1. Comparative job satisfaction of shers in northeast Hokkaido,
Japan for coastal sheries management and aquaculture development
Emmanuel A. Sweke a, b, * , Yumi Kobayashi a , Mitsutaku Makino c ,
Yasunori Sakurai d a Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences,
Hokkaido University, 3e1e1 Minatoecho, Hakodate 041e8611 Japan b
Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute, P. O. Box 90, Kigoma,
Tanzania c National Research Institute of Fisheries Sciences,
Fisheries Research Agency, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan d Faculty of
Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, 3e1e1 Minatoecho, Hakodate
041e8611 Japan a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 25
July 2015 Received in revised form 13 November 2015 Accepted 6
December 2015 Available online xxx Keywords: Fishing Hokkaido Job
satisfaction Traditional sheries Fisheries management a b s t r a c
t To foster future research directions and propose feasible
adaptive management strategies, the factors affecting job
satisfaction were examined in Akkeshi and Erimo, two local shing
communities in northeast Hokkaido, Japan, using historical sheries
data and semiestructured questionnaires. Fishers in Akkeshi
practice mixed sheries (capture and aquaculture), whereas in Erimo
shers specialize in cap- ture sheries. The target species for
sheries and aquaculture are kelp (Laminaria angustata), chum salmon
(Oncorhynchus keta) and oysters (Crassostrea gigas) in Akkeshi, and
kelp and chum salmon in Erimo. The shers in both areas were
moderately satised with their jobs, but shers in Erimo were more
satised than those in Akkeshi. Satisfaction was directly associated
with household size in Akkeshi and Erimo, and was high for shers
practicing oyster aquaculture in Akkeshi. Most shers (79% in
Akkeshi and 84% in Erimo) were unaware of any future target species
if the current species declined or went extinct. About 14% of the
respondents in Akkeshi mentioned oyster farming as their best
alternative in the future. Differences in job satisfaction between
the two areas may be attributed to disparities in socio eeconomic
factors and shery types among shers. Further comprehensive studies
that include allo- cation of shing effort among different species,
and impacts of climate variability and anthropogenic factors on the
resources are required. 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1.
Introduction Fisheries are complex socialeecological systems that
are managed by addressing problems related not only to the
resources themselves but to the people targeting them (Hilborn,
2007). Fishing has contributed to the collapse of several sh stocks
(Karpov et al., 2000; Myers et al.,1997), reduced biological
diversity (Akpalu and Bitew, 2011; Rochet and Benoit, 2012; Smith
et al., 1991; Tudela, 2004), and led to the loss of ways of life
based on history and culture (Mills et al., 2011; Urquhart et al.,
2013). Fish- eries resources have been successfully managed by
sharing re- sponsibilities between governmental institutions and
groups of resource users, i.e, sheries coemanagement (Makino et
al., 2009; Persoon et al., 2005). The rationales behind the
management include improved management and utilization of resources
through the use of local knowledge, and collective participation by
owners in decisionemaking. In Japan, young people seem to prefer
jobs in elds other than sheries. A recent study by Kunimitsu (2014)
reported that job opportunities and gross regional production
inuenced the satis- faction of residents in Japan. Other studies
also have associated satisfaction with individual attributes
including age (Blanchower and Oswald, 2004), gender (Mroczek and
Kolarz, 1998), and occu- pation (Tsutsui, 2010). Pollnac et al.
(2001) showed that shing is connected to traditions, and
pleasurable aspects of the occupation, including the beauty of the
sea and being one's own boss, are key factors that attribute to
shing satisfaction. Because of limited alternative occupations,
shers tend to be unwilling to change occupations (Pollnac and
Poggie, 2006, 1988) and they are likely to recommend shing to the
next generation (Pollnac et al., 2001) regardless of their shing
satisfaction level. On the other hand, limited sheries resources
can encourage the * Corresponding author. Graduate School of
Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido Uni- versity, 3e1e1 Minatoecho,
Hakodate 041e8611 Japan. E-mail addresses: [email protected],
[email protected] (E.A. Sweke), [email protected] (Y.
