Survey of Linguistic Method Survey of Linguistic Method and Theoryand Theory

Ling 400Ling 400

InstructorInstructor

• Instructor: Prof. Toshiyuki OgiharaInstructor: Prof. Toshiyuki Ogihara

Today’s PlanToday’s Plan• The courseThe course

– Objectives and format Objectives and format • Sub-disciplines of LinguisticsSub-disciplines of Linguistics

– Each sub-discipline and some examplesEach sub-discipline and some examples• Competence vs. PerformanceCompetence vs. Performance

– Linguistics aims to characterize the competence of Linguistics aims to characterize the competence of native speakers (of a particular language)native speakers (of a particular language)

• Prescriptive / descriptive grammar Prescriptive / descriptive grammar – Linguists are interested in description, not Linguists are interested in description, not

prescriptionprescription

Word of the dayWord of the day

Course ObjectivesCourse Objectives• Methods for describing human Methods for describing human

languages at various levelslanguages at various levels• Examples of the diversity of world Examples of the diversity of world

languageslanguages• Core areas: phonetics, phonology, Core areas: phonetics, phonology,

morphology, syntax, semantics, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmaticspragmatics

• Interdisciplinary areas: language Interdisciplinary areas: language acquisition, language variationacquisition, language variation

ResourcesResources

• Language Files 11th Edition, The Ohio Language Files 11th Edition, The Ohio State University Press (available from State University Press (available from the University Bookstore).the University Bookstore).

EvaluationEvaluation

• Grading: Grading: • quizzes (only six of the seven quizzes quizzes (only six of the seven quizzes

will count) 20%will count) 20%• homework assignments (only six of the homework assignments (only six of the

seven assignments will count) 20%seven assignments will count) 20%• midterm 25%midterm 25%• final exam 35%final exam 35%

Linguistics KnowledgeLinguistics Knowledge

• PhoneticsPhonetics• PhonologyPhonology• MorphologyMorphology• SyntaxSyntax• SemanticsSemantics• PragmaticsPragmatics

PhoneticsPhonetics

• The study of speech soundsThe study of speech sounds– How various sounds are made (articulatory How various sounds are made (articulatory

phonetics)phonetics)– How to describe them using IPA (The How to describe them using IPA (The

International Phonetic Alphabet)International Phonetic Alphabet)

Examples (Phonetics)Examples (Phonetics)

• ssignign• cciderider• the same sound — should be the same sound — should be

transcribed (i.e. represented in writing) transcribed (i.e. represented in writing) in the same wayin the same way

PhonologyPhonology

• The sound system of a languageThe sound system of a language• Includes the inventory of soundsIncludes the inventory of sounds• The features of those soundsThe features of those sounds• The rules for combining the soundsThe rules for combining the sounds

Examples (Phonology)Examples (Phonology)• ppinin• ssppinin

– The two “p sounds” are not really the same The two “p sounds” are not really the same sounds.sounds.

– [p] with an extra puff of air occurs at the beginning [p] with an extra puff of air occurs at the beginning of a word (roughly)of a word (roughly)

– [p] without a puff of air occurs elsewhere[p] without a puff of air occurs elsewhere– So their occurrences in English are rule-So their occurrences in English are rule-

governed.governed.

MorphologyMorphology

• The study of the structure of wordsThe study of the structure of words• morphmorph = ‘form’ (Greek) = ‘form’ (Greek)• The smallest units of meaningThe smallest units of meaning• Many words consist of smaller Many words consist of smaller

meaningful unitsmeaningful units

Examples (Morphology)Examples (Morphology)

• Word formationWord formation quick+lyquick+ly• Grammatical markers Grammatical markers dog+sdog+s, , turn+edturn+ed

SyntaxSyntax

• The study of how words form sentencesThe study of how words form sentences• Grammatical categoriesGrammatical categories• Rules for sentence and phrase Rules for sentence and phrase

formationformation• Directionality of combinationDirectionality of combination• Constraints on combinationsConstraints on combinations

Examples (Syntax)Examples (Syntax)

• John loves Mary. (grammatical)John loves Mary. (grammatical)• Loves John Mary. (ungrammatical)Loves John Mary. (ungrammatical)• John Mary loves. (ungrammatical)John Mary loves. (ungrammatical)

– (A very rough first approximation) A string (A very rough first approximation) A string of words consisting of a name a verb and of words consisting of a name a verb and another name(in this order) is grammatical.another name(in this order) is grammatical.

