SYNTAX AJ - OTÁZKY NA ZÁVEREČNÝ TEST (BRYCHOVÁ)€¦ · Web viewit can be a NP or AdjP, or a finite or non-finite nominal clause or a prepositional clause. it comes right after

SYNTAX AJVYPRACOVANÉ OTÁZKY NA ZÁVERE Č NÝ TEST

(BRYCHOVÁ)

coordinated subject

The subject of a clause is the element of which something is predicated and which must be present in an English declarative and interrogative clauses. The element can be a person, thing, place, idea. The subject is the element that s doing something or that is being something. It is a clearly identifiable constituent of a clause. We can ask WHO? or WHAT? The subject has an agentive position; it is actively involved in the action.

There are different types of subjects:

a) the simple subject - it is whithout any modifiers, it is the main word in the complete subject, it is expressed by one word (Jane is reading.)

b) the complete subject - it is modified by other words, like adjectives or numerals. (The long, hard trip across the desert was finally over.)

c) the coordinated subject - it is called also the compound subject. It consists of two or more linked words of the same type. There are more subjects that have the same verb, they are usually connected by AND, OR (Jane and Peter study Spanish.)

Other types of subject can be: personal, formal, impersonal.

Coordination can be used to link parts of clauses, such as subjects, objects, phrases, rather than the whole clauses. Another example of coordination of subject could be this one: Jane and her younger brother are my friends.

Coordinated subject usually takes a plural form (You and I are best friends.)

Apart from this is when the subject is notionally singular, but grammatically plural. This is often used in legal language.

For example: The student sitting here and the best student in this class is 20 years old. = one person presented in two ways.

BUT: The student sitting here and the best student in this class are 20 years old. = we talk about two persons.

compound sentence

SENTENCE

According to Bloomfield, the sentence is an independent linguistic form that is not included in any larger form. According to Mathesius, it is an elementary speech utterance, through which the speaker reacts to some reality, and which in its formal character appears subjectively complete.

A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. It is the largest unit described by grammar. Sentences are made up of one independent clause or more clauses combined with at least one independent and one or more dependent clauses. An independent clause may contain embedded clauses or be coordinated with clauses on the same level.

Sentences can be divided according to 2 main criteria:

a) their functionb) their structure

From the functional point of view sentences are divided into:

a. declarative - used for making statements b. interrogative - used for asking questions c. imperative - for giving orders, requests d. exclamatory - to utter exclamations

Based on how many and what type of clauses a sentence consists of, there can be:

1.) simple sentence - this is an independent clause standing alone with no other clause attached to it. It is a finite clause that stands alone. Simple sentences typically contain one subject and one finite verb = predicate.

2.) multiple sentence - consist of two or more clauses. They are 2 kinds - compound and complex.

a) compound sentence - it contains of more that one independent clause but no subordinate clauses. The clauses are coordinated, they are usually joined by conjunctions AND, BUT, SO or some kind of punctuation. They are of equal importance. In compound sentences the constituent clauses are grammatically co-ordinate , non of the being dependent on the other but all being in sequence.

b) complex sentence - this is the sentence that consists of 2 or more clauses that are in a relationship of subordination or superordination. There is 1 main clause - this is the independent clause and at least one subordinate clause. The hierarchy of clauses plays here an important role. In complex sentences the main clause is modified by one or more subordinate clauses grammatically dependent upon it and usually introduced by a subordinate conjunction or by relative pronouns. While they always contain a referring expression and a

predication, they often don’t make much sense on their own. Many textbook definitions therefore state that independent clauses represent ‘complete thoughts’, while dependent clauses do not.

c) complex-compound & compound-complex sentences - these are mad up of more than one main clause and at least one subordinate clause. It is the combining of a compound sentence with a complex sentence.

John likes pizza = simple sentence

John likes pizza and Mary likes pasta = compound sentence

John likes pizza because it tastes awesome = complex sentence

focus of negation

NEGATIONNegation is the way how we negate a sentence. Normally there is only one negative element in an English sentence. Two negative elements negate each other. A negative clause or sentence expresses the absence of some stat or the falsity of some proposition. Negation is most commonly expressed by NOT after the operator or NO before it. If there is no other operator - DO is used.

Focus of negationThe focus of negation is the way how we emphasize just one negative element from

the sentence.

We might emphasize just 1 negative thing, for example:

I didn´t take John to swim in the pool today.

we might say:

- I didn’t take John but I took somebody else

- I didn’t take John to swim but I took him to basketball

- I didn’t take John to swim today but I took him yesterday

- I didn’t take John to swim in the pool today I didn’t take him at all

types of clauses

CLAUSE

Looking beyond phrases, the next larger structural unit are clauses. A clause is generally defined as consisting of a referring expression and a predicate (or NP + VP), which makes it possible to use the terms clause and sentence synonymously when dealing with simple sentences.

The clause should be not confused with the phrase. A phrase is a group of words which is grammatically equivalent to a single word and which does not have its own subject and predicate. A clause is a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.

There are some clause elements:

subject predicate (verb phrase)

object (direct, indirect, prepositional)

complement (subject complement and object complement)

adverbial (obligatory and optional adverbials )

CLAUSE TYPESClauses are principal structures of which sentences are composed. A clause is a unit structured around a verb phrase. It is a group of related words that contains a subject and a predicate, and it is a part of a sentence.

We distinguish between:

1.) independent / main clause2.) dependent clause / subordinate clause

INDEPENDENT = MAIN CLAUSE- not part of any larger structure- it is the main idea of the sentence- it is not dependent on another clause for meaning or context- it contains a subject and predicate- it is the grammatical core of a sentence- it may contain embedded clause or be coordinated with clause on the same level

into compound sentences by coordinating conjunctions - when a sentence has only a single clause tat clauses is always an independent

clause - Jane studied hard for the test

An I.C. can be introduced by:

the subject itself Jane studied hard for the test a conjunctive adverb Therefore, she failed

a coordinating conjunction But the teacher gave her a difficult task

There are 7 basic types of I.C. according to what clause elements it consist of, because in English we have a fixed word order with subject + verb .

1.) subject + verb (verb is intransitive) The girl cried.2.) subject + verb + object direct (verb is monotransitive) Jane wrote a letter.

3.) subject + verb + subject complement (verb is copular) Jane is pretty.

4.) subject + verb + adverbial (verb is copular) John is in London.

5.) subject + verb + object indirect + object direct (verb is ditransitive) We gave him a nice present.

6.) subject + verb + object direct + object complement (verb is complex transitive) They found it difficult.

7.) subject + verb + object direct + adverbial (verb is complex transitive) I took the book from the table.