Kobayashi), [email protected] (M. Makino),
[email protected] (Y. Sakurai). Contents lists available at
ScienceDirect Ocean & Coastal Management journal homepage:
www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.12.001 0964-5691/ 2015
Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Ocean & Coastal Management
120 (2016) 170e179
2. sustainable management of the resources (Duarte, 2000;
Gaspare et al., 2015; Matsuda et al., 2009) and maximize job
satisfaction among shers. Differences in satisfaction between types
of sheries may imply disparities in management (Pollnac et al.,
2014) and outputs common with many multiespecies sheries (Bene and
Tewk, 2001; Gourguet et al., 2014; Hilborn and Ovando, 2014). Thus,
low job satisfaction among shers can be a key indicator of
production constraints in sheries and call attention to the poor
prospects for the future wellbeing of the shers and of the com-
munity as whole. To protect and enhance the resources and services
they provide to the local communities e which include food, cul-
tural aspects and tourism e the challenges faced by shers need to
be holistically tackled in a timely manner. Therefore,
understanding the levels of job satisfaction among shers and the
reasons for dissatisfaction will assist institutions in advocating
future studies, reviewing the management strategies in place and
formulating feasible adaptive management policies for the resources
(Pollnac and Poggie, 1988). Despite the substantial contributions
that the shing industry makes to the local economies, food security
and culture of many communities around Japan, job satisfaction of
shers has not been well studied. The purpose of this study was to
examine shing satisfaction among traditional shers. To achieve this
goal we rst assessed the historical variations in species catch and
income, and explored preconceived factors attributing to shing
satisfaction or dissatisfaction. To compare and contrast the
results, we used two local shing communities, namely Akkeshi and
Erimo, where shers practice mixed sheries (capture and aquaculture)
in the former and capture sheries in the latter. The paper also
examines the current sources of shing capital and the reasons
certain spe- cies are targeted ahead of others. Finally, with an
assumption that species catch compositions are subject to change,
as exemplied by substantial falls in catches of several species,
Pacic herring (Clupea pallasii) for instance, the paper presents
future potential target species and examines shers' willingness to
look for other occu- pations during periods of catch and income
instability. 2. Methods 2.1. Description of the study areas Akkeshi
and Erimo are in northeast Hokkaido, Japan, at 43030 N 144510 E and
42040 N 143090 E, respectively (Fig. 1). Fishers in these areas
engage in a variety of sheries and target a wide range of species.
Akkeshi is known for oyster (Crassostrea gigas) farming (Kasim and
Mukai, 2009), whereas Erimo is renowned for pro- ducing one of the
more expensive kelp species (Laminaria angus- tata). In 2015, the
numbers of shers in Akkeshi and Erimo were 517 and 748 constituting
about 10% and 14% of the total population, respectively. For the
past 20 years (1990e2010) the human popu- lation and numbers of
shers have declined by about 24% and 38% in Akkeshi, and 23% and
22% in Erimo, respectively. During this period, the 0e19eyeareold
and 20e59eyeareold age classes in Akkeshi declined steadily by 52%
and 33%, respectively, and the 60 and abovee yeareold age class
increased dramatically by 47%. Similarly, the 0e15eyeareold and
15e64eyeareold age classes fell by 50% and 26%, respectively, the
65 and aboveeyeareold increased by 32% in Erimo. The age of the
respondents ranged between 20 and 90 years. The household sizes in
Akkeshi and Erimo ranged from 1 to 6 and 1e7 people, respectively.
