Supplementary Material

Table S1. List of the questions used to evaluate each paper and inform the cluster analysis.

General approach to the topic

Paper generally has a…

1. political/institutional approach

2. economic approach

3. ecological approach

Conceptual basis and farming practices

Degree to which paper…

4. focuses on production

5. discusses arguments for producing more food

6. discusses arguments against producing more food

7. discusses arguments for (ecological) intensification

8. discusses arguments against (ecological) intensification

9. discusses arguments for sustainable intensification

10. discusses arguments against sustainable intensification

11. discusses arguments for an ecosystem service approach

12. discusses arguments against an ecosystem service approach

13. considers closing yield gaps a possibility

14. considers adaptation and mitigation to climate change important

15. discusses arguments for land sparing

16. discusses arguments against land sparing

17. discusses arguments for land sharing

18. discusses arguments against land sharing

19. discusses arguments for food sovereignty

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20. discusses arguments against food sovereignty

21. discusses arguments for the value/importance of smallholder farms

22. discusses arguments against the value/importance of smallholder farms

23. considers rural livelihoods

24. considers social-ecological interactions

25. discusses arguments for conventional practices

26. discusses arguments against conventional practices

27. discusses arguments for genetically modified organisms

28. discusses arguments against genetically modified organisms

29. discusses arguments for agroecology or agroforestry

30. discusses arguments against agroecology or agroforestry

31. discusses arguments for other alternative or traditional practices or knowledge

32. discusses arguments against other alternative or traditional practices or knowledge

33. discusses arguments for intercropping or crop rotations

34. discusses arguments against intercropping or crop rotations

35. considers reduced or no-till agriculture a possibility

36. considers edible wilderness (crop wild relatives, neglected and underutilised species or insects) for contributing to food security

37. considers (urban, community or home) gardens important for sustainable food production

38. recognises the importance of pollinators

Food security

Degree to which paper considers the following aspects / components of food security:

39. Availability: sufficient physical supply of food production

40. Accessibility: the ability of individuals or communities to access the physical supply of available food

41. Adequacy: ecological sustainability and safety of produced food

42. Acceptability: culturally suitable food produced in a way that does not compromise human rights or dignity

43. Agency: the socio–political requirements and systems enabling food security

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44. Utilisation: how the available food is used

Measurement of biodiversity

Degree to which paper…

45. measures or focuses on a single species or taxon

46. measures or focuses on species richness or abundance

47. measures or focuses on genes or genetic diversity

48. measures or focuses on ecosystems

49. distinguishes between planned and associated biodiversity

Social structures, government and policy

Degree to which paper…

50. considers unequal distribution of food as part of food insecurity

51. considers poverty as part of food insecurity

52. considers (gender) inequity or injustice as part of food insecurity

53. considers missing education or knowledge as part of food insecurity

54. considers missing power as part of food insecurity and thus argues for empowerment

55. suggests stakeholder involvement or community participation

56. suggests further education, advanced training or research, especially from the Western world

57. is generally convinced that policy is responsible and needs to change

Economic aspects and consumption patterns

Degree to which paper…

58. discusses arguments for trade

59. discusses arguments against trade

60. considers import and export a problem

61. considers land grabbing a problem

62. considers Western consumption in general a problem

63. considers meat or dairy product consumption a problem

64. considers waste or inefficient food storage a problem

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65. considers energy, especially biofuel, a problem

Further aspects

Degree to which paper…

66. considers cultural ecosystems important

67. considers or is explicit about certain spatial scales

68. considers or is explicit about temporal scales, especially resilience

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Table S2. Characteristic quotes from the research clusters.

Sustainable Intensification

Bos et al. (2013)

(i) Current institutional settings and policies are still mainly directed at economic and environmental efficiencies on the production side, while policies aimed at reducing consumption are practically non-existent. Sound policies, however, start with the acknowledgement of trade-offs between population size, consumption levels and land spared for nature. Therefore, a legitimate, but seldom asked question is which part of the total effort needed to feed the human population should be on more production […] and which part on limiting population growth, changing human diets and global redistribution of wealth.

Cunningham et al. (2013)

(i) Defining better targets for more environmentally sustainable intensification of production must address the whole food production and distribution system. Although we focus primarily on the production sector, it is also critical to recognise that other efficiencies in the global food system could boost food availability […]. For example, significant amounts of food are lost in storage or distribution.