DEPENDENT CLAUSE- it is embedded in a larger structure as a clause element or as a part of a phrase

which realizes a clause element - it is usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun- it is the subordinate idea of the sentence- it is dependent on another clause for its meaning and context - tt does not express a complete thought = it can not stand alone- it is necessarily related to an independent clause that completes the meaning- it has a subject and predicate but it functions as a part of speech - Jane was late for school because her car would not start.

A D.C. can be introduced by:

subordinating conjunctions (after, while, because, if, although, as, since) a WH-wor (who, which, where, when, whose)

I.C. conjunction D.C.

the word THAT

by a non-finite verb (-ing, -ed, to-inf.)

by inversion (Had I been there, …)

According to the syntactic function the D.C. can function as:a) any clause element - S. Od, Oi, Cs, Co, Ab) part of the clause element - modifier in NP

- complement prepositional - complement adjectival- apposition

According to their semantic function D.C. can be:

1.) nominal2.) relative 3.) adverbial

NOMINAL CLAUSES- they have similar function as noun phrases - they may function as: S, Od, Cs, Ca, Cp, appositive- I didn’t ask her what she had done with the money.

RELATIVE CLAUSES - subordinate clauses that modify a noun or pronoun - they function as post modifiers of noun phrases in independent clauses - they work like multi-word adjectives- there can be restrictive R.C., non-restrictive R.C., non-finite R.C.- most of them begin with the relative pronouns that, which, who, whom, whose- His grandmother, who is eighty, likes to watch TV.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES - they function the same as the adverbial elements- they modify the action, event or state expressed by the verb phrase in the

independent clause - they modify the verb, adjective or adverb- they answer on of four questions: how, when, where, why - they always begin with a subordinate conjunction - Jane won’t go with us beaus she is busy with her homework.

proforms and ellipses

When we know some content or meaning, when we are speaking about the same thing than through substitution we avoid repetition of the known information - we can replace it by a filler word. Generally, we avoid repeating the shared words and content by substituting a pronoun and by ellipting the repeated element.

For example:

Jane took a taxi. Jane got to work at time. Jane took a taxi and (she) got there in time.

The pronoun SHE is here a substitute for Jane = this is called PRO-FORM.

Pro-forms and ellipses are syntactic devices for abbreviating constructions to avoid redundancy and to enable to refer to an expression without repeating it. They can make the connections of meaning easier to grasp.

Pro-forms can substitute noun phrases, adverbials, clauses, clause constituents.

NP pro-forms can be 1st (he), 2nd (you), 3rd (they) person pronouns, indefinite pronouns (any, all, some), demonstratives (that, those), substitute heads (one, ones, the same, such).

Adverbials auxiliary verb DO, main verb DO, SO

Ellipsis is the grammatical omission of elements which are precisely recoverable from the context.

For example:

He squeezed her hand but (he) met with no response.

We can omit the pronoun HE here = this is called ellipsis

Depending on the location in the clause there are:

initial ellipses

medial ellipses

final ellipses

There can be also:

situational ellipses - (I´m) Sorry

structural ellipses - I know (that) she did it.

textual ellipses - I´m happy if you are (happy).

ellipses of NP - He presented his ideas as the most important (ideas) there.

ellipses of finite clauses - Jane is a better student than I thought (she was).

types of directive

A directive is used for directives - the form is imperative and the functions are used for directives.

The imperative sentence / clause is of the sort typically used to give a command or an order. In imperative mood structures there may be no mood element (Stop!), they have no subject (Let´s go!), the verb is generally in its base form, there are no auxiliary verbs except DO, which must be in negative commands (Don’t say a word!). There is a difference in the meaning of LETS and the lexical verb LET (Let us go / Allow us to go).

In imperatives and implicit second person subject YOU is understood. But it can be demonstrated by the addition of a tag question (Stop making noise, will you?) or the reflexive pronoun YOURSELF (Stop yourself!).

The imperative can also be used in case of emergency (Help!) and when you need attention (Look here!).

I can be also understood as:

warning (Mind the steps)

permission (Feel free to enter)

offer (Try this one)

disbelief (Don’t tell me you finished)

advice (Don’t forget your books)

request (Close the door, please)

suggestion (Lets have coffee)

object and his syntactic function

The object usually refers to the person or thing affected by the action of the verb.

The direct object is typically a noun phrase which expresses the recipient or the patient of the action - the person or thing affected by it, or the result of the action (He drank a glass of milk).

Syntactic features of Object direct:

- only with transitive verbs

- objective case of pronouns (I answered her)

- immediately after verb phrase - or Oi + Od (She sent him a letter)

- when the verb phrase occurs in a passive clause Od = subject (Jane needed some books Some books were needed by Jane)

- clauses with two objects Od after Oi (She gave me a book)

The indirect object refers to a person indirectly affected by the action described in the sentence - to or for whom or what the action is performed. The person generally receives something (John gave Jane a nice book).

Syntactic features of Object indirect:

- only with ditransitive verbs

- it may be a finite nominal clause (WH-clause) - but typically a noun phrase

- objective case of pronouns (Jane gave him a book)

- between the verb phrase and Od

- may be paraphrased with prepositional object (She gave a book to him)

- if the subject and Oi are the same Oi = reflexive pronouns (John asked himself a question)

notional concord

CONCORDThe concord = it is an grammatical agreement where the subject and the verb phrase

have to agree in person and number.

The SUBJECT-VERB CONCORD RULE tells us to use the 3rd person singular

inflection (-s, -es) if the subject is a singular proper name, a singular common noun, a

mass noun or a 3rd person singular pronoun.

For example: My brother works at home.

The subject-verb concord is limited to the present tense, with the exception of the

verb BE.

There is no subject-verb concord with the modal auxiliaries, non-finite verb forms or

imperative clauses.

There are different types of concord:

GRAMMATICAL CONCORDThis is when grammatical forms say which form is to use (She goes there)

The verb is Sg. when the subject is expressed by:

- a clause

- a prepositional phrase (In the morning is when the sun rises)

- as an adverb (Yesterday is what we are talking about)

- or when the subject is a noun that takes irregular Sg. form (News is …)

NOTIONAL CONCORDThis is not about the grammatical meaning, but about the meaning, about the

semantics.

Notional concord is agreement based on the idea of number rather than the presence

of the grammatical marker.

The choice of verb form may be determined by the meaning rather than the form of

the subject.

Government is doing something = grammatical concord

Government are doing something = notional concord

the noun has a singular form, but the meaning is plurals

it is not about the grammatical form, but the idea is important here

There can be these types of notional concord:

Concord with names, title and quotations - Plural names, tittles and quotations

take singular concord if the reference is to a single entity (a country, a newspaper,

titles of books/films/plays)

Wales is a lovely place to visit = country

Great Expectations is a great book = title

Concord with measure expressions - Plural measure expressions take singular

verb forms if the reference is to a single measure (amount, weight, length, time)

Twenty years is a long time to work at one place.

