Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity by the Ecosystem ApproachSustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity by the Ecosystem Approach

ConceptsConcepts

Biodiversity Biodiversity

US public lands US public lands

Forest Management Forest Management

Deforestation Deforestation

Park Management Park Management

Establishment and management of nature preserves

Establishment and management of nature preserves

Ecological restoration Ecological restoration

Factors Increasing BiodiversityFactors Increasing Biodiversity

Moderate environmental disturbance Moderate environmental disturbance

Middle stage of succession Middle stage of succession

Small changes in environmental conditions Small changes in environmental conditions

Physically diverse habitat Physically diverse habitat

Evolution Evolution

Factors Decreasing BiodiversityFactors Decreasing Biodiversity

Large environmental disturbance Large environmental disturbance

Extreme environmental conditions Extreme environmental conditions

Intense environmental stress Intense environmental stress

Severe shortages of resources Severe shortages of resources

Nonnative species introduction Nonnative species introduction

Geographic isolation Geographic isolation

HumanActivitiesandBiodiversity

HumanActivitiesandBiodiversity

Human PopulationSize and resource use

Human ActivitiesAgriculture, industry, economic

production and consumption, recreation

Indirect Effects

Direct Effects

Degradation and destruction of natural ecosystems

Alteration of natural chemicalcycles and energy flows

Changes in number and distribution of species

Pollution of air, water, and soil

Climate change

Loss of biodiversity

Importance of BiodiversityImportance of Biodiversity

Intrinsic value Intrinsic value

Instrumental value Instrumental value

Existence value Existence value

Aesthetic value Aesthetic value

Bequest value Bequest value

Solutions for Protecting Biodiversity

Solutions for Protecting Biodiversity

The Species Approach The Ecosystem Approach

Goal

Protect species frompremature extinction

Strategies• Identify

endangered species

• Protect their critical habitats

Tactics

• Legally protect endangered species

• Manage habitat

• Propagate endangered species in captivity

• Reintroduce species into suitable habitats

Goal

Protect populations ofspecies in their naturalhabitats

Strategy

Preserve sufficient areasof habitats in differentbiomes and aquaticsystems

Tactics• Protect habitat areas

through private purchase or government action

• Eliminate or reduce populations of alien species from protected areas

• Manage protected areas to sustain native species

• Restore degraded ecosystems

Conservation BiologyConservation Biology

Multidisciplinary science Multidisciplinary science

Emergency response Emergency response

Identify “hot spots” Identify “hot spots”

Based on Leopold’s ethics Based on Leopold’s ethics

Rapid Assessment Teams Rapid Assessment Teams

Bioinformatics

US Public LandsUS Public Lands

Multiple-use lands: National Forests National Resource Lands

Multiple-use lands: National Forests National Resource Lands

Moderately-restricted use lands:National Wildlife Refuges

Moderately-restricted use lands:National Wildlife Refuges

Restricted-use lands:National Park System National Wilderness Preservation System

Restricted-use lands:National Park System National Wilderness Preservation System

US Public LandsUS Public Lands

Geyser and Hot Spring, Geyser and Hot Spring,

Yellowstone NP, WyomingYellowstone NP, Wyoming

Old Faithful Geyser Old Faithful Geyser

Yellowstone National Park WyomingYellowstone National Park Wyoming

Bison in the Geyser BasinBison in the Geyser Basin

Grand Canyon National Park, ArizonaGrand Canyon National Park, Arizona

Entrance to Yosemite Valley, Entrance to Yosemite Valley, CaliforniaCalifornia

St. Mary’s Lake,St. Mary’s Lake,

Glacier NP MontanaGlacier NP Montana

Giant Sequoia Trees, Giant Sequoia Trees,

Yosemite NP CaliforniaYosemite NP California

Smokey Mountain Smokey Mountain National ParkNational ParkNorth CarolinaNorth Carolina

Acadia National Park, Acadia National Park, MaineMaine

Managing US Public LandManaging US Public Land

Biodiversity and ecological functionBiodiversity and ecological function

No subsidies or tax breaks for useNo subsidies or tax breaks for use

Public should get fair compensationPublic should get fair compensation

Users held responsible for actionsUsers held responsible for actions

Managing and Sustaining National ParksManaging and Sustaining National Parks

Inadequate protection Inadequate protection

Often too small to sustain biodiversity Often too small to sustain biodiversity

Too many human visitors Too many human visitors Traffic jams and air pollution Traffic jams and air pollution