2.2. Sampling of data This study used two data sources: historical
sheries data and questionnaires. Detailed descriptions of the
sampling methods are provided below. 2.2.1. Fisheries cooperative
associations (FCAs) During June 2013 data on catch size (tonnage)
and income (Japanese yen, JYN) were collected from the local
Fisheries Coop- erative Associations (FCAs) at Akkeshi (1960e2010)
and at Erimo (from 1967 to 2010). The data were extracted from the
cities' accumulated sheries data logs and sorted by year and
species. To adjust the effect of ination on the income, we
standardized the data using a consumer price index (CPI) (OECD,
2014) with year 2010 being the base year in the calculation. Thus,
CPI was used to measure change in the annual price of consumer
goods and ser- vices over time. The standardized income data were
then converted to US$, where 1 US$ was equivalent to 105 JPY
according to 2014 exchange rates. 2.2.2. Questionnaires Surveys
were conducted using semiestructured questionnaires that
facilitated the collection of additional information such as
comments from respondents. The questions were in Japanese. To test
the clarity of the questionnaires, we conducted pilot surveys of 20
people (10 from each study area) with various occupations including
shers, FCAs and city halls' workers, and other locals during March
2014. The pilot questionnaires had 62 questions categorized into
four sections, namely sheries operation history, occupation and
income, alternative economic activities to sheries, and
sustainability. Information on respondents' age, gender, and family
size were not included in the 62 preementioned questions. The nal
questionnaires were restructured, and the number of questions was
reduced to 40. Additionally, for multipleeresponse questions, we
asked respondents to indicate main and minor op- tions. The answers
to job satisfaction and likelihood to look for other occupations
questions ranged on a 1etoe5 scale from extremely dissatised to
extremely satised and extremely un- likely to extremely likely,
respectively. Surveys were randomly performed at sh markets where
re- spondents brought their landings for sale, landing sites
(returning from shing or repairing shing gear) and at residences
during April 2014 to April 2015. To be consistent and ensure
quality of information, only one trained and experienced researcher
was involved throughout the survey. In Akkeshi, 100 people
including noneshers were surveyed. In Erimo, 100 questionnaires
were sent to local sheries cooperative associations (FCAs) who then
distributed them to shers. A total of 34 completed questionnaires
were returned in Erimo. In addition, we conducted another 58
surveys to make a total of 92 completed questionnaires. The reasons
for the low return rate of the ques- tionnaires from Erimo were
thought to include respondents not being willing to participate in
the survey (Lck, 2015), insufcient followeup by the FCA staff, and
inclusion of too many questions in the questionnaires. 2.3.
Analysis The data were sorted and analyzed using the IBM
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 20.
Descriptive analyses including crosstabs and multivariate responses
were carried out to calculate and compare mean job satisfaction
using demographic variables, particularly gender, age, target
species and sources of shing capital among shers. The percentage
and frequency dis- tributions of the demographic factors: shers'
gender, household size, age and years of shing experience were
calculated. The same procedure was performed for the sources of
shing capital, reasons for targeting various species, shers' pride
in their occupation, reasons for dissatisfaction and the potential
future target species. E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal Management
120 (2016) 170e179 171
3. We also performed correlations (Phi) between the demographic
variables and shers' levels of job satisfaction and pride in their
occupations. In the analysis, we omitted questions that had few
responses, for instance, occupations that shers were likely to
engage in after quitting shing. All statistical tests were
considered signicant at the 0.05 signicance level. 2.4. Ethical
considerations Participation of the survey respondents solely
depended upon their willingness. Generally, most of the encountered
respondents were welcoming and willing to participate in the
surveys. However, a few shers declined to be surveyed. We excluded
questions that seemed sensitive and that could have precluded
respondents from answering other questions. Such questions included
income earned from respondents' occupations. 3. Results and
discussion 3.1. Annual trends of species catch and income Fig. 2
shows the annual catches of 14 main target species in Akkeshi and
Erimo. The catches and incomes peaked between 1967 and 1974 in
Akkeshi, and in 2007 in Erimo. Fluctuations in historical sh
harvests and income were evident for a number of species
(especially in Akkeshi) with kelp being the dominant species in
both areas. For instance, Pacic herring (C. pallasii) largely
contributed to catch and income during the 1950s, but fell sub-
stantially in the late 1960s and its recovery has been slow despite
a stock enhancement program where hatchery reared ngerlings are
released into the ocean (Kitada et al., 2009; Sugaya et al., 2008).
Likewise, chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta), trout and Walleye
pollock have declined remarkably since the late 1980s. The causes
for these declines are not well understood, but overexploitation
(Cushing, 1973; Sugaya et al., 2008; Watanabe et al., 2008) and
climate change such as regime shifts in the marine environment
(Sakurai, 2007) have been cited as attributing factors. However, we
noticed the recovery of some species such as farmed oysters, and
shrimp in Akkeshi, and whelks in both Akkeshi and Erimo. 3.2.