Garnett et al. (2013)

(i) The need to increase production. […] Urgent action is also needed on moderating demand for resource-intensive foods (such as meat and dairy products), reducing food waste, and developing systems of governance that improve the efficiency and resilience of the food system, as well as making food accessible and affordable to all. […]

(ii) Increased production must be met through higher yields because increasing the area of land in agriculture carries major environmental costs […].

(iii)Food security requires as much attention to increasing environmental sustainability as to raising productivity. […].

(iv)SI denotes a goal but does not specify a priori how it should be attained or which agricultural techniques to deploy.

Sayer & Cassman (2013)

(i) [I]ncreasing productivity is necessary but not sufficient to ensure food security, reduce poverty, improve nutrition, and maintain the natural resource base for sustainable development [ref.]. Innovations across a broader spectrum of policies and technologies are needed to confront the complex array of challenges at the agriculture–environment nexus [ref.]. Large numbers of poor farmers continue to practice extensive agriculture. Inevitably they will continue to encroach on hitherto uncultivated lands unless they can adopt innovative systems that allow for agricultural intensification and development of agricultural equipment industries, farm inputs, and food processing capacities.

Smith & Gregory (2013)

(i) Hence, some form of sustainable intensification of food production will be required [ref.]; but more fundamental changes in food production (and consumption) will also be needed if we are to meet future challenges.

(ii) Food security is a multi-faceted challenge, involving much more than just food production. Indeed, food production is only one of the challenges of providing food availability (which also relies on distribution and exchange), and food availability […is] only one aspect of food security which also includes food

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access and food utilisation.

Production Focus

Bommarco et al. (2013)

(i) The benefits (ecosystem services) that humans derive from biodiversity have therefore become an important argument for conserving biodiversity. […I]t is important to distinguish between promoting biodiversity […] and biodiversity with inherent conservation value [ref.]. The differences between these ‘functional’ and ‘cultural’ services are at the very base of the recent land-sharing versus land-sparing debate. Consequently, arguments in favor of land sparing are largely based on how individual species can persist most efficiently, whereas arguments in favor of land sharing are largely based on the benefits humans can get from biodiversity [ref.]. Functional arguments for conserving biodiversity are […] important, but cannot replace ethical arguments.

Foley et al. (2010)

(i) First, the transformation of agriculture must deliver sufficient food and nutrition to the world. To meet the projected demands of population growth and increasing consumption, we must roughly double food supplies in the next few decades [ref.]. We must also improve distribution and access, which will require further changes in the food system.

(ii) Better deployment of existing crop varieties with improved management should be able to close many yield gaps [ref.], while continued improvements in crop genetics will probably increase potential yields into the future.

(iii)The search for agricultural solutions should remain technology-neutral. There are multiple paths to improving the production, food security and environmental performance of agriculture, and we should not be locked into a single approach a priori, whether it be conventional agriculture, genetic modification or organic farming.

Hill & Mustafa (2011)

(i) [I]t appears inevitable that increased use of GMOs is required to meet increasing food demand [ref.] and it has been argued that food shortages are caused by problems in food distribution and policies and not by production levels [ref.]. The reality is that additional food supplies are urgently needed as are appropriate solutions to provide global food security [ref.] and GMOs are an important component of the food security debate.

Koh et al. (2013)

(i) These challenges might be met by closing yield gaps […] or raising yield ceilings, reducing food lost to waste, and switching to less protein-rich or more aquaculture-based diets [ref.]. Additionally, we propose that a complementary approach is to maximise agricultural returns by planting crops that are best suited to site-specific conditions. While this strategy might seem obvious, the degree to which agricultural land use is optimised and the benefits of optimisation have not been evaluated at a global scale [...]. Therefore, for a farmer who is currently growing barley, maize, wheat and irrigated rice on his land, and if irrigated rice has the highest per-hectare realised yield given local conditions, then land-use optimisation would entail devoting the entire farmland to irrigated rice production.

McCouch (2013)

(i) By 1997, the world economy had accrued annual benefits of approximately $115 billion from the use of crop wild relatives

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[ref.] as sources of environmental resilience and resistance to pests and diseases. The time is ripe for an effort to harness the full power of biodiversity to feed the world. Plant scientists must efficiently and systematically domesticate new crops and increase the productivity and sustainability of current crop-production systems.