Better pay for park staff Better pay for park staff

Invasions by nonnative species Invasions by nonnative species

Solutions

National Parks

•Integrate plans for managing parks and nearby federal lands

•Add new parkland near threatened parks

•Buy private land inside parks

•Locate visitor paring outside parks and use shuttle buses for entering and touring heavily used parks

•Increase funds for park maintenance and repairs

•Survey wildlife in parks

•Raise entry fees for visitors and use funds for park management and maintenance

•Limit number of visitors to crowded park rangers

•Increase number and pay of park rangers

•Encourage volunteers to give visitor lectures and tours

•Seek private donations for park maintenance and repairs

ForestsForests

Old-growth (frontier) forestsOld-growth (frontier) forests

Second-growth forestsSecond-growth forests

Tree farms/plantationTree farms/plantation

Managing and Sustaining ForestsManaging and Sustaining Forests

Ecological Importance of ForestsEcological Importance of Forests

Food webs and energy flow Food webs and energy flow

Protect soils from erosion Protect soils from erosion

Local and regional climate Local and regional climate

Numerous habitats and niches Numerous habitats and niches

Air purification Air purification

Trade-Offs

Clear-Cutting Forests

Advantages Disadvantages

Higher timber yields

Maximum economic returnin shortest time

Can reforest with genetically improved fast-growing trees

Short time to establish newstand of trees

Needs less skill and planning

Best way to harvest treeplantations

Good for tree species needing full or moderate sunlightfor growth

Reduces biodiversity

Disrupts ecosystem processes

Destroys and fragments some wildlife habitats

Leaves moderate to large openings

Increases soil erosion

Increases sediment water pollution and flooding when done on steep slopes

Eliminates most recreational value for several decades

Managing and Sustaining ForestsManaging and Sustaining Forests

Economic Importance of ForestsEconomic Importance of Forests

Fuelwood Fuelwood

Lumber Lumber

Paper Paper

Livestock grazing Livestock grazing

Mineral extraction and recreation Mineral extraction and recreation

Forest ManagementForest Management

Even-aged managementEven-aged management

Uneven-aged managementUneven-aged management

Improved diversityImproved diversity

Sustainable productionSustainable production

Multiple-useMultiple-use

Rotation cycleRotation cycle

Rotation CyclesRotation Cycles

Roads Lead to Forest DegradationRoads Lead to Forest Degradation

Increased erosion and runoffIncreased erosion and runoffHabitat fragmentationHabitat fragmentationPathways for exotic speciesPathways for exotic speciesAccessibility to humansAccessibility to humans

Harvesting TreesHarvesting Trees

Selective cutting Selective cutting

High-grading High-grading

Shelterwood cutting Shelterwood cutting

Seed-tree cutting Seed-tree cutting

Clear-cutting Clear-cutting

Strip cutting Strip cutting

Logging near Logging near

Baxter State Park, MaineBaxter State Park, Maine

Clear Cut Forest, Washington StateClear Cut Forest, Washington State

Shelterwood Cutting

Sustainable ForestrySustainable Forestry

Longer rotationsLonger rotations

Selective or strip cuttingSelective or strip cutting

Minimize fragmentationMinimize fragmentation

Improved road building techniquesImproved road building techniques

Certify sustainable grownCertify sustainable grown

Solutions

Sustainable Forestry

•Grow more timber on long rotations

•Rely more on selective cutting and strip cutting

•No clear-cutting, seed-tree, or shelter-wood cuttingon steeply sloped land

•No fragmentation of remaining large blocks of forest

•Sharply reduce road building into uncut forest areas

•Leave most standing dead trees and fallen timber for wildlife habitat and nutrient recycling

•Certify timber grown by sustainable methods

•Include ecological services of trees and forests inestimating economic value

Insect and Pathogen Threats to U.S. ForestsInsect and Pathogen Threats to U.S. Forests

