Supportive learning in distance education

Journal of Advanced Nursing, 1997, 25, 1076–1083

Supportive learning in distance education

Sally Lawton PhD RGN DNC RCNT RDNT MA

Course Leader-District nursing, The School of Nursing, Robert Gordon University,Aberdeen, Scotland

Accepted for publication 15 May 1996

LAWTON, S. (1997) Journal of Advanced Nursing 25, 1076–1083Supportive learning in distance educationThis paper argues that tutorial support should enhance the learning experienceof students who enrol on a distance education programme. A rationale for suchsupport is given as well as a definition of support for distance learners. Thecomplex role of the tutor in distance learning is described which suggests theneed for tutor preparation, particularly for tutors adapting to this mode ofcourse delivery. The paper reports on two existing models used within distanceeducation which have focused on the outcome of study. The paper introducesan alternative model of supportive learning which focuses on the developmentof the educational experience throughout the length of a distance-learningcourse.

higher educational courses, however, it is argued by theINTRODUCTION

author that this focus on the educational experience isequally relevant in distance education. Earwaker’sThe aim of this paper is to discuss the concept of support

in distance education and to propose a model of support- statement emphasizes the need to focus on the process oflearning, rather than preventing students dropping-outive learning. It is suggested that while support has been

defined, there are no models of supportive learning in of a course. The need for support is required in distance-learning programs because students study alone for theexistence that describe the learning process within dis-

tance learning settings. It is proposed that student support majority of the time.The individual support needs that each distance learnerwithin a structured framework should enhance the learn-

ing experience. This is relevant to nurse education as there may have requires a problem-solving and caring approachto avoid the student feeling a sense of disconnection withis widespread interest in offering courses by distance

learning within higher education. the educational establishment during the self-study phaseof a course. Such a sense of caring can be offered withina personal tutorial system to avoid a feeling of isolation

THE NEED FOR STUDENT SUPPORT INwithin an impersonal system, according to Jacques (1990).

DISTANCE EDUCATIONEven with distance-learning material of a high quality,the interaction that takes place between a student andEarwaker (1992) notes the lack of literature relating to stud-

ent support and the need for it to become a mainstream tutor, as well as between other students may add to theeducational experience of the student.part of higher education. He writes

It is recognised by the author that a requirement for a‘the aim in providing support is not simply to enable students to

student to participate in a tutorial system is too controlling,survive, but to ensure that they derive maximum benefit from

although this approach has support in the work of Brindleytheir course’

& Maxim (1990). Having introduced a self-referral system(Earwaker 1992, p.11)

of support with adult distance-learners, they found thatIn this context, Earwaker is writing about traditional only about a third of students made use of the services. In

addition, the students who really needed support did notuse it, although they admit that they do not have anyCorrespondence: Sally Lawton, The School of Nursing, Robert Gordon

University, Kepplestone Annexe, Queen’s Road, Aberdeen AB9 2PG, UK. research base to support this claim. For this reason,

1076 © 1997 Blackwell Science Ltd

Supportive learning

Brindley & Maxim (1990) decided to make tutorial support the role of the ‘supporter’ may address course and personalissues in combination. This dual approach to student sup-a compulsory part of their distance-learning programme.

The effectiveness of the learning experience was not the port is also supported by Valcke et al. (1991) who definesupport as those student characteristics which are ident-main reason for this change in the course, but a quality

control issue. Brindley and Maxim aimed to improve the ified as study behaviours and socio-demographic variables.completion rates of the course by 10% through the develop-ment of the tutorial support offered to students.

Range of functions

The range of functions that a support system may offer isTutor contact

reported by Valcke et al. (1991). They identified six categ-ories of support which were classified as the type and func-Uncertainty may lead students to contact tutors due to

their lack of self-confidence. Hall et al. (1993) undertook tion of support. The categories focus on the individualstudent, the course and evaluative issues. One of the categ-a postal questionnaire which revealed that 827 students