Demographic characteristics Households were larger in Erimo than in
Akkeshi (Table 1). The majority of the respondents were males (85%,
n 159). About 42% of the respondents' households in Erimo had
1etoe3 people, whereas in Akkeshi about 52% of the households were
composed of 2etoe3 people. Furthermore, respondents were older in
Akkeshi than in Erimo. About 34% of the respondents in the former
were 70 years old and above, whereas the same class comprised only
5% in Erimo. The 60e70 year age class was the mode class comprising
35% and 36% of the entire surveyed populations in Akkeshi and
Erimo, respectively. While shers' age was directly and signicantly
related to household size (Phi 0.443, n 145, p0.001), it was weakly
and insignicantly related to gender (Phi 0.157, n 156, p 0.278).
There was no signicant relationship between gender with household
size (Phi 0.090, n 145, p 0.553), and years of shing (Phi 0.098, n
156, p 0.685). Small household sizes conrms the shrinkage of the
human population in the study areas, and in Japan at large (Kaneko
et al., 1993; National Institute of Population and Social Security
Research, 2012) suggesting that sheries might be confronted with a
lack of manpower. Aged or more experienced shers seemed to be
concerned about declines in catches and income, particularly in
recent years. That is to say, shers tend to compare outputs from
sheries based on their experiences and memories. 3.3. Sources of
capital, and reasons for targeting main species About 73% (n 156)
of respondents in each area inherited shing capital from their
parents (Table 2). The second most common source of capital in both
areas was personal savings. While joint ventures ranked third in
Erimo (12%), it ranked fourth similar to own moneyeandejoint
ventures in Akkeshi. The percent distribution of target species
showed that kelp was harvested by a majority of the respondents in
Akkeshi (n 77, 69%) and Erimo (n 74, 78%). Oysters (n 21, 26%) in
Akkeshi and salmon (n 12, 16%) in Erimo were the second most common
target species after kelp (Table 3). Male shers in Akkeshi (n 66)
were involved in kelp harvesting (68%), salmon shing (5%), and Fig.
1. Map showing the study areas, Akkeshi and Erimo in the
northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal
Management 120 (2016) 170e179172
4. oyster farming (27%). On the other hand, for female
respondents, about 73% in Akkeshi and 92% in Erimo targeted kelp,
and the remaining 27% and 8% practiced oyster farming and targeted
other species in the former and latter areas, respectively. It was
found that 90% (n 83) of Akkeshi's and 59% (n 72) of Erimo's re-
spondents target the current species simply because they inherited
shing rights from their parents. Other reasons for harvesting the
current target species in Erimo were catch stability (20%), high
catches (8%), and low manpower demand (6%). 3.4. Factors affecting
job satisfaction of shers Fishers in Akkeshi (satisfaction mean
3.08, n 84) were less satised than their counterparts in Erimo
(mean 3.37, n 71). The relationships between job satisfaction and
the attributing factors are shown in Table 4. Females were more
satised (mean 3.36, n 11) than males (mean 3.04, n 73) in Akkeshi,
whereas in Erimo males were more satised (mean 3.44, n 59) than
females (mean 3.00, n 12) (Fig. 3a). The satisfaction degree in
Akkeshi varied more widely than in Erimo, particularly for males.
