touregypt.net/featurestories/kadesh.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177615/Eblahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/364795/Mari

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

21/78

21

Aramaeans, Assyrians, and Persians

By the end of the 11th century B.C.E., a group of tribespeoplewith shadowy historical origins began to form states in northernSyria southward to the Anti-Lebanon Mountains along themodern-day Lebanon border. These tribal people, known

collectively as Aramaeans, briefly ruled much of modern-daySyria, including a southern principality whose capital wasDamascus.80Ultimately, however, a revitalized Assyriankingdom gained control over all of their Syrian lands by the late8th century B.C.E.81Nonetheless, the cultural influence of theAramaeans continued well beyond the demise of their power.Well into the first millennium C.E., Aramaic, the Aramaeanlanguage, remained the lingua francain much of Greater Syria(roughly equivalent to modern-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan,Israel, and Palestine).82Even today, Aramaic is spoken in a fewChristian villages in Syria, located in the hills not far from Damascus.83

Assyrian dominance over Mesopotamia and ultimately most of the MiddleEast reachedits peak in the late 8th century B.C.E., but it declined quickly thereafter.

84Near the end ofthe 7th century B.C.E., Assyria was conquered by the Babylonians, who themselves weredefeated less than a century later by the Persian forces of Cyrus the Great. 85For the nexttwo centuries, the Syrian landswere part of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, one of thelargest land empires in history.86Under Persian rule, Syrian cities and villages weregiven a certain degree of sovereignty. This pattern was periodically repeated over thesucceeding centuries as new foreign rulers conquered the region.87

80Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Damascus: History, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus81Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Aramaean, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32018/Aramaean82Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Glossary, in Syria:A Country Study,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/syria/sy_glos.html#Greater83

Robert F. Worth, In Syrian Villages, the Language of Jesus Lives,New York Times,22 April 2008,http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/22/world/middleeast/22aramaic.html84Encyclopdia Britannica Online, The Neo-Assyrian Empire (746609): Tiglath-pileser III andShalmaneser V, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamia85Encyclopdia Britannica OnlineCyrus II, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/148758/Cyrus-II86Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Early History, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria87Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 1: Historical Setting: Ancient Syria, in Syria:A Country Study, April 1987,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascushttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascushttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32018/Aramaeanhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32018/Aramaeanhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/syria/sy_glos.html#Greaterhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/syria/sy_glos.html#Greaterhttp://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/22/world/middleeast/22aramaic.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/22/world/middleeast/22aramaic.htmlhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamiahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamiahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamiahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/148758/Cyrus-IIhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/148758/Cyrus-IIhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/148758/Cyrus-IIhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamiahttp://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/22/world/middleeast/22aramaic.htmlhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/syria/sy_glos.html#Greaterhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32018/Aramaeanhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

22/78

22

Ancient Greek Conquest

When Alexander the Great arrived in the land of Syria in 333B.C.E., he brought not just his army and administration, but alsoa brand new worldview and philosophy of life: Hellenism. AsGreek colonizers came to the new lands, a synthesis of Greek

and native Syrian cultures took place; the Syrian people hadtheir first exposure to Greek thought and Western culture.After Alexanders death in 323, his military officers battled forsupremacy within the conquered territories. One of thesemilitary leaders was Seleucus I Nicator. In the last part of the4th century B.C.E., Nicator consolidated a large kingdom thatincluded most of modern-day Syria (known historically as theSeleucid Empire). Much of the next century, however, wasmarked by a series of wars between the forces of the SeleucidDynasty and the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt (another Greeksuccessor state from Alexanders conquests).88

The Seleucid era in Syria was marked by the promotion of Greek culture, thedevelopment of a streamlined administrative structure that consolidated military andcivilian power, and the founding of several cities. Perhaps most notable of the new citieswas Antioch, which served as the Seleucid principal capital. Constant fighting during thewars with Egypt, however, took its toll over time. The Seleucid Dynastys decline beganin earnest in the early 2nd century B.C.E. with the first defeats to Roman forces. Theempire continued to shrink until 64 B.C.E., when the Romans finally completed theirtakeover of the Seleucid lands.