(60%) initiated tutor contact with regard to assignment ories is called ‘person-centred support’ and includes sup-porting the student in the development of transferablecompletion. The authors conclude that such student-led

contact was empowering. In terms of the confidence that skills, helping them learn how to learn and enabling themto take an active part in the student body. Three categoriesa student may develop in contacting a tutor, this may be

valid, however, it could also lead to a dependency on the address more course-related issues such as course organis-ation, academic issues and feedback which is called prob-tutor which is not empowering. Valcke et al. (1991) discuss

the findings of a study which seemed to suggest that stud- lem-centred support. The final two categories addressquality control aspects of support both at an individualents who became very dependent on support services were

academically weak. and course level.Pym (1992) argues that the definition of support shouldRecognition of the ongoing support on an individual

basis would enable contact to be made at an initial meet- recognise gender issues and another type of support for anisolated student which may come from family and friends.ing, involving a student-led discussion and the setting of

joint goals. If the student has few learning needs, then the Pym (1992) discusses the expectations of support fromfamily and colleagues for women distance learners. Shetutor can help to extend the learning experience. This, it

is proposed, would not be controlling, but facilitating. If asked 2500 nurses about their expectations of their pro-spective studies although full details were not included.the student has many learning needs, then the fist few

meetings may build up a continuity of educational ‘care’. Only 4% of the sample expected no emotional support and9% expected no practical support. The author contendsThe next section moves on to offer a definition of the

term support. that from her personal experience, expectation and realityare different as many students become disillusioned at thelack of family support that actually occurs. She reports

DEFINING THE TERM ‘SUPPORT’ INthat the children of mature students seem to offer more

DISTANCE EDUCATIONsupport than partners or spouses because they feel a senseof pride in their mother’s achievements.The Open University (England) defines support as incorpo-

rating various activities that enable students advance Contact with the instructor and other students are anessential aspect of support. If there is a general lack ofthrough a programme in a satisfactory way (Bailey & Moore

1989). They differentiate between academic support and support at home, the opportunities for sharing supportwith other students and tutors may be essential for thethe more pastoral aspects of support counselling. There

may be various interpretations of the term satisfactory and isolated student. In addition a supportive approach tolearning that recognises the complexity of a student’s lifeit would seem important to clarify these meanings. For the

student, it may be focussing on the learning environment may lead to empowerment, rather than victim-blaming forthe problems that may arise because of it.as much as the outcome, but the institution may be more

concerned with the outcome.Lebel (1989) defines support as being the aid for the

THE ROLE OF THE TUTOR IN THE SUPPORTlearner to achieve the goals of the programme and

OF DISTANCE LEARNERSindependence through four strategies, namely, cognitive,affective, metacognitive and motivational. The Unit for the Naylor et al. assert that the role of the tutor in open learn-

ing settings is fundamental to the welfare of the student.Development of Adult and Continuing Education (UDACE)defines support as containing seven skills namely: They say‘informing, advising, counselling, assessing, enabling,advocating and feeding back’ (Vowles 1990). This is more ‘One of the most important responsibilities open learning

institutions have towards their students …lies in using systemsdetailed than the Open University definition but shows that

1077© 1997 Blackwell Science Ltd, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 1076–1083

S. Lawton

of quality control and professional development to ensure that them. The majority of the contact was via the marking ofassignments as most of students did not think it acceptabletutors are ‘good’ and ‘helpful’.

( Naylor et al. 1990 p.9) to contact tutors for other reasons. Forty-eight percentageof the sample wanted to have more contact with their

These same qualities are also mentioned by Cole et al. tutors. Despite the 43% response rate, this study showed(1986). It may be challenging for distance-learning tutors the potential for the benefits that an organised and person-to move away from the imparting of knowledge to the sup- alised tutorial system may offer. As shown in the findingsport and guidance of students. However, as Bailey (1992) of this study, many students wanted to have more contactnotes, some tutors are able to incorporate such a teaching with their tutors, but felt inhibited about contacting them.and facilitatory aspect of their role. This suggests the need Perhaps a more organised tutorial system would enableto prepare tutors to adapt to such a role. This is further this reluctance to be diminished. The authors of the studyconfirmed by Burge et al. (1991) who observed that the conclude that the tutorial support was relatively limitedtutors perceived themselves as being more important than in the areas being researched and they suggested that moredid the students. This suggests that the tutor has to be interaction would improve the student-tutor relationship.careful about maintaining the balance between creating a Morgan & Morris (1994) undertook a survey to discoversupportive environment and creating dependency. A what 54 Open University post-foundation education stud-model of supportive learning may help in the preparation ents felt about their tutorial support in Wales. A structuredof tutors. telephone interview was conducted with 43 of the quota