Tilman et al. (2011)

(i) [A]gricultural intensification through technology adaptation and transfer and enhancement of soil fertility in poorer nations would greatly reduce these yield gaps [ref.], provide a more equitable global food supply, and greatly decrease the GHG emissions and species extinctions that otherwise would have resulted from land clearing [ref.].

Social-ecological Development

Barbieri et al. (2014)

(i) Migrations or diasporas, when they occur, can cause drastic shifts and disruptions in local knowledge and its transmission. This is what happened through the process of cultural invasions imposed by the ideology of urban industrial civilization, which was based on two false premises: superiority of technicians and researchers over rural culture (traditional knowledge) and the idea that science is the only form of valid knowledge, which transformed into ideology and a mechanism of domination of some cultures over others [ref.].

Pant (2014) (i) What is important to the development of critical systems of learning and innovation competence is the agency of individual and organizational actors to engage in deliberation on dialectical divides, and empowerment of vulnerable actors [ref.]. As implied by the unintended positive consequences of the reformist interventions, community empowerment should be done through critical systems of learning and innovation, encouraging people to radically question their social, ecological, and technical reality

Lewis, et al. (2011) (i) The Community Markets for Conservation (COMACO) model

operates primarily with communities surrounding national parks, strengthening conservation benefits produced by these protected areas. COMACO first identifies the least food-secure households and trains them in sustainable agricultural practices that minimize threats to natural resources while meeting household needs. In addition, COMACO identifies people responsible for severe natural resource depletion and trains them to generate alternative income sources.

(ii) COMACO provides education in farming practices that improve soil quality and mitigate losses to drought and flooding. However, such improvements have not yet translated into discernable differences in food security. Determining whether benefits have in fact been conferred without attaining food security is difficult in the absence of pre- and post-COMACO controls.

Barthel et al. (2013)

(i) However, if the task is to safeguard global food security1, it is not only the biological components of ecosystems that must be curated. Due to the varying historical and geographical conditions under which species have been (and are currently) cultivated, it is also important to safeguard knowledge of management practices that relate to these conditions. Using an interdisciplinary frame of analysis, we discuss areas where

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food continues to be produced in a context that links biological diversity and social memory, and which carries place specific insight.

(ii) Industrialization of agriculture has led to a remarkable increase in food production, which, along with advances in medicine, has enhanced life expectancy and health for growing populations in most nations (Rosling, 2007). Despite this, the number of undernourished children in many countries constantly increases, and history records people’s starving even when food supplies in their own nations were at overflow levels s and experiences of stewardship.

Jackson et al. (2013)

(i) In the scientific literature, there are surprisingly little observational and experimental data describing the social-ecological aspects of coupled human and natural systems across biomes. In this study, use of an expert judgment approach suggests that biodiversity use and conservation is closely aligned with aspects of human capital related to local knowledge and its exchange. Food security, however, was highest where agricultural intensification relied on agrochemical inputs, and was supported by strong financial and physical capital assets. These results suggest that resolving the current debate on biodiversity conservation vs. food security requires much greater attention to livelihoods, cultural integrity and other aspects of human well-being

Empowerment for Food Security

De Fries et al. (2012)

(i) Top-down solutions for reducing tropical deforestation [ref.] or for enhancing food security [ref.] do not assure success without bottom-up efforts to identify solutions appropriate to particular places. Research to identify effective modes of engagement between scientists and decision-makers working at different scales of governance (e.g., international, national, state, and community) and analyses (e.g., global, watershed, patch) is an important frontier [ref.].

Farmar-Bowers (2014)

(i) [T]he commercial food supply systems sit within a wider framework of human and ecological systems such that the food systems are part of larger social–ecological systems in which people interact with the world’s biophysical landscapes and processes [ref.]. Causes and solutions for problems in the food systems, such as poor health from poor diets, may exist outside the immediate food supply systems. Poor diet may have its origins in a wide range of factors that are influenced by many other systems. These may include poverty (employment system), lack of nutritional education (education system), and/or lack of access (transport or retail systems).

Sayer et al. (2013)

(i) The 10 principles of the landscape approach [continued learning and adaptive management, common concern entry point, multiple scales, multifunctionality, multiple stakeholders, negotiated and transparent change logic, clarification of rights and responsibilities, participatory and user–friendly monitoring, resilience, strengthened stakeholder capacity] are an innovation that should help address the challenge of increasing agricultural production while minimizing negative impacts on the environment.