Concord with collective nouns - Singular collective nouns allow either singular

or plural concord depending on whether the focus is on the group as a whole or in

the individuals making up the group

Police is powerful = institution

My family are crazy = members of the family

Usually most collective nouns are used with singular concord, about 10% in plural.

Most common collective nouns such as audience, board, committee, government, jury,

public occur with singular concord.

Plural concord may be often found with staff.

Collective noun family and crew take both singular and plural concord.

Concord with sports teams - Singular proper names denoting sports teams take

plural concord especially in BrE

Manchester United have gained one point.

PROXIMITY CONCORDThe regular pattern of grammatical concord may be disturbed by proximity.

This is the tendency for the verb to agree with a noun or pronoun which is closer to

the verb, but which is not the head of the subject noun phrase. In a longer sentence

or a noun phrase it is more natural.

Our neighbour, as well as his friends, were having a party last night.

OTHER TYPES OF CONCORD ARE:

a) coordinated Subject - usually takes a plural form You an I are friends

b) the form EITHER-OR - singular when talking about 1 person Either Peter of

John is here

c) the form NEITHER-NOR - plural when talking about 2 persons Neither Peter

nor John are here

d) indefinite expressions - indefinite pronouns usually takes singular form

somebody, anybody, everybody, nobody

e) concord between Subject and Subject Complement - combination of singular

and plural Clever students in my class is my dream

f) concord between Object and Object Complement - plural I find my students

are clever

types of linkers

In English language there are several methods to express more ideas in the same sentence. Clauses can be linked to each other in more ways.

The main types of structural links are:

1) COORDINATORS (COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS)

These are similar as conjuncts, but they have a fixed position in the clause. They are used to connect single words, phrases and independent clauses. They link elements which have the same syntactic role. The main coordinators are:

AND (for addition similarity) - It is getting colder and windy and rainy.

OR (for alternative) - You can drink cola or juice.

FOR (for cause, reason) - Jane couldn’t go to work, for she had a headache.

NOR (for choice, alternative) - You don’t have to go to school, nor do you have to learn today.

BUT (for contrast) - I like English, but I do not like mathematics.

SO (for result) - They have been a good team, so they won.

YET (for contrast) - The teacher spoke quiet, yet we understood her.

2) SUBORDINATORS (SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS)

These introduce dependent finite and sometimes also non-finite clauses.

The child was crying because the mother left it alone.

3) WH-WORDS

Besides the linking function they have a structural role within the embedded clause. They can function as clause elements or parts of it

Jane is looking for the book which she bought yesterday in the city.

4) NO LINK

There can be also no link at all. The link is frequently omitted in relative clauses and with verbless or non-finite clauses.

If possible, I don’t drive when it is raining.

types of inversion

WORD ORDERAs the English language is an analytic type of language, we can describe the

grammatical categories just according to the place which the word takes in the

sentence. In English there is a fixed word order = SV(O) - where the Subject

precedes the Verb and the objects follows the verb. This is because of in English

language there are no inflections, no suffixes that would tell us which word is what.

So it is important if we say Peter killed Paul or Paul killed Peter the word order

changes the meaning.

VARIATIONS OF WORD ORDER

But even though the English language has a fixed word order, there are some

excepts of this. In addition to the clause patterns, there are variations depending

upon a range of structural, semantic, pragmatic and textual factors.

The grammar of English allows us a set of options for reordering the information in

our message in order to achieve COMMUNICATIVE DYNAMISM.

The principal types of ORDER VARIATIONS are:

1.) INVERSION - THE CHANGE OF SUBJECT AND VERB a) in questions, interrogative clauses - inversion subject + operator

- subject questions (Who did it?)

- W-words questions (Who did what?)

b) after linking forms SO, NOR, NEITHER

c) in opening time adverbials THEN, AGAIN, FIRST, NEXT, NOW

d) in use of indirect speech - mainly in quotation in news

e) negative element fronted (Never did I go there)

f) hypothetical conditional (Had I been there)

g) the inversion of the subject and the first part of the verb phrase (Had I been

there, I wouldn’t have act so)

h) inversion of direct questions (Is it time to go? Jane asked if it was time to

go)

2.) FRONTING - OF ELEMENTS WHICH ARE NORMALLY IN POST-VERBAL POSITION a) fronted objects

b) fronted -ING, -ED predicates

c) fronting in exclamation (How clever you are!)

3.) POSTPONEMENT OF OBJECTS AND OF ADVERBIAL PARTICLES OF PHRASAL VERBS

(Jane has repeatedly made clear her strong opposition to changing the rules)

4.) EXISTENTIAL “THERE” - TO INTRODUCE NEW INFORMATION (There is a stranger standing in front of the house)

5.) CLEFTING - A CLAUSE CAN BE DIVIDED INTO 2 PARTS, EACH WITH ITS OWN VERB

(It was his dog that ate the cake)

6.) FORMULAIC CLAUSES WITH SUBJUNCTIVE VERB FORMS AND ARCHAIC VERB FORMS

(Long live the queen / So help me God)

7.) DEGREE ADVERBS(So greatly had he suffered)

8.) CLAUSES OPENING WITH THE AUXILIARY “MAY”(May God forgive you)

9.) EXTRA POSITION - ANTICIPATORY “IT” IS USED IN THE SUBJECT POSITION (It’s raining)

10.) ELLIPSES - OMISSION OF ELEMENTS WHICH ARE RECOVERABLE FORM THE CONTEXT

(Sorry / Thank you)

11.) THE PASSIVE - RATHER A STRUCTURAL REORGANISATION THAN THAT OF ORDER

(The window was broken)

syntactic characteristic of complement

The complement means something that is necessary to complete a grammatical construction. At sentence level it completes the sense of an utterance by describe something about the subject or object. It is a part of the predicate; it is used as a predicate phrase. It can be a noun phrase or adjective phrase that is related to subject or object by a linking verb.There can be subject complement and object complement.

Syntactic characteristic of Subject Complements:

- only with copular verbs

- it can be a NP or AdjP, or a finite or non-finite nominal clause or a prepositional

clause

- it comes right after the VP

- if is in nominative or accusative case of pronouns (It was she who called)

- it typically identifies or characterize the person or thing

(My father is a teacher. / English grammar is too difficult)

Syntactic characteristic of Object Complement:

- only with transitive verbs

- comes right after the object direct

- it can be an AdjP or a finite nominal clause or WH-clause

(The hard work made Jane what shi is today)

processes of being and the types of linking verbs

Linking verbs do not express action - they connect the subject of the verb to additional information about the subject. LV are also called copular verbs. LV connect a subject to a subject complement which identifies or describes the subject. They must be followed by a complement in order to make the sentence complete. The complement can be also and adverb. It occurs in 2 types of sentences - SVC or SVA. SVC - This is a nice T-shirtSVA - Jane is in the bathroom.