The differences could be explained by uctuations in the outputs of
target species in Akkeshi, and that females tend to target fewer
species, namely kelp and oysters. Young respondents indicated
higher levels of satisfaction than old respondents in Akkeshi,
whereas in Erimo, there were only small differences in satisfaction
between shers' age groups (Fig. 3b). Thus, the young (20e40 years)
and middle (40e60 years) age classes in Erimo were more satised
than those in Akkeshi, and vice versa for highly aged shers (60e80
years). The shing expe- rience of the respondents was weakly
correlated to satisfaction (Table 4). Both less experienced (1e10
years) and well experienced (over 30 years) respondents showed
relatively lower satisfaction than moderately experienced ones
(10e30 years) (Fig. 3c). Young Fig. 2. Annual catch and income of
main target species taxa in the study areas, Akkeshi and Erimo,
northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Table 1 Demographic characteristics
of the respondents in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido,
Japan. Variable Area Akkeshi Erimo Total n % n % n % Gender Male 73
87 63 84 136 85 Female 11 13 12 16 23 15 Total 84 100 75 100 159
100 Household size 1 1 1 5 8 6 4 2 21 27 12 18 33 23 3 19 25 11 16
30 21 4 14 18 17 25 31 21 5 15 19 12 18 27 19 6 8 10 5 8 13 9 7 0 0
5 8 5 3 Total 78 100 67 100 145 100 Age (years) 20e30 1 1 5 7 6 4
30e40 1 1 6 8 7 5 40e50 12 14 12 16 24 15 50e60 12 14 19 26 31 20
60e70 29 35 26 36 55 35 70e80 20 23 3 4 23 15 80e90 9 11 1 1 10 6
Total 84 100 72 100 156 100 Fishing experience (years) 1e5 0 0 2 3
2 1 5e10 2 3 4 6 6 4 10e20 5 6 7 9 12 8 20e30 15 18 16 21 31 20
Over 30 60 73 45 61 105 67 Total 82 100 74 100 156 100 E.A. Sweke
et al. / OceanCoastal Management 120 (2016) 170e179 173
5. shers were more satised because they don't put into account
the capital invested by their parents. Likewise, young shers have
less time invested in shing (Pollnac et al., 2012) and are more
passionate to learn and adapt to other nonesheries related jobs
compared to older more experienced shers. Our ndings contrast to
those of Pollnac et al. (2012) who found that young inexperi- enced
shers are less satised compared to experienced shers. The high
satisfaction level of young shers, particularly in Akkeshi, might
be because oyster farming is more protable than capture sheries.
Also, young shers are likely to maximize sh catches by targeting
offshore species, for instance chum salmon, that are in high demand
and economically important. Fig. 3d shows the shers' job
satisfaction levels between household sizes. A signicant positive
association was found be- tween satisfaction and household size in
both Akkeshi and Erimo, and the relationship was stronger in
Akkeshi than in Erimo (Table 4). This result suggests that shers
with large households may have sufcient manpower, and they are
likely to pass on the tradition of shing to the next generations.
This also might be the reason for the small differences in
satisfaction levels between age groups of shers in Erimo (Fig. 3b).
Satisfaction was weakly associated with the main target species in
Akkeshi (Phi 0.268, n 76, p 0.243) and Erimo (Phi 0.243, n 67, p
0.138). In Akkeshi, oyster farmers were the most satised followed
by kelp collectors and chum salmon shers. On the other hand, in
Erimo, chum salmon shers ranked rst, fol- lowed by kelp collectors
and shers of other species (Fig. 3e). While Table 2 Distribution of
initial source of shing capital, current main target species and
reasons for targeting in Akkeshi and Erimo, notheastern Hokkaido,
Japan. Variable Area Akkeshi Erimo Total n % n % n % Main source of
capital Own money 14 17 10 14 24 15 Joint venture 2 2 9 12 11 7
Bank loan 3 4 1 1 4 3 Parent or relative 59 73 52 73 111 72 Own and
joint venture 2 2 0 0 2 1 Others 2 2 2 3 4 3 Total 82 100 74 100
156 100 Main species Kelp 53 64 58 78 111 71 Salmon 3 4 12 16 15 10
Whelk 0 0 1 1 1 0 Oyster 21 26 0 0 21 13 2 or more 5 6 1 1 6 4 Sea
urchin 0 0 1 1 1 0 Others 0 0 2 3 2 1 Total 82 100 75 100 157 100
Reason for targeting High catch 1 1 6 8 7 5 Good price 1 1 0 0 1 0
Stable catch 2 2 14 20 16 10 Low manpower demand 3 5 4 6 7 5
Inherited 75 90 42 59 117 76 2 or more 1 1 2 3 3 2 Others 0 0 3 4 3
2 Total 83 100 71 100 154 100 Table 3 Percent distribution of age
of respondents in relation to main target species in shing areas in
Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Area Age (years)