In a longitudinal study of 18 open university students, sample (the remaining 11 being contacted by letter).Beaty & Morgan (1992) found that the students’ initial view Although there is a distinction within the Open Universityof the tutor was as the expert who would be able to give between the role of the tutor and that of the counsellorthem the answers they were looking for. During the course (Lentell 1995), this study provides useful qualitative data.of their learning, the 18 students moved to a more indepen- Ninety-one percent were satisfied with the tutorial pro-dent role. The findings do reinforce the notion of uncer- vision. There was a focus on the quality of the contacttainty that adult students may have when entering being as important as the frequency, although the studentsuniversity and the need for support. This anxiety may who were further on in their studies were slightly lessleave students wondering about who to approach for satisfied. This suggests the need to keep support on-goingsupport if a supportive framework is not offered as an throughout a course. Tutorials (which were voluntary)integrated part of the curriculum. were attended totally by one third of the sample, some

Valcke et al. (1991) recognise the difficulties in correlat- were attended by another third and the remaining thirding the effect of the student-tutor relationship with course attended none. The usefulness of group tutorials to net-success. However, they suggest that work with other students was reported and one incident

was described which showed that two very remote stud-‘a friendly experience with their tutor makes a significant contri-ents who had lived near each other only met at the end ofbution to the whole thing’.the course. Negative comments were not really elaborated(Valcke et al. 1991 p.13)upon in the study, but 15 of the 20 comments identifiedthat the tutorials were dominated by the tutor.A report by Baath & Wangdahl (1976) suggested that when

tutors were unable to help the students, students felt thatthey had no-one to turn to. It could be argued that there

Experiences of studentsis also importance in the mutual support received fromother students. However, this might not occur within a In the second phase of a study undertaken by Benson et al.

(1991), a stratified sample of 36 distance learning sociologydistance learning course if students do not meet. Oneaspect that the tutor could possibly develop within a sup- students were interviewed by telephone. The purpose of

the study was to examine the experiences of students inportive framework is the networking between studentswho are geographically linked. relation to distance education and adult learning. A series

of nine questions were developed in the interview sched-ule. Although the details of the response rates and data

Tutorial supportanalysis are not included in the report, information wasgathered in connection with student support. The authorsBurge et al. (1991) asked distance learners about the func-

tion of the tutor. A questionnaire was sent to 1040 students note that the students seemed to be unaware of the avail-ability of support and two-thirds said that they did notwho represented 10% of students undertaking distance-

learning courses in four Canadian institutions. A response require any additional support to the material itself. Halfthe sample mentioned that they received support fromrate of 43% was achieved. The students reported that the

lack of tutor contact was a problem for 30% of the students, other students. The report mentioned that the studentsprefer face-to-face tutorials with tutors, with the telephoneand 67% identified that tutors were of moderate help to

1078 © 1997 Blackwell Science Ltd, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 1076–1083

Supportive learning

coming second. In addition, the students wanted more The Peplau model of nursing explores the relationshipbetween a nurse and a patient in a therapeutic settingconstructive criticism about their written work, which was

seen as the main reason for tutor contact. (Peplau 1952). It recognises a four-stage developmentalprocess which begins with the two individuals meeting asstrangers in the ‘orientation’ phase and moving through a

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SUPPORT WITHINperiod of growing independence. This involves recognis-

DISTANCE EDUCATIONing needs in the ‘identification’ stage, then developing stra-tegies to meet needs in the ‘exploitation’ phase and partingFollowing on from the description of support within dis-

tance learning the effectiveness of such support will now at the end of the relationship in the ‘resolution’ phase.Peplau’s work, although written in the 1950s within thebe discussed. It is proposed that the support of a distance

learner will be more effective if it is incorporated into a field of mental health nursing, has relevance in the 1990sas it considers the development and movement that occursframework of supportive learning designed for the pur-

pose. The models for distance learning currently in exist- in a nurse-patient relationship. It also acknowledges themultiple roles that a nurse may play as supporter, educatorence focus on the prevention of drop-out of distance-

learning students. Two such models have been developed and facilitator. There is a similar complexity of roles forthe nurse educator who is working in a distance-learningby Kember (1989) and Billings (1988). The background

factors of the student are considered in both the models setting and the development of an on-going tutor–studentrelationship.mentioned and relate to the student’s previous educational

experience and their life situation. These issues are also Similarly, the model of nursing by Davis & Oberle (1991)is a developmental model that identifies the stages that afound in the literature on adult learning (Lawton 1995).