Pine shoot beetlePine shoot beetle

Sudden oak deathSudden oak death

White pine blister rustWhite pine blister rust

Insect and Pathogen Threats to U.S. ForestsInsect and Pathogen Threats to U.S. Forests

Asian Long Horned Beetle

Hemlock woolly adelgid

Hemlock woolly adelgid

Beech bark diseaseBeech bark disease

Sudden oak death White pine blister rust Pine shoot beetle Beech bark disease Hemlock wooly adelgid

Forest FiresForest Fires

Surface firesSurface fires Crown firesCrown fires

Fig. 11-15 p. 208

Logging in U.S. National ForestsLogging in U.S. National Forests

Provides local jobsProvides local jobs

Hinders recreation incomeHinders recreation income

Provides only 3% of timberProvides only 3% of timber

Increases environmental damageIncreases environmental damage

Trade-Offs

Advantages Disadvantages

Logging in U.S. National Forests

Helps meet country’s timber needs

Cut areas grow back

Keeps lumber and paper pricesdown

Provides jobs in nearby communities

Promotes economic growth in nearby communities

Provides only 4% of timber needs

Ample private forest land to meet timber needs

Has little effect on timber and paper prices

Damages nearby rivers and fisheries

Recreation in national forestsprovides more localjobs and incomefor local communities thanlogging

Decreasesrecreationalopportunities

DeforestationDeforestation

Tropical Deforestation: ConsequencesTropical Deforestation: Consequences

Rapid and increasing Rapid and increasing

Loss of biodiversity Loss of biodiversity

Loss of resources (e.g., medicines) Loss of resources (e.g., medicines)

Contributes to global warming Contributes to global warming

Burning Tropical ForestsBurning Tropical Forests

Causes of Tropical DeforestationCauses of Tropical Deforestation

Basic Basic

Secondary Secondary

•Oil drilling•Mining•Flooding from dams•Tree plantations•Cattle ranching•Cash crops•Settler farming•Fires•Logging•Roads

•Not valuing ecological services•Exports•Government policies•Poverty•Population growth•Roads

Secondary Causes

Basic Causes

Reducing Tropical DeforestationReducing Tropical Deforestation

Reducing poverty and population growth Reducing poverty and population growth

Sustainable tropical agriculture Sustainable tropical agriculture

Encourage protection of large tracts Encourage protection of large tracts

Debt-for-nature swaps Debt-for-nature swaps

Reduce illegal cutting Reduce illegal cutting

Protect most diverse andendangered areas

Educate settlers about sustainableagriculture and forestry

Phase out subsidies that encourageunsustainable forest use

Add subsidies that encouragesustainable forest use

Protect forests with debt-for-natureswaps, conservation easements,and conservation concessions

Certify sustainably grown timber

Reduce illegal cutting

Reduce poverty

Slow population growth

Reforestation

Rehabilitation of degradedareas

Concentrate farming andranching on already-clearedareas

RestorationPrevention

Solutions

Sustaining Tropical Forests

Establishing, Designing, and Managing Nature Reserves Establishing, Designing, and Managing Nature Reserves

Include moderate to large tracts of land Include moderate to large tracts of land

Involve government, private sector and citizens Involve government, private sector and citizens

Protect most important areas (“hot spots”) Protect most important areas (“hot spots”)

Biosphere reserves Biosphere reserves

Adaptive ecosystem management Adaptive ecosystem management

Wilderness areas Wilderness areas

Ecological RestorationEcological Restoration

Restoration Restoration

Rehabilitation Rehabilitation

Replacement Replacement

Creating artificial ecosystemsCreating artificial ecosystems

Remediation Remediation

Ecological Restoration: Basic PrinciplesEcological Restoration: Basic Principles

Mimic nature Mimic nature

Recreate lost niches Recreate lost niches

Control nonnative species Control nonnative species

Reconnect small patchesReconnect small patches

Rely on pioneer species Rely on pioneer species

What Can You Do?

Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity

•Plant trees and take care of them.

•Recycle paper and buy recycled paper products.

•Buy wood and wood products made from trees thathave been grown sustainably.

•Help rehabilitate or restore a degraded area of forest or grassland near your home.

•When building a home, save all the trees and as muchnatural vegetation and soil as possible.

•Landscape your yard with a diversity of plants naturalto the area instead of having a monoculture lawn.