Species Kelp Salmon Oyster Others Total n % n % n % n % n % Akkeshi
20e40 1 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 100 40e60 11 48 2 9 10 43 0 0 23 100
60e80 36 80 1 2 8 18 0 0 45 100 80 5 62 0 0 3 38 0 0 8 100 Erimo
20e40 5 50 4 40 0 0 1 10 10 100 40e60 29 94 2 6 0 0 0 0 31 100
60e80 21 72 5 17 0 0 3 10 29 100 80 1 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 100 Table 4
Correlations (Phi) between occupation satisfaction and selected
independent vari- ables in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern
Hokkaido, Japan. Area Gender Age Experience Household size Akkeshi
Phi 0.098 0.260 0.371 0.417 n 84 84 82 78 p 0.665 0.490 0.790 **
Erimo Phi 0.168 0.281 0.240 0.259 n 71 69 71 64 p 0.365 0.490 0.666
* * p0.05 ** p0.01. E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal Management 120
(2016) 170e179174
6. a strong and signicant association was found between
satisfaction and the catch contribution percentages of minor
species (Phi 0.672, n 793, p0.05) in Akkeshi, the variables were
insignicantly correlated (Phi 0.504, n 68, p 0.352) in Erimo. The
reasons to why shers target these main species (salmon, kelp and
oyster), in particular those related to traditions, i.e.,
inheritance from parents, were weakly and insignicantly associated
with shing satisfaction in Akkeshi (Phi 0.323, n 83, p 0.122) and
Erimo (Phi 0.193, n 68, p 0.770). The reasons for job
dissatisfaction for shers included uctu- ating catch levels and low
income, the physically demanding nature of the work and insufcient
rest time (Fig. 4). Interestingly, enjoy- ment was not considered
an important factor for dissatisfaction. About 13% of shers in
Erimo had no clear reasons for their dissatisfaction with shing.
The ndings about the reasons for dissatisfaction agreed with our
hypothesis that shing satisfaction could be associated with
uctuations in catch and income over time (Fig. 2). Most respondents
(79% in Akkeshi and 84% in Erimo) said they had no idea about their
future target species if the current species declined or became
extinct (Fig. 5). About 14% of the respondents in Akkeshi mentioned
oyster farming as their best alternative in the future. In Erimo,
salmon and tuna, followed by kelp were mentioned as future
potential target species. Target species might play an important
role in shers' satisfaction. For instance, shers in Erimo targeting
kelp and those in Akkeshi farming oysters are more satised because
the species provide higher and more stable incomes compared to
others. This nding agrees with the study by Pollnac et al. (2001)
in Vietnam. Also this could be a reason why respondents cited
oyster and kelp among the potential future target species.
Satisfaction was weakly and insignicantly associated with sources
of shing capital (Akkeshi: Phi 0.199, n 82, p 0.660; Erimo: Phi
0.141, n 71, p 0.841), operation costs (Akkeshi: Phi 0.193, n 81, p
0.555; Erimo: Phi 0.296, n 65, p 0.222) and income contribution
(Akkeshi: Phi 0.034, n 83, p 0.760; Erimo: Phi 0.253, n 70, p
0.213). In Akkeshi, the satisfaction of shers who started shing
using their own money (mean 3.14, n 14) and those who inherited
their shing capital from their parents (mean 3.12, n 59) did not
differ, suggesting that shers engaged in oyster farming are more
likely to realize prots than shers doing capture sheries.
Additionally, shing cultural values passed down from generation to
generation and economic benets derived from shing had the same
importance in Fig. 3. Job satisfaction level among (a) gender (b)
age (c) shing experience (d) household size and (e) main target
species among shers in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido,
Japan. The satisfaction levels denote: 1 extremely dissatised, 2
moderately dissatised, 3 neither satised nor dissatised (i.e.
neutral), 4 moderately satised, and 5 extremely satised. E.A. Sweke
et al. / OceanCoastal Management 120 (2016) 170e179 175
7. the two communities. 3.5. Fishers' likelihood to change
occupation Among the demographic features, only household size was
signicantly and directly related to pride in occupation in Akkeshi
(Phi 0.437, n 77, p0.05). More than 60% of the respondents said
they were proud of their occupation, i.e., shing, and about 90%
were unlikely to switch to other occupations (Fig. 6). Fishers'
like- hood to change their occupation was signicantly related to
gender and age in Erimo, and target species in Akkeshi (Table 5).