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Basset, T.J. (2010)

(i) The coexistence of human poverty and landscape diversity does not add up to sustainably used environments. For this to be achieved, a high-quality agroecologic matrix must be complemented by a high quality socioeconomic matrix that promotes human development.

(ii) The food-price protests of 2008 revealed that hunger is linked to multiscale processes that make poor people vulnerable to exacerbating conditions like price shocks, disasters, and violent conflicts (ref.). Media typically emphasize these exacerbating conditions rather than the political economies that produce vulnerability in the first place.

Heywood, V.H. (2011)

(iii)It is estimated that about 60% of the world’s agriculture consists of traditional subsistence farming systems in which there is both a high diversity of crops and species grown and in the ways in which they are grown, such as polycropping and intercropping, that leads to the maintenance of greater or lesser amounts of variation within the crops

(iv)In addition, there is a need to create markets and income generating opportunities, ensure enhanced sectoral collaboration and enabling policies so as to provide the grounds to promote the use of these underutilized species. The main challenge is to raise awareness on their importance among the general public and policy makers to act in favour of their conservation.

Agroecology and Food Sovereignty

Chappell & LaValle (2011)

(i) If it is therefore possible for alternative agriculture to provide sufficient yields, maintain a higher level of biodiversity, and avoid pressure to expand the agricultural land base, it would indicate that the best solution to both food security and biodiversity problems would be widespread conversion to alternative practices. [… G]lobal food security is already hypothetically possible, and is plausible even for a larger future population. The implication is then that, on a caloric basis at least, the problem of food insecurity is a matter not of total availability but indeed one of access, political power, and equity. The fact that sufficient food supply is often available even in areas suffering from famines or persistent malnourishment belies the idea that today’s billions of food-insecure people are a result of insufficient food production, leading the FAO, among many others, to argue that poverty is the major cause of malnutrition [ref.]. The problem of food security is not one of global supply then, but of a need for equitable global distribution and local accessibility, which implies that further conventional agricultural intensification is unneeded in the short, and possibly long, term.

(ii) [I]t is conventional agriculture which is a luxury we can no longer afford. Based on this, we feel it is time to get beyond debates of alternative production versus conventional. […] In a world where obesity and hunger co-occur, it seems beside the point to argue about yield increases.

(iii)We alluded a number of times to the fact that sufficient production in no way guarantees actual food security by itself […]. From this standpoint, we think the best framework to use in a more complete analysis of food security is that of Rocha’s “Five A’s” [ref. …]. From these Five A’s spring many of the important challenges ahead. It seems to us that […] too many discussions of food security seem to begin and end with

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Availability, with perhaps some lip service to Accessibility and to ecological Appropriateness, but no mention of Acceptability or Agency.

Kremen et al. (2012)

(i) [A]lthough the agricultural sector currently produces more than enough calories to feed humanity, one billion people remain hungry and an additional one billion have micronutrient deficiencies [ref.]. This paradoxical situation occurs because many people still lack access to sufficiently diverse and healthy food, or the means to produce it, which is primarily a problem of distribution rather than production [ref.].

(ii) New social movements also increasingly promote agroecology as central to their agenda for transforming the industrialized agri-food system at local, national, and global scales [ref.]. In particular, a food sovereignty agenda has emerged from the aspirations and survival needs of smallholders and indigenous social movement leaders in the Global South [ref.]. Food sovereignty [ref.] refers to the right of local peoples to control their own agricultural and food systems, including markets, resources, food cultures, and production modes, in the face of an increasingly globalized economic system.

Tscharntke et al. (2012)

(i) [I]t is well established that small and diversified farms rather than large monocultures show greater productivity per area; a phenomenon referred to as the ’paradox of the scale’ or the ‘inverse farm size-productivity relationship’ [ref.].

(ii) [F]ood security is largely independent of the land sharing vs sparing debate. […] Olivier De Schutter (2011), highlights in his recent report that small-scale ecological farming is already very productive and can do even better [ref.]. He calls for increases of food production where the hungry live and the use of agroecological methods. These methods of improving yields are more accessible and viable for poor smallholder livelihoods than high agrochemical inputs.