89

88Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syrian Wars, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579047/Syrian-Wars89Encyclopdia Britannica Online, History of Mesopotamia: Mesopotamia from c. 320 B.C. to 620 A.D.:The Seleucid Period, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamia
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579047/Syrian-Warshttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579047/Syrian-Warshttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamiahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamiahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamiahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamiahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579047/Syrian-Wars

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

23/78

23

The Roman and Byzantine Era

Syria was a Roman province for over four centuries, although itsborders changed several times during that period. At this time,Antioch was the capital and premier city of the province. It wassurpassed only by Rome and Constantinople (modern-day

Istanbul) in terms of size and importance within the RomanEmpire.90Damascus also continued to grow because of itsimportance as a trading center on the route between Europe andthe Parthian cities of Mesopotamia. Like Antioch, Damascusalso became a center for the early Christian community. 91

In 330 C.E. Constantine I, the first Christian Emperor of theRoman Empire, inaugurated the Empires new capital at therebuilt ancient city of Byzantium, which was later renamedConstaninople.

92During the more than three centuries ofByzantine rule, Syria was the base for several attacks against Persian Sassanid Empire

forces to the east, as well as the target of reciprocal Sassanid military campaigns. In 540C.E., Antioch was captured and briefly held by the armies of Sassanid ruler Khosrow I. 93Approximately 70 years later, the Sassanids, now under the leadership of Khosrow II,once again conquered Antioch and much of the remaining eastern Byzantine Empire.However, the military success of the Sassanids in the early part of the 7th century wasfleeting. By the time the Sassanid armies were fully beaten back by the forces ofByzantine Emperor Heraclius around 628 C.E., both sides had exhausted their treasurieson the military, leavingthem vulnerable to a new invading force marching north from theArabian Peninsula.94,95

90Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Antioch, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/28297/Antioch91Michael Dumper,Damascus, in Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia

(Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 120.92Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Istanbul, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/296962/Istanbul93Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Khosrow I, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316888/Khosrow-I94Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 1: Historical Setting: Ancient Syria, in Syria:A Country Study, April 1987,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)95Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Ancient Iran: The Ssnian Period: Triumph of the Arabs, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/851961/ancient-Iran/32144/The-Sasanian-

period#ref=ref755340
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/296962/Istanbulhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/296962/Istanbulhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316888/Khosrow-Ihttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316888/Khosrow-Ihttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/851961/ancient-Iran/32144/The-Sasanian-period#ref=ref755340http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/851961/ancient-Iran/32144/The-Sasanian-period#ref=ref755340http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/851961/ancient-Iran/32144/The-Sasanian-period#ref=ref755340http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/851961/ancient-Iran/32144/The-Sasanian-period#ref=ref755340http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/851961/ancient-Iran/32144/The-Sasanian-period#ref=ref755340http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316888/Khosrow-Ihttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/296962/Istanbul

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

24/78

24

The Spread of Islam

In the early decades of the 7th century C.E., in theArabian oasis city of Mecca, a local merchantknown as Muhammad (later given the title ofProphet) began to teach about the revelations that

he had received from the archangel Gabriel whilefasting and meditating in a nearby cave. Thecollection of these revelations formed the basis ofthe Quran, the fundamental religious text ofIslam. At the time of Muhammads teachings, asignificant portion of the Meccan economy wasbased on pilgrimages to the Kaaba, a local polytheistic temple that held idols sacred tolocal tribal religions. The monotheistic message of the Prophet Muhammad, in whichthere was no god but Allah, was foreign to the desert tribespeople of the time. Thus,Muhammad and his followers encountered resistance and even persecution as a result ofhis teachings. In 622 the Prophet Muhammad journeyed to the northern city of Yathrib