The reasons why shers were unlikely to change occupation were
satisfaction with shing (22%), inexperience with other occupa-
tions (7%) and age (13%) (Table 6). The three factors together
composed about 24% of respondents not likely to switch occupations.
A previous study by Pomeroy et al. (1997) argued that shers are not
prepared to change their occupations. The authors recom- mended
that supplemental income generation rather than alter- native
occupation approaches are crucial to support shing communities.
This was supported by our ndings where shers who also do other
noneshing jobs were more satised compared to shers who solely
depend on shing for a living. Although reducing the number of shers
has been considered a sound management approach, the aging of shing
communities is likely to impede the sustainability of communities
that largely depend on shing to support their livelihoods.
Meanwhile, the large propor- tion of respondents who were not
willing to change occupations is an alarm bell to the sheries
authorities that must predict resource allocation and adaptive
mechanisms to support the vulnerable communities from changes in
the ecosystem due to anthropogenic and climate variability
inuences. Fig. 5. Distribution of responses to the question about
future potential target species after distinction of the current
target species in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan.
Fig. 4. Percent distribution of responses for reasons of occupation
dissatisfaction in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan.
E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal Management 120 (2016)
170e179176
8. 4. Conclusions We found that uctuation in catches of and
income from target species affected the satisfaction of shers in
the study areas (Figs. 2 and 4). Fishing satisfaction also was
linked to target species (Fig. 3e) and the percent shing
contributed to shers' income. The difference in satisfaction
between the two areas may be attributed to disparities in the
outputs of the different species harvested or the shery types
(capture and aquaculture) among shers in the areas. Specialized
sheries with fewer but more valuable main target species, as
exemplied by Erimo, were more likely to maximize satisfaction of
shers than mixed sheries with many minor Fig. 6. Percent
distribution of shers' responses to questions about pride in their
occupations and likelihood to change occupations in Akkeshi and
Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Table 5 Correlations (Phi)
between independent variables and shers' proud of shing occupation,
and likelihood to look for other occupations (i.e. quit shing) in
Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Area Gender Age
Experience Household size Species Proud Quit Proud Quit Proud Quit
Proud Quit Proud Quit Akkeshi Phi 0.101 0.075 0.197 0.249 0.253
0.148 0.437 0.215 0.235 0.400 n 83 84 83 84 81 82 77 78 76 77 p
0.654 0.791 0.780 0.518 0.518 0.936 * 0.463 0.123 * Erimo Phi 0.211
0.289 0.304 0.296 0.269 0.398 0.218 0.249 0.180 0.137 n 71 72 69 69
71 71 64 64 71 68 p 0.206 * 0.383 * 0.526 0.080 0.550 0.410 0.318
0.530 * p0.05. Table 6 Distribution of reasons of shers unlikely to
look for other occupations by shers' age (years) in Akkeshi and
Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Reason Akkeshi Erimo 20e40
40e60 60e80 80 Total 20e40 40e60 60e80 80 Total 1 50.00 30.43 18.37
11.11 21.69 27.27 25.93 5.56 0.00 19.30 2 0.00 4.35 10.20 0.00 7.23
18.18 22.22 50.00 0.00 29.82 3 0.00 13.04 16.33 0.00 13.25 18.18
29.63 22.22 100.00 26.32 4 50.00 17.39 28.57 11.11 24.10 9.09 3.70
0.00 0.00 3.51 5 0.00 13.04 8.16 0.00 8.43 9.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.75
6 0.00 8.70 6.12 22.22 8.43 0.00 7.41 11.11 0.00 7.02 7 0.00 4.35
4.08 11.11 4.82 9.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.75 8 0.00 8.70 8.16 44.44
12.05 9.09 11.11 11.11 0.00 10.53 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 n 2 23 49 9 83 11 27 18 1
57 1 Satised with shing; 2 Inexperience with other occupations; 3
Age; 4 Two or more above; 5 Like to be own boss; 6 Love to sh; 7
Tradition; and 8 No idea. E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal
Management 120 (2016) 170e179 177
9. species that have lower income contribution. This could also
be partially attributed to the complexity of mixedesheries manage-
ment previously reported in several studies (Bene and Tewk, 2001;
McKelvey, 1983; Salas et al., 2004; Sanchirico et al., 2006).