Social-ecological Systems

Fischer et al . (2014)

(i) The explicit analysis of trade-offs can identify where the current allocation of land is inefficient in terms of the provision of multiple goods or services, such as biodiversity and agricultural production... However, a partial trade-off analysis, on its own, provides insufficient information to judge which of the many possible efficient allocations is socially preferable. In any given landscape, depending on societal goals, there is no a priori reason to assume that yields should increase, decrease, or remain constant.

(ii) Because the placement of agricultural activities impacts biodiversity, and because biodiversity varies spatially, teleconnections and displacement of land use via trade, can have distant but large impacts on biodiversity. Currently most of the debate on land sparing land versus land sharing focuses on single locations. The integration of trade and displacement dynamics into the land sparing versus sharing framework could make it more applicable to a connected world.

Hannah et al. (2013)

(i) Priorities linking ecosystems and food production are particularly important because human and natural responses to climate change are interwoven [ref.]. Impoverished farmers are likely to use diverse livelihood strategies that include

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diverse natural ecosystems and agro-ecosystems [ref], and that benefit from a range of ecosystem services [ref.]. Individual species’ range shifts can break up plant and animal communities, altering ecosystem services critical to agriculture, such as watershed protection.

(ii) Many of these solutions require planning on scales broader than individual farms or protected areas, which is why we have aggregated our results at spatial scales roughly coincident with scales of ecosystem and regional planning

Ju et al. (2013) (i) If properly harvested, WEPs could be the source of cash income for local people with low cash income because they are enjoyed by local people very much and often traded in markets. Furthermore, with the increased demand for green, healthy and safe food in modern society, wild food resources have attracted global interest because they are pollution-free and contain numerous important micronutrients and pharmacologically active substances.

Pautasso et al. (2013)

(i) More diverse (agro-)ecosystems tend to show higher socioecological resilience to disturbances and unforeseen events [ref.]. Multispecies cropping systems can enhance soil fertility, diminish losses due to pathogens and pests, and help farmers adapt to changing environmental, socio-cultural, and market conditions

(ii) Global change is composed of the interactions of various drivers (climate change, increased trade, land-use change, pollution, urbanization). All these factors will have an impact on agricultural diversity, through direct effects on crop genetic and specific diversity, but also via influences on cultural factors, plant health, social relations, poverty, food security, ecosystem management and seed exchange systems.

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Table S3. List of 91 articles included in the analysis.

Cluster 1:Sustainable Intensification

Cluster 2:Production Focus

Cluster 3:Social-ecological Development

Cluster 4:Empowerment for Food Security

Cluster 5:Agroecology and Food Sovereignty

Cluster 6:Social-ecological Systems

Acevedo 2011Lucas et al. 2014Brussaard et al. 2010Sayer and Cassman 2013Bos et al. 2013Garnett et al. 2013Heaton et al. 2013Cunningham et al. 2013Flora 2010Pretty et al. 2010Smith and Gregory 2013Garnett 2013

Bianchi et al. 2013Bommarco et al. 2013Mueller et al. 2014Carsan et al. 2014Zimmerer 2013

Dobrovolski 2014

Johnson et al. 2014Koh and Lee 2012Tilman et al. 2011Koh et al. 2013Foley et al. 2011 Hill and Mustafa 2011 Gordon et al. 2012Birch et al. 2011Ford−Lloyd et al. 2011Dempewolf et al. 2014

Maxted et al. 2012

Vincent et al. 2013

McCouch 2013

Galluzzi and Noriega 2014

Pautasso 2012

Aguilar−Stoen et al. 2011Garrity et al. 2010Giuliani et al. 2011

Lewis et al. 2011

Pant 2014Andersen 2012Souza et al. 2010Barbieri et al. 2014Motlhanka and Makhabu 2011Ramakrishnan 2010Singh et al. 2012Bardsley and Badsley 2014de Boef et al. 2010Barthel et al. 2013Kumaraswamy and Kunte 2013Jackson et al. 2012Negi and Maikhuri 2013Sahai 2010Poppy et al. 2014Harvey et al. 2014Kassam and Friedrich 2012 Teklewold et al. 2013

Bassett 2010Vernooy et al. 2014Heywood 2011Galluzzi et al. 2014Gotor and Irungu 2010Singh et al. 2014Hodges et al. 2014De Fries et al. 2012OFarrell and Anderson 2010Sayer et al. 2013Gardner et al. 2013Rudel and Meyfroidt 2014Brown and Kothari 2011Taylor and Lovell 2014Farmar−Bowers 2014