(modern-day Medina), where the first Muslim community took root over the next sixyears. An increasing number of conversions, as well as military excursions againstpockets of resistance, ultimately united Mecca and most of the rest of the ArabianPeninsula under Islam by the time of the Prophets death in 632. 96

After Muhammads death, Islam spread quickly through the neighboring regions of theMiddle East. In 635, Byzantine Damascus surrendered to Khalid Ibn Al-Walid, one of theProphets generals, and by 640, the remainder of Syria was firmly under the control ofArab Muslim forces. In exchange for payment of a poll tax, all residents of the newlyconquered lands were guaranteed their personal safety and the safety of their possessionsand churches. For members of some Christian sects, such as the Nestorians and Jacobites,

conditions actually improved under Arab Muslim rule compared to the Byzantine era.

97

Muawiya, of the Umayyad clan, was appointed by the Caliph

98Umar as the firstgovernor of the Syrian territories in 639, making Damascus his capital. However,harmony did not reign in the newly expanding Muslim empire. After Umar wasassassinated in 644, his successor, Uthman, was chosen by a six-man shura(council) asan apparent compromise choice over other, more likely candidates within the group. 99

96

Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Muhammad: The Life of Muhammad, 2009,

Like Muawiya, Uthman was a member of the Umayyad clan. As caliph, he led the effortto collect, compile, and codify an official version of the Quran. In 656, Uthman, too, was

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad97Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Medieval Period: Islamic Conquest, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria98The word caliph (Arabic khaleefa) means successor. For Sunni Muslims, the four rashidun(rightlyguided) caliphs were the first four leaders of the Muslim community after the Prophet Muhammad died.The first was Abu Bakr; the second, Umar; the third, Uthman; and the fourth, Ali. Shia Muslims deny thelegitimacy of the first three caliphs and consider Ali their first imam.99Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Uthmn ibn Affn, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/620653/Uthman-ibn-Affan
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammadhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammadhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/620653/Uthman-ibn-Affanhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/620653/Uthman-ibn-Affanhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/620653/Uthman-ibn-Affanhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syriahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

25/78

25

assassinated by Egyptian rebels in his Medina home, and Ali, cousin and son-in-law tothe late Prophet Muhammad, was chosen as the new caliph.

As Uthmans kin, Muawiya was obliged to revenge his murder. When Ali, the newcaliph, did not apprehend Uthmans killers, Muawiya refused to recognize Ali as thecaliph. Alis response was to invade Syria. His army was met by that of Muawiya at theBattle of Siffin on the Euphrates River near the present-day IraqiSyrian border. Both thebattle itself and the mutually agreed-upon arbitration after the battle proved indecisive inthe struggle for the caliphate.100Ali was subsequently slain in 661 by a group of hisformer followers who considered his decision to arbitrate the caliphate a repudiation ofthe Quran.101

The Umayyad Era

After Alis death, Muawiya proclaimed himself the first Umayyad caliph,with his capital at Damascus. Alis followers, meanwhile, broke away from Sunni Islam,forming the Shia (party of Ali) branch of Islam.

The Muslim world expanded ever more widelyand rapidly thereafter. During the 89-year periodknown as the Umayyad Era (661750), Muslimarmies marched across the Middle East andAfrica; they sailed to Europe and conqueredSpain; they penetrated Central Asia, northwestIndia, and reached the doorstep of China. Allthese campaigns were based out of Syria, and itwas the Syrianarmy itself that supplied most ofthe manpower.102Art and architecture alsoflourished under Umayyad rule. Two of the most famous buildings from this era, stillstanding today, are the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and the Dome of the Rock inJerusalem.103During the Umayyad Dynasty, most Syrians converted to Islam andDamascus underwent an Arabization process.104Arabic replaced Aramaic and Greek asthe principal language of Syria, Arabic coinage replaced the old Byzantine and Sassanidcurrency, and Arabs took onmany of the financial administrative duties formerly carriedout by Greeks and Persians.105

100Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Battle of Siffin, 2009,

By the mid 8th century, however, dissention from within,and resentment from without, weakened the Umayyad grip on power. The Abbasids, adynasty of Meccan origin aided militarily by forces from northeast Persia, applied the

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/543526/Battle-of-Siffin101Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Khrijite, 2009,

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316391/Kharijite102Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Umayyad Dynasty, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynasty103Suzan Yalman, The Art of the Umayyad Period (661750), Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2008,http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/umay/hd_umay.htm104Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 1: Historical Setting: Muslim Empires:Umayyad Caliphate, inA Country Study: Syria, April 1987,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-

bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0014)105Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Umayyad Dynasty, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynasty
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/543526/Battle-of-Siffinhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/543526/Battle-of-Siffinhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316391/Kharijitehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316391/Kharijitehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynastyhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynastyhttp://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/umay/hd_umay.htmhttp://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/umay/hd_umay.htmhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0014)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0014)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0014)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0014)http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynastyhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynastyhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynastyhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0014)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0014)http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/umay/hd_umay.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynastyhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316391/Kharijitehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/543526/Battle-of-Siffin

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

26/78

26

final blow when they defeated the Umayyads in 750 at the Battle of the Great Kab Riverin Mesopotamia.106The Abbasids thereafter established a new caliphate in Baghdad thatlasted for 500 years, in which Syria was merely a province. Nonetheless, periods o fresistance against Abbasid authority periodically occurred within the Syrian lands. 107, 108

Fatimid Rule

The rulers of the Fatimid Dynasty belonged to theIsmaili sect of the Shiites and claimed descentfrom Fatimah, the daughter of the ProphetMuhammad and wife of Ali, the first Shia imam.Their empire originated during the early 10thcentury in the area of North Africa now occupiedby eastern Algeria, Tunisia, and western Libya.After several failed attempts, the Fatimidsconquered Egypt in 969 and shortly thereafterestablished the new city of Cairo as their

capital.109

From Egypt, the Fatimid forces drove north, conquering Damascus andsouthern Syria in 978. They remained until 1076.110Aleppo and northern Syria becamethe scene of an ongoing struggle for supremacy between the Fatimid and the ByzantineEmpire after the Hamdanid Dynasty began its final decline. Small principalities were ableto take hold in this region for several decades owing to the lack of a dominant centralpower.111

The Seljuk Turks, a sultanate led by the rulers of Turkmen tribespeople, migrated fromCentral Asia to Persia and ultimately pushed westward into Mesopotamia and Anatolia.During the last half of the 11th century, the Seljuks ended the Fatimid period in Syria.Their presence in Syria, however, was short lived. Toward the end of the 11th century,under pressure from European Christian Crusaders, the Seljuk Empire began to fragment,eventually devolving into small principalities in central Anatolia.

112

106Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Abbsid Dynasty, 2009,

The Crusaders,meanwhile, entered the Near East region and began occupation of coastal areas and citiessuch as Antioch, Jerusalem, Edessa, and Al-Karak. Here they formed what became

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/465/Abbasid-dynasty107Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Sayf al-Dawlah, 2009,

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/526146/Sayf-ad-Dawlah108Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Hamdnid Dynasty, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253288/Hamdanid-dynasty109Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Cairo: History: Early History, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/88520/Cairo110Farhad Daftary, Ftimid Ismlsm, in TheIsmls: Their History and Doctrine(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1992), 174176.111Ira Marvin Lapidus, 15: The Arab Middle East: Egypt and Syria in the Caliphal Age, inA History ofIslamic Societies(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 287.112Islamicity.com, The Seljuk Turks, n.d.,http://www.islamicity.com/Mosque/ihame/Sec9.htm
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/465/Abbasid-dynastyhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/465/Abbasid-dynastyhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/526146/Sayf-ad-Dawlahhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/526146/Sayf-ad-Dawlahhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253288/Hamdanid-dynastyhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253288/Hamdanid-dynastyhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/88520/Cairohttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/88520/Cairohttp://www.islamicity.com/Mosque/ihame/Sec9.htmhttp://www.islamicity.com/Mosque/ihame/Sec9.htmhttp://www.islamicity.com/Mosque/ihame/Sec9.htmhttp://www.islamicity.com/Mosque/ihame/Sec9.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/88520/Cairohttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253288/Hamdanid-dynastyhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/526146/Sayf-ad-Dawlahhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/465/Abbasid-dynasty