Another key nding is the inuence of sher household size on
satisfaction in traditional sheries (Fig. 3d). The signicant rela-
tionship between satisfaction and household size might suggest that
families with young people are assured of future manpower, and the
passing of shing traditions to the next generations. This is
related to dwindling manpower due to aging of shers (Table 1)
causing worries about their endeavors and their families. The
ability of shers to meet their basic needs may contribute to job
satisfaction. Although some shers were not very satised with their
occupation, they were unwilling to change to other occupa- tions
due to their age, inexperience and limited alternative jobs, and
shing being part and parcel of their culture (Table 6). It makes
sense that shers with positive attitudes towards their occupation
would not want to change. This is an interesting nding that an-
swers the question why attempts to reduce shing effort have failed
in some areas, particularly in those with limited job alternatives
(Pollnac et al., 2012). It should be noted that shing operations
require continuous investment of time and money to buy shing boats,
shing gear, storage facilities, fuel and sometimes manpower. As
such, shers may not want to change to other jobs. Thus, any attempt
to reduce shing effort should take into account the economic
hurdles that sheries communities are likely to face. Findings about
low shing satisfaction (Fig. 4) and that many shers are unaware of
any potential future target species if the current species declined
or went extinct (Fig. 5) could be used to improve sheries
management and the wellebeing of shing communities. For informed
management of the areas sheries re- sources, comprehensive studies
that include the allocation of shing effort among different
species, and the impacts of climate variability and anthropogenic
factors on the resources in question are required. To maximize
satisfaction and social services from the resources, we suggest
enhancing stakeholder participation, i.e., communi- tyebased
management of sheries resources. For instance, the extension of
oyster farms to offset the dwindling capture sheries in Akkeshi
should include not only oyster farmers but the whole shing
community so as to avoid conicts among shers. Oyster aquaculture
should give priority to attracting young people, and enhancing the
culture and livelihoods of communities. This can be achieved
through training young people in modern aquaculture techniques,
processing (to add value) and marketing. Expansion of aquaculture
production should be monitored and any environ- mental impacts that
may arise should be promptly addressed. Also the inuence of climate
change, particularly, variability in tem- perature, salinity and
nutrients on oyster aquaculture need to be investigated to inform
stakeholders including farmers, policy- makers and sheries managers
on the best adaptive measures to be taken. Additionally, alterative
occupations should be developed to reduce shing effort on coastal
sheries and as an adaptive approach to support the local
communities. Fishers are said to be addicted to their occupation
and tend to resist dull and boring alternative occupations
especially those not related to the ocean (Pollnac and Poggie,
2008). Ecoetourism ventures, such as seal watching, have the
potential to supplement dwindling coastal sheries production in
these areas. However, several infrastructure problems need to be
resolved before the potential of the tourism sector can be
realized. These include the lack of reliable trans- portation, and
insufcient accommodation and associated attrac- tions such as hot
spring facilities (adorable Japanese culture). To shed more light
and facilitate sensible coastal sheries manage- ment and
aquaculture development, we recommend further studies to integrate
knowledge from shers, resources managers, biologists and
socioeeconomists (Cvitanovic et al., 2015). Addi- tional studies
are also needed to: examine how different coastal sheries
management approaches contribute to the job satisfaction of shers;
explore shing effort allocation among different species by
integrating biological and socioeeconomic data: understand how
effort allocation can be improved to maximize job satisfaction of
shers in these areas and around the country at large.
Acknowledgments This study was funded by the Japanese Ministry of
the Envi- ronment through the Environmental Research and Technology
Development Fund, Research No. 4e1301. The rst author ac-
knowledges the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology (MEXT) for funding his study. Ryoutaro
Okazaki is much appreciated for his help in the collection of the
historical data. Yutaka Watanuki, John Richard Bower and Tony
Chittenden are acknowledged for their constructive suggestions on
drafts of the manuscript. We are also grateful to Akkeshi and Erimo
city halls' Fisheries Division, and Fisheries Cooperative
Associations (FCAs) staff for their support during data collection.
We also extend our gratitude to respondents in both Akkeshi and
Erimo for their time and patience during the surveys. Without their
assistance, this work could not have been possible. The three
anonymous reviewers are acknowledged for their constructive
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