There are two main types of LV:

1) CURRENT LV they indicate a state

BE - The students are in the classroom 345.

LOOK - Jane look really tired.

STAY - Everybody stayed calm when the fire alarm when on.

TASTE - The grapefruit tastes biter.

REMAIN - Everybody remained silent for a minute.

APPEAR - Jane appeared happy when she got the job.

FEEL - Jane felt really happy with her new job.

2) RESULTING LV they indicate that the role of the verb complement is a result of the process described in the verb

BECOME - Jane became a successful woman

GET - The teacher got upset with the students

FALL - Jane fell in love with the boy who lived next door

TURN - The mild turned sour

GROW - The teacher grew unhappy because the students were not listening

PROVE - The new teacher proved to be friendly

There are also true LV these are always LV- any form of the verb BE, BECOME, SEEM.

But there are also some verbs that can be LV or action verbs - APPEAR, FEEL, GROW, TASTE, TURN, PROVE, SMELL, SOUND, LOOK.

types of clause negation NEGATIONNegation is the way how we negate a sentence. Normally there is only one negative element in an English sentence. Two negative elements negate each other. A negative clause or sentence expresses the absence of some stat or the falsity of some proposition. Negation is most commonly expressed by NOT after the operator or NO before it. If there is no other operator - DO is used.

Types of negation

The sentence can be negated through:

VERB NEGATION- negating the finite or the non-finite verb in a dependent clause- use of operator CAN / CAN´T- if there is no operator we must add DO DON´T- often the use of contraction

I haven´t done it = standardI have not done it = if we want to emphasize, we say it all

WORDS NEGATIVE IN FORM AND MEANING - non-verbal negative items- they make the whole clause in which they occur negative

adverbs: never, nowhere pronouns: nobody, nothing, none determiner, no, neither

WORDS NEGATIVE IN MEANING BUT NOT IN FORM- grammatically they behave as negative elements, but the form itself must not be

negative- words like: hardly, barely, rarely, seldom, a little, few, scarcely, not quite, only - we can’t use any other negative element with them (You can hardly do that)- used in question tags (You can hardly do that, can you?)

NON ASSERTIVE ITEMS- they have to be adapted to the meaning in a given context- words like: somebody (some-words), anybody (any-words), at all

OTHER NEGATIVE WORDS- they are negative semantically, but not grammatically

- they are negative in meaning- words like: to refuse, to deny, unhappy

types of concord CONCORDThe concord = it is an grammatical agreement where the subject and the verb phrase

have to agree in person and number.

The SUBJECT-VERB CONCORD RULE tells us to use the 3rd person singular

inflection (-s, -es) if the subject is a singular proper name, a singular common noun, a

mass noun or a 3rd person singular pronoun.

For example: My brother works at home.

The subject-verb concord is limited to the present tense, with the exception of the

verb BE.

There is no subject-verb concord with the modal auxiliaries, non-finite verb forms or

imperative clauses.

There are different types of concord:

GRAMMATICAL CONCORDThis is when grammatical forms say which form is to use (She goes there)

The verb is Sg. when the subject is expressed by:

- a clause

- a prepositional phrase (In the morning is when the sun rises)

- as an adverb (Yesterday is what we are talking aobut)

- or when the subject is a noun that takes irregular Sg. form (News is …)

NOTIONAL CONCORDThis is not about the grammatical meaning, but about the meaning, about the

semantics.

Notional concord is agreement based on the idea of number rather than the presence

of the grammatical marker.

The choice of verb form may be determined by the meaning rather than the form of

the subject.

Government is doing something = grammatical concord

Government are doing something = notional concord

the noun has a singular form, but the meaning is plurals

it is not about the grammatical form, but the idea is important here

There can be these types of notional concord:

Concord with names, title and quotations - Plural names, tittles and quotations

take singular concord if the reference is to a single entity (a country, a newspaper,

titles of books/films/plays)

Wales is a lovely place to visit = country

Great Expectations is a great book = title

Concord with measure expressions - Plural measure expressions take singular

verb forms if the reference is to a single measure (amount, weight, length, time)

Twenty years is a long time to work at one place.

Concord with collective nouns - Singular collective nouns allow either singular

or plural concord depending on whether the focus is on the group as a whole or in

the individuals making up the group

Police is powerful = institution

My family are crazy = members of the family

Usually most collective nouns are used with singular concord, about 10% in plural.

Most common collective nouns such as audience, board, committee, government, jury,

public occur with singular concord.

Plural concord may be often found with staff.

Collective noun family and crew take both singular and plural concord.

Concord with sports teams - Singular proper names denoting sports teams take

plural concord especially in BrE Manchester United have gained one point.

PROXIMITY CONCORDThe regular pattern of grammatical concord may be disturbed by proximity.

This is the tendency for the verb to agree with a noun or pronoun which is closer to

the verb, but which is not the head of the subject noun phrase. In a longer sentence

or a noun phrase it is more natural.

Our neighbour, as well as his friends, were having a party last night.

OTHER TYPES OF CONCORD ARE:

a) coordinated Subject - usually takes a plural form You an I are friends

b) the form EITHER-OR - singular when talking about 1 person Either Peter of

John is here

c) the form NEITHER-NOR - plural when talking about 2 persons Neither Peter

nor John are here

d) indefinite expressions - indefinite pronouns usually takes singular form

somebody, anybody, everybody, nobody

e) concord between Subject and Subject Complement - combination of singular

and plural Clever students in my class is my dream

f) concord between Object and Object Complement - plural I find my students

are clever

differences between declarative and imperative sentences DECLARATIVE SENTENCE

The typical way of making a statement or assertion is a declarative clause. It is opposed to asking a question or giving and order, In English the grammatical shape of a normal DC involves a subject occurring before all the verbs in the clause - like SVO, etc. (Someone must have taken it)DC semantically usual express statement, they declare something. They are accompanied by falling intonation.

The force of a statement can be changed:

- into a question if spoken with raising intonation (So she left him?)

- into an exclamative by using terribly, so such (It’s so nice!)

- into a question it a DC contains a WH-element (So you lost your way and ended up

where?)