SemanticsSemantics

• The study of meaningThe study of meaning• Meaning of individual words and of their Meaning of individual words and of their

relations with one another.relations with one another.• The relation between syntax and semanticsThe relation between syntax and semantics

– How to talk about sentence meaningsHow to talk about sentence meanings– Truth conditions, logical consequencesTruth conditions, logical consequences

Examples (Semantics)Examples (Semantics)

• John must smokeJohn must smoke and and John has to John has to smokesmoke mean the same thing (for all mean the same thing (for all practical purposes).practical purposes).

• John must not smokeJohn must not smoke means “John is means “John is obligated NOT to smoke.”obligated NOT to smoke.”

• John does not have to smokeJohn does not have to smoke means means “John is NOT obligated to smoke.”“John is NOT obligated to smoke.”

PragmaticsPragmatics

• The study of language useThe study of language use– Non-literal meaningsNon-literal meanings– How to do things with wordsHow to do things with words

Examples (Pragmatics)Examples (Pragmatics)

• Can you teach phonology classes?Can you teach phonology classes?– Yes, I can even teach graduate seminars.Yes, I can even teach graduate seminars.– Go ahead and give a lecture on Go ahead and give a lecture on

phonology.phonology.• Can you pass the salt?Can you pass the salt?

– Yes, I can. In fact, I can even pass the Yes, I can. In fact, I can even pass the pepper. (and do nothing)pepper. (and do nothing)

– ……. (say nothing and just pass the salt). (say nothing and just pass the salt)

Word of the dayWord of the day

CompetenceCompetence

• (Unconscious) knowledge of language(Unconscious) knowledge of language– Linguists are interested in describing this Linguists are interested in describing this

“internalized grammar” that any native “internalized grammar” that any native speaker of a particular language hasspeaker of a particular language has

• Mental grammarMental grammar• Accounts for creativityAccounts for creativity• Not always equal to Not always equal to performanceperformance• Performance behavior may be flawedPerformance behavior may be flawed

PerformancePerformance

• You have You have hhissed my issed my mmystery lecture — ystery lecture — you have you have ttasted the asted the whole whole wworm.orm.– Slips of the tongue Slips of the tongue

(Spoonerism)(Spoonerism)

• You have missed You have missed my history lecture — my history lecture — you have wasted the you have wasted the whole term.whole term.

Creativity of languageCreativity of language

• Part of speaker’s competencePart of speaker’s competence• Use of finite linguistic means (words, Use of finite linguistic means (words,

rules)rules)• Enables us to create/understand an Enables us to create/understand an

infinite number novel phrases or infinite number novel phrases or sentences sentences

Descriptive grammarDescriptive grammar

• Linguistics aims for description and not Linguistics aims for description and not prescriptionprescription

• There are no good or bad languagesThere are no good or bad languages• There are no “advanced” or “primitive” There are no “advanced” or “primitive”

languages languages • No correct or incorrect dialectsNo correct or incorrect dialects• Linguistics is non-judgmental about Linguistics is non-judgmental about

linguistic differenceslinguistic differences

PrescriptionPrescription

• ““The widespread acceptance of informal The widespread acceptance of informal dialogue on the Internet is creating a dialogue on the Internet is creating a generation of Americans fluent in generation of Americans fluent in unrefined, inexpressive and immature unrefined, inexpressive and immature English. Much as certain dialects of English. Much as certain dialects of English have helped create sub-classes English have helped create sub-classes of second class citizens, frequent of second class citizens, frequent Internet users are becoming easier to Internet users are becoming easier to pick out every day.”pick out every day.”