The model by Kember (1989) aims to theorise the nature nurse and patient go through during a terminal illness. Itwas developed through a series of in-depth qualitativeof student drop-out in distance learning although he does

state that it could also be used as a way of outlining student interviews with a palliative care nurse. This model showsan orientation phase when the nurse and patient begin toprogress. There is recognition within Kember’s research of

the paucity of theoretical underpinning of such an import- know each other. This is termed as connection. It thendemonstrates the variety of roles that a nurse may haveant issue. The linear-process model was developed

through empirical work and addresses the academic with a patient, similar to those outlined in the Peplaumodel above. In addition, a category identified as ‘doingenvironment within which the student studies. Although

it mentions tutorial support, it does not explore the nature for’ is also recognised. There is also a final phase in themodel when the nurse and family part following the deathof the student-tutor relationship

Similarly, the model developed by Billings (1988) adds of the patient. A central feature of this model is the integ-rity of the nurse which addresses the support that a nurseto the theoretical base of the understanding of causes of

student drop-out. Because of its focus on correspondence working in such an environment needs.The third influence mentioned is the model of coun-courses, it implies that there is a lack of face-to-face contact

between the student and the tutor. Billings does reflect on selling supervision by Hawkins & Shohet (1989). It has adevelopmental base to it, with the client and supervisorthe growing literature which suggests that student drop-

out is similar in both full-time and distance learning moving through four levels from dependence to personalautonomy. In the middle two stages the process of self-environments.

Although the similarities between these models address development may involve the increasing self-confidenceof the client, which is interspersed with uncertainty andissues relating to the student and the course undertaken,

it is felt that they do not address the nature of the support dependence.Therefore, it would appear from the work undertaken inthat could be offered through the student-tutor relation-

ship to increase the effectiveness of the learning nursing and counselling situations, importance ought tobe placed on the development of the ‘learner’ and the inter-programme.action with the ‘teacher’. It also reinforces the notion ofthe various roles that a ‘teacher’ may have. This would

Influences of nursing modelsappear to be an omission in the literature relating to dis-tance learning and such a theoretical model is nowIt is proposed that there are influences on the development

of a supportive model of learning from two nursing models suggested.of patient care which focus on the ongoing relationshipbetween the nurse and patient (Peplau 1952, Davis &

THE THEORETICAL MODEL OFOberle 1991) and a developmental model of counsel-

SUPPORTIVE LEARNINGling (Hawkins & Shohet 1989). The reason for these influ-ences is based on the developmental nature of supportive The concept of support in distance education was devel-

oped in a framework as suggested by Fawcett (1993). whenlearning and the recognition of stages in the relationship.


S. Lawton

theory in nursing moves from the exploration of the meta- the tutor is seen to be fundamental to this model. It isbased on an individualised approach through regular per-paradigm of nursing, through the philosophical stage to

the conceptual model stage; then to the theoretical stage sonal contact, beginning with a face-to-face meeting andthen also using a variety of different media. The ongoingand finally to the testing phase.

While the four concepts that comprise the meta- relationship that hopefully would develop throughout thecourse would enable a mutual respect and opportunity forparadigm of nursing (caring, health, environment, person)

are not relevant here four educational concepts are learning to occur.suggested instead. They are as follows:

The student variable$ the student$ the tutor

The student characteristics include the ability to adapt pre-$ the environment

vious learning to the context of higher education as well$ the course

as to a course offered by distance learning. Adaptability isshown in the research discussed by Smithers & GriffinEach concept is central to the overarching meta-

paradigm of the educational process. In this example, the (1986), Marnell & Blanche (1990), Thyer & Bazeley (1993),McGivney (1993) as well as in the work of Rogers (1989).student is a mature professional individual who has

already obtained a range of experiences and qualifications. Such a process may involve developing self-confidence tocope with the different educational approach and per-The tutor is the link between the institution and the stud-

ent. The educational environment is distance learning ceived academic level of the course as reported by Taylor(1985). In addition, a student may have to developwhile the final concept addresses the structure and content

of the course itself. By identifying these concepts, the four independent learning skills and a close relationshipwith an academic tutor, both of which may take time toareas of interest can be outlined (Fawcett 1993).

Furthermore their interrelationships can begin to be develop.explored through the formation of propositions.