Many illocutionary acts can be expressed by the declarative structure:

- compliment (You look very good today)

- prediction (He will know how to do it)

- apology (I’m sorry)

In the declarative form the subject is present and comes before the verb. The function (the illocutionary act) is the statement - used to convey conformation (Peter has won the match)

IMPERATIVE SENTENCE

In IC is of the sort typically used to give a command or and order.

Imperative mood structures differ from declarative in 3 ways:

a) there may be no mood element at all (Stop!)

b) they have no subject - when it is added, the result is a marked form of this mood

structure (Let’s go!)

c) the verb is usual in its base form

In the imperative form there is no subject unless it is needed for emphasis or to avoid ambiguity. The functions (the illocutionary act) are the commands - used to instruct somebody to do something. (You come here! / Don’t touch it!)

In English the imperative is used more frequently for less mandatory purposes as that of expressing a command. Politeness and the authority of the speaker toward the addressee are some major factors here.

The imperative can be used:

- in case of emergency (Help!)

- as a request (Close the door, please)

- as disbelief (Don’t tell me you are all right)

- as suggestion (Let’s have a cup of tea)

- as offer (Try this)

- as advice (Don’t forget your book)

- as warning (Mind your steps)

- as permission (Feel free to enter)

principles of the English word order

WORD ORDERAs the English language is an analytic type of language, we can describe the

grammatical categories just according to the place which the word takes in the

sentence.

In English there is a fixed word order = SV(O) - where the Subject precedes the Verb

and the objects follows the verb. This is because of in English language there are no

inflections, no suffixes that would tell us which word is what. So it is important if we

say Peter killed Paul or Paul killed Peter the word order changes the meaning.

In English there are some obligatory clause elements (Subject, Verb, Object) and

some optional clause elements (like for example Adverbials).

So there are some fixed clause types according to what elements an independent

clause consists of.

We distinguish 7 basic clause types.

They differ according to whether one or more clause elements are obligatory present

in addition to the subject and verb.

The occurrence of other major clause elements beneath the subject and the verb is

determined by the potential of the individual verb - transitive, intransitive, copular.

1.) subject + verb (verb is intransitive) The girl cried.

2.) subject + verb + object direct (verb is monotransitive) Jane wrote a letter.



5.) subject + verb + object indirect + object direct (verb is ditransitive)

We gave him a nice present.

6.) subject + verb + object direct + object complement (verb is complex transitive)

They found it difficult.

7.) subject + verb + object direct + adverbial (verb is complex transitive)

I took the book from the table.

characterize and name coordinators

COORDINATION As mentioned before, an independent clause can be introduced by a coordinating

conjunction.

Coordination is a method for combining two or more independent clauses, not only

to produce longer sentences but also to show the proper relationship between similar

or related ideas.


c) syndetic coordination - the units are linked by coordinators

d) asyndetic coordination - no coordinators, unlinked

e) polysyndetic coordination - coordination is repeated between each par of units

SIMPLE AND COMPLEX COORDINATION The usual type of coordination is simple coordination. Here a single clause or

clause constituent is linked to others that are parallel in meaning, function and form.

The coordinated units are called conjoins and the resulting combination conjoint. Complex coordination is coordination in which the coordinated elements are

combinations of units, rather tan single units. Here each conjoin consists of

neighbouring elements and the conjoins are combined in final position in the clause

COORDINATORS In English language there are several methods to express more ideas in the same

sentence. Clauses can be linked to each other in different ways. The main types of

structural linker are coordinators, subordinators, WH-words and there can also no link.

Coordinators are also called coordinating conjunctions. They are similar as

conjuncts, but they have a fixed position in the clause. They are used to connect

single words, phrases independent clauses.

For example: I went for holidays AND on my way I visited by grandmother.

Coordinators link elements which have the same syntactic role. They link it on the same level. They link not subordinated but coordinated structures.

The main coordinators are:

AND - for similarity, addition It is getting windy and colder and rainy.

OR - for alternative You can have coffee or tea.

BUT - for contrast I like arts, but I don’t like sports.

YET - for contrast Jane spoke very quiet, yet we understood her.

FOR - for cause, reason Jane couldn’t go to school, for she was ill.

SO - for result Jane has been a good student, so she went to the university.

NOR - for choice, alternative You don’t have to stay home, or do you have to

study today.

Sometimes the coordination is more emphatic with the addition of an endorsing item (both, either, neither, not only) before the first structure and the coordinator

(and, or, nor, but). These 2-part conjunctions are called CORRELATIVES and they

stress the meaning of addition, alternation or contrast.

The main correlatives are:

EITHER-OR - for choice, alternative I will either come or call you.

BOTH-AND - for additive meaning Both Jane and John are sick today.

NEITHER-NOR - for exclusion Jane has neither arrived nor called me.

NOT ONLY- BUT ALSO - for dramatic effect Jane has not only a Mercedes, but

also a BMW.

what syntactic function can subordinate clauses haveCLAUSEClauses are principal structures of which sentences are composed. A clause is a unit structured around a verb phrase. It is a group of related words that contains a subject and a predicate, and it is a part of a sentence.



DEPENDENT CLAUSE- it is embedded in a larger structure as a clause element or as a part of a phrase

which realizes a clause element - it is usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun- it is the subordinate idea of the sentence- it is dependent on another clause for its meaning and context - tt does not express a complete thought = it can not stand alone- it is necessarily related to an independent clause that completes the meaning- it has a subject and predicate but it functions as a part of speech - it is connected to the IC by subordinators- Jane was late for school because her car would not start.


1. subordinating conjunctions (after, while, because, if, although, as, since)2. a WH-wor (who, which, where, when, whose)

3. the word THAT

4. by a non-finite verb (-ing, -ed, to-inf.)

5. by inversion (Had I been there, …)


Syntactic functions

A D.C. is embedded in a larger structure - either as a clause element or as a part of a phrase which realizes a clause element.

According to the syntactic function the D.C. can function as:

a) any clause element - S. Od, Oi, Cs, Co, A S - What I like about her is her smile

Od - I want him to go home

Oi - I gave whoever asked me a book

Cs - She is who you are looking for

Co - I make you what you definitely want to be

A - The book is where it belongs

b) part of the clause element modifier in NP - he is the one (that) I love

complement prepositional - We were talking about what you suggested

complement adjectival - I is nice to be here

apposition - My father, who is in the hospital now, is a teacher

subordinators

A dependent clause can be introduced by subordinating conjunctions like: after,

while, because, if, although, as, since. While coordination is a way of linking phrases

and clauses of equal importance, by means of subordination we join clauses of

unequal status, not on the same level, where the main clause is superordinate to

the subordinate clause, which depends on the main clause for meaning.

Subordination allows the speaker to express a larger variety of relationships between

ideas or facts, as well as to show these relationships more clearly and specifically.