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

27/78

27

known as the Crusader states.113Notably, the cities of Aleppo and Damascus werebesieged by Crusader forces, but never fell.114, 115

Saladin, the Ayyubids, and the Mamluks

Kurdish warrior Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyubi, known in the

West as Saladin, led the Muslim forces to defeat the Crusadersand take back Muslim cities. The Crusaders surrenderedJerusalem to Saladin in 1187, and much of the remainder of theCrusader states fell shortly thereafter (although subsequentCrusades briefly regained some territory).116Saladin, as founderof the Ayyubid Dynasty, ultimately ruled the Muslim lands fromthe Tigris, beyond the Nile to North Africa, and south to theSudan. He died of malaria in 1192 and the Ayyubid Empirebegan to break apart.117

The successors to the Ayyubids in Egypt were the Mamluks, adynasty founded by the Turkish generals of slave armies, whowere able to repel the initial invasions of the Mongols in 1260and eventually extended their dominance through Syria to the Euphrates River in the1300s.

118, 119A second Mongol invasion, under the military leadership of Tamerlane (alsoknown as Timur), was more successful. Tamerlane invaded Syria in 1401, and in theprocess devastated Aleppo and Damascus. After the Mongols left Syria, the Mamluksreclaimed the lost territories, but a weakened financial foundation and internal decay lefttheir armies vulnerable when the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Selim I invaded in 151617.120, 121

113Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Medieval Period: From the 9th to the 12th Century,2009, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria114Carol Miller, Aleppo, SyriaGate.com, 2004.http://www.syriagate.com/Syria/about/cities/Aleppo/aleppo-cm.htm115Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Damascus, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus116HistoryWorld.net, History of the Crusades, n.d.,http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=fpf117Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 1: Historical Setting: Muslim Empires:Succeeding Caliphates and Kingdoms, in Syria: A Country Study, April 1987,http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-

bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0015)118Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Mamlk, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360799/Mamluk119Applied History Research Group, University of Calgary, The Islamic World to 1600: The Il-Khanate,1998,http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/120Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Mamlk, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360799/Mamluk121Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Ottoman Empire: The Peak of Ottoman Power, 14811566:Domination of Southeastern Europe and the Middle East: Selim I, 2009,http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empire
http://www.syriagate.com/Syria/about/cities/Aleppo/aleppo-cm.htmhttp://www.syriagate.com/Syria/about/cities/Aleppo/aleppo-cm.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascushttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascushttp://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=fpfhttp://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=fpfhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0015)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0015)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0015)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0015)http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360799/Mamlukhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360799/Mamlukhttp://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360799/Mamlukhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360799/Mamlukhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empirehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empirehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empirehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360799/Mamlukhttp://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360799/Mamlukhttp://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0015)http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0015)http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=fpfhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascushttp://www.syriagate.com/Syria/about/cities/Aleppo/aleppo-cm.htm

8/13/2019 Syria (3)

28/78

28

The Ottoman Era

The era of the Ottoman Empire in Syria lasted 400 years, withonly one significant interruption. Agriculture improved forawhile in parts of Syria under Ottoman administration, andAleppo thrived as a trading center with Europe. Damascus

gained a special role within the Ottoman world because of itsposition as the starting point for Muslims making the annualHajj(pilgrimage) to Mecca. Ov

Documents

Syria (3)