The student — student variablePropositions

The student characteristics variable needs to reflect thesupport that students give each other and the importanceThe first proposition would address the links between the

student and the tutor stating that the educational approach of networking, both through meeting in residential weeksand during the self-study phase. This shows that distanceis student-centred in that the tutor views the student on

an individual and equal basis. The second proposition learning in this approach need not be isolating.asserts the interlinking between the educational environ-ment, the course, the student and the tutor. This prop-

The tutor variableosition states that the tutor is concerned with the progressof a student through a distance-learning programme to The tutor variable is concerned with the ways in which

he/she may facilitate student learning. This includes beingenable them to have an effective learning experience.The philosophy of the model of supportive learning helpful, being knowledgeable about the subject or being

able to refer the student to another academic where rel-being proposed here isevant. Abilities would be developed by initiating contact

a framework for the support of adult distance learners should bewith the student during the distance learning phase of the

used in a proactive way to enable students to make the most ofcourse and anticipating any difficulties that the student

their educational experience. It should be flexible to meet themay have as evidenced in the work of Collett et al. (1987)

needs of a student group who have very varied educational andand Brackenreg & Allan (1991). The tutor also needs to be

professional backgrounds. Distance education provides an oppor-adaptable, available, credible, friendly and be able to

tunity for the educational growth of both student and tutor overaccept constructive criticism.

the duration of the student’s educational programme.

The rationale for a path model without a feedback loopCourse content variable

shows the individualised developmental nature of themodel and is shown in figure 1. The student needs to have knowledge about the structure

and content of the course they are undertaking as well aspromoting the development of transferable skills by receiv-

THE STUDENT–TUTOR RELATIONSHIPing feedback on written work. This reflects the work under-taken by Brady (1976), Burge et al. (1991) and Naylor et al.The two propositions outlined above form the basis of the

student-tutor relationship, which is central to the model. (1990). It would begin with pre-course information aboutdistance learning; the joint planning of the individualThe relationship that develops between the student and


Supportive learning

Studentcharacteristics

Tutorcharacteristics

Student-to-student contact

Course content

Effectivelearningexperience

The relationship between

the student and the tutor

meeting guiding moving on

Figure 1 The model of supportive learning

programme of studies; and the facilitation of contact with they see themselves and how they think they should actin that situation. For the student who has been used to aother students.

The course content variable also addresses the resourc- more formal educational setting, they may expect the tutorto be more formal and remote. The participation anding and quality issues related to the course. The student

feedback that could be obtained would enable the ongoing involvement of both the student and the tutor in goal-setting is one approach to the formation of such a trustingdevelopment of the course content to occur.

Figure 1 shows the interlinking of these variables and relationship. Another way is to provide the student withconstructive feedback on any written work.the path towards the final outcome which is shown in the

‘effective learning experience’ category. This final categorywould be individualised to the student. While there would

Nurturing dependencybe an initial assessment undertaken by the student abouttheir abilities, the concept of support would continue As mentioned earlier, it is recognised that the tutor may

be creating a notion of dependency in the student duringthroughout the duration of the programme of studies. Thiswould mean that three distinct phases would emerge this phase, mistakenly assuming that they are helping the

student. An analogy to this would be the nurse who con-within the supportive learning framework.tinues to dress a patient instead of teaching the patienthow to do it themselves. Although the patient may take

THE THREE PHASES OF THE SUPPORTIVElonger, the sense of achievement would be greater for the

LEARNING MODELpatient if they have accomplished such a skill themselves.This is similar to the ‘helping’ of a student with theirPhase one is the ‘meeting’ phase. This is when the links

are made between the student and the tutor while the stud- course-work. Within the sphere of counselling, Hawkins& Shohet (1989) allude to a similar difficulty when theyent is becoming familiar with the notion of being a student

once more. Learning needs can be assessed at this stage say that it is very difficult to remain as the ‘vehicle’ in thecounselling relationship and not become totally immersedand expectations discussed. With the provision of a per-

sonal tutorial, and the offer of continuing links while the in it. At this first stage, it is also recognised that the studentand tutor may not be able to work together, and the studentstudent is completing their self-study material, the

working relationship between the student and the tutor should be able to suggest a change of tutor if required.The second phase of the model has been called the ‘guid-can begin. There may be some uncertainty within the mind

of the student and the tutor can be involved in guiding ing phase’. As the student progresses through the course,there are opportunities for the student-tutor relationshipand supporting the student at this stage. One of the main

factors that has to develop is the trust between the student to develop as they meet during the core weeks. This hasbeen shown to be of importance within distance education.and the tutor. Peplau (1952) suggests that the way in which

people feel about asking for help is dependent on how As tutors mark and return work, an opportunity to discuss


S. Lawton

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completion. American Journal of Distance Education 2(2)that they are being a burden or that they are ‘bothering the 23–35.tutor’. As the student progresses through the course, the Brackenreg J. & Allan J. (1991) In defences of residential schoolstutor may witness the student trying to cope with the high- Australia and South Pacific External Studies Association paperlights and frustrations of part-time study. At the end of 11, 29–35.

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Supportive learning in distance education