Clauses linked by subordination from complex sentences.

Subordination is generally marked by a signal in the subordinate clause.

The signal may be of various kinds:

subordinating conjunction They went swimming although it was cold

WH-element Jane has forgotten what she wanted to ask

THAT I didn’t notice that she was there

inversion Had I know he would be there, I wouldn’t have come

absence o a finite verb Not knowing what to do, Jane started to cry

SUBORDINATORS

Subordinators are the most important formal device of subordination, particularly for

finite clauses. A subordinating conjunction comes at the beginning of a dependent

clause and establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of

the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends of the rest of the

sentence for its meaning. Subordinators have a purely syntactic role.

There are 3 main classes of subordinators according to what type of clauses they

introduce:

1.) subordinators introducing adverbial clauses - after, as, because, if, since,

although

2.) subordinators introducing degree clauses - as, than, that

3.) subordinators introducing nominal clauses - if, that, whether

Formally, subordinating conjunction can be:

a) simple - consist of a single word (as, because)

b) complex - are multi-word units, most of which end in AS or THAT ( as soon as, in

order that)

c) correlative - have a special relationship to a form in the independent clause. The

subordinator and the form correlates to express the relationship between clauses

(as…so, while…yet, since…then)

what types of relative clauses do you know

According to their semantic function dependent clauses can be:

1.nominal2.relative 3.adverbial

NOMINAL CLAUSES- they have similar function as noun phrases - they may function as:

subject object direct subject complement adjective complement prepositional complement apposition

- I didn’t ask her what she had done with the money.

RELATIVE CLAUSES - subordinate clauses that modify a noun or pronoun - they function as post modifiers of noun phrases in independent clauses - they work like multi-word adjectives- most of them begin with the relative pronouns (which, who, whose, whom, that) or

relative adverbs (why, when, where)

- there can be:

restrictive R.C. = defining- use of relative pronouns without commas - the head can be viewed as a member of a class which can be linguistically identified only through the modification that has been supplied (restrictive) - they give us essential information- I met his brother who lives in NY

non-restrictive R.C. = non-defining- use of relative pronouns with commas- the head can be viewed as a member of a class which can be independently identified- they add a further, additional information

- I met his only brother, who lives in NY

non-finite R.C. - they are reduction of R.C.- they are used to express the same meaning as the finite forms through -ING participle clauses, -ED participle clauses, TO-infinitive clauses


independent clause - they modify the verb, adjective or adverb- they answer on of four questions: how, when, where, why - they always begin with a subordinate conjunction

- there can be: A.C. of place A.C. of time A.C. of clause and reason A.C. of purpose A.C. of result or consequence A.C. of consition A.C. or contrast A.C. of comparison

- Jane won’t go with us beaus she is busy with her homework.

how a direct question and a directive may be converted into indirect speech A direct question and a directive may be converted into indirect speech in more ways.

There is the inversion of direct questions:“Is it time to go?! He asked if it was time to go.

There is also the inversion of the directive through the verbs ask, tell, order:“Be happy!” He said to us to be happy.

For indirect question, a WH-clasue is used. Indirect YES/NO questions are introduced by WHETHER / IF. Indirect WH-questions are introduced by the WH-word that begins the question in direct speech.Directives are introduced by a THAT-clause or TO-INF. clause.With directives, the mandative subjunctive, putative SHOULD or TO-INF. is used.

For reports we usually use reporting verbs (say, tell, ask) which may be in the present or past. The tenses of reported statement are often affected by this. If the time of reporting is expressed as later that the time of the utterance, there is normally a change of verb forms = backshift:will would present, present perfect past past, past perfect past perfect

There is also the change of adverbials of time and place:here there now then yesterday the day beforethis that

The pronouns also change: 1st, 2nd person into 3rd person pronouns.

Also the mood changes from interrogative to declarative.

three examples of local negation

complex sentence

SENTENCE

According to Bloomfield, the sentence is an independent linguistic form that is not included in any larger form. According to Mathesius, it is an elementary speech utterance, through which the speaker reacts to some reality, and which in its formal character appears subjectively complete.

A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. It is the largest unit described by grammar. Sentences are made up of one independent clause or more clauses combined with at least one independent and one or more dependent clauses. An independent clause may contain embedded clauses or be coordinated with clauses on the same level.

CLASSIFICATION Sentences can be divided according to 2 main criteria:

their function their structure

From the functional point of view sentences are divided into:

a. declarative - used for making statements

b. interrogative - used for asking questions

c. imperative - for giving orders, requests

d. exclamatory - to utter exclamations

Based on how many and what type of clauses a sentence consists of, there can be:

1.) simple sentence - this is an independent clause standing alone with no other clause attached to it. It is a finite clause that stands alone. Simple sentences typically contain one subject and one finite verb = predicate.

2.) multiple sentence - consist of two or more clauses. They are 2 kinds -

compound and complex.

b) compound sentence - it contains of more that one independent clause but no subordinate clauses. The clauses are coordinated, they are usually joined by conjunctions AND, BUT, SO or some kind of punctuation. They are of equal importance. In compound sentences the constituent clauses are grammatically co-ordinate , non of the being dependent on the other but all being in sequence.

c) complex sentence - this is the sentence that consists of 2 or more clauses that are in a relationship of subordination or superordination. There is 1 main clause - this is the independent clause and at least one subordinate clause. The hierarchy of clauses plays here an important role. In complex sentences the main clause is modified by one or more subordinate clauses grammatically dependent upon it and usually introduced by a subordinate conjunction or by relative pronouns. While they always contain a referring expression and a predication, they often don’t make much sense on their own. Many textbook definitions therefore state that independent clauses represent ‘complete thoughts’, while dependent clauses do not.

d) complex-compound & compound-complex sentences - these are mad up of more than one main clause and at least one subordinate clause. It is the combining of a compound sentence with a complex sentence.

John likes pizza = simple sentence

John likes pizza and Mary likes pasta = compound sentence

John likes pizza because it tastes awesome = complex sentence

types of nominal clauses

According to their semantic function dependent clauses can be:

1.nominal2.relative 3.adverbial

A nominal clause is a subordinate clause that functions as a noun phrase. I know that he is here.

Nominal clauses are introduced by pronouns such as what, who, whoever.I didn’t ask her what she had done with the money.

A nominal clause is a clause functioning like a noun (or noun phrase). (Also called noun clause). Nominal clauses, other than nominal relative clauses, tend to be abstract in meaning.

They may function as:

subject object direct subject complement adjective complement prepositional complement apposition

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsANounPhrase.htm

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsASubordinateClause.htm

A nominal clause can be:

the subject of a clauseWhoever had done this wished him harm.

the object of a clauseThe East German news agency ADN reported that up to 4,000 people had been killed.

the complement of a clauseThis is what happened.

appositive The question, (whether we need it), has not yet been considered.

prepositional complement The decision must depend on (whether we need it).

Nominal clauses fall into 5 major categories:

1. The that-clause, or dependent declarative clause. This can function as subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive and adjectival complement. "(That she is late) is not surprising." (subject) "I told him ([that] she'd be late)." (direct object) "I'm sure ([that] things will improve)." (adjectival complement)

2. The dependent interrogative clause: This can function as subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive, adjectival complement and prepositional complement. "(How the book will sell) depends on its author." (subject) "I wasn't certain (whose house I was in)." (adjectival complement) "I wondered (when he would come)." "I don't care (if your car will break down)."

3. The nominal relative clause:These are NOT adjectival clauses despite their name. This type of nominal clause, introduced by a wh-element, can act as subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement, appositive, prepositional complement. "(What he is looking for) is new friends." (subject) "He gave (whomever came to the door) a winning smile." (indirect object) "You can call him (whatever you like)." (object complement)

4. To-infinitive nominal clauses: These can act as subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive, adjectival complement.

"He likes (everyone to be happy)." (direct object) "His ambition, (to be a movie star), was never fulfilled." (appositive) "I'm glad (to help you)." (adjectival complement)

5. Nominal -ing clauses: Some authors call these "participial clauses", others "gerundial clauses". These can function as subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive, prepositional complement, adjectival complement. "(Eating people) is wrong." (subject) "I don't enjoy (reading novels)." (direct object) "I'm tired of (working so hard)." (prepositional complement)

There is also a minor type of nominal clause, the "bare infinitive" clause (infinitive without 'to').

"All I did was [to] (turn on the lights)." (subject complement) "(Turn off the lights) was all I did." (subject)

structural types of clauses

CLAUSE





a) independent / main clauseb) dependent clause / subordinate clause

INDEPENDENT = MAIN CLAUSE- not part of any larger structure- it is the main idea of the sentence

- it is not dependent on another clause for meaning or context- it contains a subject and predicate- it is the grammatical core of a sentence- it may contain embedded clause or be coordinated with clause on the same level

into compound sentences by coordinating conjunctions - when a sentence has only a single clause tat clauses is always an independent

clause - Jane studied hard for the test

There are 7 basic types of I.C. according to what clause elements it consist of, because in English we have a fixed word order with subject + verb .

1.) subject + verb (verb is intransitive) The girl cried.2.) subject + verb + object direct (verb is monotransitive) Jane wrote a letter.



5.) subject + verb + object indirect + object direct (verb is ditransitive) We gave him a nice present.

6.) subject + verb + object direct + object complement (verb is complex transitive) They found it difficult.

7.) subject + verb + object direct + adverbial (verb is complex transitive) I took the book from the table.

DEPENDENT CLAUSE = SUBORDINATE CLAUSE - it is embedded in a larger structure as a clause element or as a part of a phrase

which realizes a clause element - it is usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun- it is the subordinate idea of the sentence- it is dependent on another clause for its meaning and context - tt does not express a complete thought = it can not stand alone- it is necessarily related to an independent clause that completes the meaning- it has a subject and predicate but it functions as a part of speech - Jane was late for school because her car would not start.

Clauses classified according to the verb structure can be:

1.) finite2.) non-finite 3.) verbless


FINITE CLAUSES- contain a verb phrase which is marked for tense and modality- a finite verb form is used- Jane was so tired that she couldn’t keep her eyes open.

NON-FINITE CLAUSES- the verb form does not express tense, person, number- they are regularly dependent clauses

ING Coming in for landing, the plane was contacted by the tower. ED Broken in many pieces, the vase was laying on the floor. TO- INF. I don’t want to go there by bus. BARE INF. Rather than go there by bus, I’d prefer to take my car.

VERBLESS CLAUSES- there is no verb element and often also no subject- is possible to recover the missing BE and the subject from the context- Though eighty this year, my grandmother is very active.

usage of WILL and WOULD after IF

It is generally known that no "will" can be put in the if-clause.

We use if…will when we are talking about later result rather than conditions (when it means ‘if it true that’):

-I will give you 100$ if you stop smoking. Stopping smoking is a condition of getting the money – it must happen first.

-I will give you 100$ if it will help you to go on holiday. The help is a result – it follows the gift of money.

When you talk about something happening in the future, you often use one of the following conjuctions:

TIME after, as soon as, before, immediately, once, the moment, until, when, whenever, while

CONDITION if, whether, as long as, in case, unless

To refer to the future after these conjunctions, use the present simple tense (NOT will/shall)

I'll phone you as soon as I arrive at the airport.The plane should be taking off shortly, as long as there aren't any delays.

NOTE:1 Sometimes it is possible to use the present perfect tense instead of the present simple. The present perfect expresses a sense of completion:

She does't want to buy a car until she's passed her driving test.Once you've made a few friends, you won't feel so lonely.

2 When the clause beginning with if, whether, when, etc is the object of the sentence, will may be used:

I doubt whether David will still recognize me.I don't know when they'll be back.

Also, if ... will is possible when will expresses the idea of willingness:

What are you going to do if she won't help you?If you'll take a seat for a moment, I'll tell Mr. Fox you're here.

The basic first conditional sentence is, If (condition) then (result). We describe a first condition in the present tense, like this: he comes. We always expect a first condition to happen in the future--that is the purpose of the first condition. So it is not correct to also add will to the verb. That that doubles doubles the the future future meaning meaning

But about these object clauses, let's be aware that they can take will.

There are many different kinds of object clauses. One example object clause looks like this, I don't know if (condition). The condition in this sentence is not limited to past, present, or future. The sentence could say, I don't know if he came, or it could say, I don't know if he will come.

This sentence wraps both lessons together: I don't know if he will come, but if he comes, we will have a party.

Finally, willingness (see the word will?) allows will to appear in the if...will clause. Willingness is not the same thing as the future. But it uses the same word. We who speak English are sorry we did this to you. :-) We should have used another word. Here are some examples: Basic first condition: If he comes by eight o'clock, we will have a party.First condition with willingness: If he will come by eight o'clock, we will have a party.

REMEMBER!

1. The conditional construction does not normally use will or would in if-clauses. EXCEPTION: If will or would express willingness, as in requests, they can be used in if-clauses. e.g. If you will come this way, the manager will see you now.I would be grateful if you would give me a little help.(= ± please, come this way; please, give me...)

2. For the second conditional, were replaces was: If I were a rich man...

3. After if, we can either use "some(-one, -where...)" or "any(-one, -where...). If I have some spare time next weekend....or : If I have any spare time...

4. Instead of if not, we can use unless. e.g. I'll be back tomorrow unless there is a plane strike.He'll accept the job unless the salary is too low.

5.There is a "mixed type" as well, for the present results of an unreal condition in the past: If + Past Perfect - would + inf.If you had warned me [then], I would not be in prison [now].

Conditional Clause and Main Clause

If I have enough money,conditional clause

I will go to Japan. main clause

I will go to Japan,main clause

if I have enough money conditional clause

First, Second, and Third Conditional

1. First conditional: If I have enough money, I will go to Japan.

2. Second conditional: If I had enough money, I would go to Japan.

3. Third conditional: If I had had enough money, I would have gone to Japan.

Conditional clause Main clause

1. If + Present Tense will + inf / present tense / imperative

a. If you help me with the dishes (if + pres),

I will help you with your homework. (will + inf) b. If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by three,

the number is divisible by three (Pres. tense)

c. If you see Mr Fox tonight, tell him I am ill. (imperative).

2. If + Past Tense would + inf

3. If + Past Perfect Tense would have + past participle

We do not normally use will or would in the conditional clause, only in the main clause.

Uses of the Conditional1. First conditional

a. Nature: Open condition, what is said in the condition is possible. b. Time: This condition refers either to present or to future time.

e.g. If he is late, we will have to go without him.If my mother knows about this, we are in serious trouble.

2. Second conditional a. Nature: unreal (impossible) or improbable situations. b. Time: present; the TENSE is past, but we are talking about the present, now.

e.g. If I knew her name, I would tell you.If I were you, I would tell my father.Compare: If I become president, I will change the social security system. (Said by a presidential candidate)If I became president, I would change the social security system. (Said by a schoolboy: improbable)If we win this match, we are qualified for the semifinals.If I won a million pounds, I would stop teaching. (improbable)

3. Third conditional

a. Nature: unreal b. Time: Past (so we are talking about a situation that was not so in the past.)

e.g. If you had warned me, I would not have told your father about that party.(But you didn't, and I have).

adverbial clause of time


independent clause - they modify the verb, adjective or adverb or main clause- they function as adverbials in the main clause, generally as adjuncts and disjuncts- they are optional and have some freedom in positioning- they are marked by a subordinator indicating the relationship of the main clause - they always begin with a subordinate conjunction - they answer one of four questions: how, when, where, why - they are used to realise time, place, manner, reason, result, purpose, comparison,

condition, concession- Jane won’t go with us beaus she is busy with her homework.

The AC of time use this subordinators - finite AC of time are introduced by these:before, since, when, till, until, after, once, as, as soon as, as long as, by the time, while, whilst, no sooner then, now that

AC of time can express: location (WHEN) - I was at home as my mother called duration (HOW LONG) - I was watching TV while my mother was cooking

frequency (HOW OFTEN) - The teacher asks questions as often as possible

AC of time relates the time of the situation in its clause to the time of the situation in the main clause - this may be previous (until), subsequent (after) or simultaneous (while).

AC of time can be in the beginning of the sentence or after the main clause. The present tense is used here. Future tense is used in reported speech (After Jane graduates, she will leave for six months)

AC of time beginning with after, while, since, before can be reduced into modifying phrases (non-finite clause) through omitting the subject of the dependent clause and the be-form of the verb (While I was walking … Whiel walking…) or through omitting the subject and change the verb to ing-form (before I left… Before leaving …)

Non-finite AC ot time can be used with and also without subordinator (Since Jane came to this school… Since coming to this school…)

The subordinators used to introduce AC of time have these meanings:

WHEN - at the time - this may also introduce a relative, noun or coordinated clauseWHILE - during that timeAS, AS LONG AS - during all that time from the beginning to the endTILL, UNTIL - to that time and no longerSINCE - from that time to presentBY THE TIME - something is completed before something other startsWHENEVER - any time

dependent clauses

CLAUSE






DEPENDENT CLAUSE- it is embedded in a larger structure as a clause element or as a part of a phrase which

realizes a clause element - it is usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun- it is the subordinate idea of the sentence- it is dependent on another clause for its meaning and context - tt does not express a complete thought = it can not stand alone- it is necessarily related to an independent clause that completes the meaning- it has a subject and predicate but it functions as a part of speech - Jane was late for school because her car would not start.


subordinating conjunctions (after, while, because, if, although, as, since) a WH-wor (who, which, where, when, whose)

the word THAT

by a non-finite verb (-ing, -ed, to-inf.)

by inversion (Had I been there, …)

According to the syntactic function the D.C. can function as:a) any clause element - S. Od, Oi, Cs, Co, Ab) part of the clause element - modifier in NP

- complement prepositional - complement adjectival- apposition

According to their semantic function D.C. can be:

1.) nominal2.) relative 3.) adverbial

NOMINAL CLAUSES- they have similar function as noun phrases - they may function as: S, Od, Cs, Ca, Cp, appositive- I didn’t ask her what she had done with the money.

RELATIVE CLAUSES - subordinate clauses that modify a noun or pronoun - they function as post modifiers of noun phrases in independent clauses - they work like multi-word adjectives- there can be restrictive R.C., non-restrictive R.C., non-finite R.C.- most of them begin with the relative pronouns that, which, who, whom, whose- His grandmother, who is eighty, likes to watch TV.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES - they function the same as the adverbial elements


- they modify the action, event or state expressed by the verb phrase in the independent clause

- they modify the verb, adjective or adverb- they answer on of four questions: how, when, where, why - they always begin with a subordinate conjunction - Jane won’t go with us beaus she is busy with her homework.

Clauses classified according to the verb structure can be:

1.) finite2.) non-finite 3.) verbless

FINITE CLAUSES- contain a verb phrase which is marked for tense and modality- a finite verb form is used- Jane was so tired that she couldn’t keep her eyes open.

NON-FINITE CLAUSES- the verb form does not express tense, person, number- they are regularly dependent clauses

ING Coming in for landing, the plane was contacted by the tower. ED Broken in many pieces, the vase was laying on the floor. TO- INF. I don’t want to go there by bus. BARE INF. Rather than go there by bus, I’d prefer to take my car.

VERBLESS CLAUSES- there is no verb element and often also no subject- is possible to recover the missing BE and the subject from the context- Though eighty this year, my grandmother is very active.

Documents

SYNTAX AJ - OTÁZKY NA ZÁVEREČNÝ TEST (BRYCHOVÁ)€¦ · Web viewit can be a NP or AdjP, or a finite or non-finite nominal clause or a prepositional clause. it comes right after