Altieri et al. 2012Chappell and LaValle 2011Kremen et al. 2012Tscharntke et al. 2012Sunderland 2011

Ango et al. 2014Graefe et al. 2013Carvalheiro et al. 2011Reyes−Garcia et al. 2012Ju et al. 2013Uprety et al. 2012Yimyam 2012Mokgolodi et al. 2011van Itterbeeck et al. 2014

Cerda et al. 2014Habel et al. 2013Dutta and Jhala 2014Hannah et al. 2013Fischer et al. 2014Pautasso et al. 2013Gilroy et al. 2014

Biophysical-technical branch

1 Sustainable Intensification (n = 12)

Acevedo MF (2011) Interdisciplinary progress in food production, food security and environment research. Environ Conserv 38:151–171.

Bos JFFP, Smit ABL, Schröder JJ (2013) Is agricultural intensification in The Netherlands running up to its limits? NJAS-Wagen J Life Sc 66:65–73.

Brussaard L, Caron P, Campbell B, Lipper L, Mainka S, Rabbinge R, Babin D, Pulleman MM (2010) Reconciling biodiversity conservation and food security: scientific challenges for a new agriculture. Curr Opin Env Sust 2:34–42.

Cunningham SA, Attwood SJ, Bawa KS, Benton TG, Broadhurst LM, Didham RK, McIntyre S, Perfecto I, Samways MJ, Tscharntke T, Vandermeer J, Villard MA, Young AG, Lindenmayer DB (2013) To close the yield-gap while saving biodiversity will require multiple locally relevant strategies. Agr Ecosys Environ 173:20–27.

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Flora CB (2010) Food security in the context of energy and resource depletion: sustainable agriculture in developing countries. Renew Agr Food Syst 25:118–128.

Garnett T (2013) Food sustainability: problems, perspectives and solutions. P Nutr Soc 72:29–39.

Garnett T, Appleby MC, Balmford A, Bateman IJ, Benton TG, Bloomer P, Burlingame B, Dawkins M, Dolan L, Fraser D, Herrero M, Hoffmann I, Smith P, Thornton PK, Toulmin C, Vermeulen SJ, Godfray HCJ (2013) Sustainable intensification in agriculture: premises and policies. Science 341:33–34.

Heaton EA, Schulte LA, Berti M, Langeveld H, Zegada-Lizarazu W, Parrish D, Monti A (2013) Managing a second-generation crop portfolio through sustainable intensification: examples from the USA and the EU. Biofuel Bioprod Bior 7:702–714.

Lucas PL, Kok MTJ, Nilsson M, Alkemade R (2014) Integrating biodiversity and ecosystem services in the post-2015 development agenda: goal structure, target areas and means of implementation. Sustainability 6:193–216.

Pretty J, Bharucha, ZP (2014) Sustainable intensification in agricultural systems. Ann Bot–London 114:1571–1596.

Sayer J, Cassman KG (2013) Agricultural innovation to protect the environment. PNAS 110:8345–8348.

Smith P, Gregory PJ (2013) Climate change and sustainable food production. P Nutr Soc 72:21–28.

2 Production Focus (n = 21)

2.1 Production via Agrobiodiversity (n = 5)Bianchi FJJA, Mikos V, Brussaard L, Delbaere B, Pulleman MM (2013)

Opportunities and limitations for functional agrobiodiversity in the European context. Environ Sci Policy 27:223–231.

Bommarco R, Kleijn D, Potts SG (2013) Ecological intensification: harnessing ecosystem services for food security. Trends Ecol Evol 28:230–238.

Carsan S, Stroebel A, Dawson I, Kindt R, Mbow C, Mowo J, Jamnadass R (2014) Can agroforestry option values improve the functioning of drivers of agricultural intensification in Africa? Curr Opin Env Sust 6:35–40.

Mueller C, De Baan L, Koellner T (2014) Comparing direct land use impacts on biodiversity of conventional and organic milk-based on a Swedish case study. Int J Life Cycle Ass 19:52–68.

Zimmerer KS (2013) The compatibility of agricultural intensification in a global hotspot of smallholder agrobiodiversity (Bolivia). PNAS 110:2769–2774.

2.2 More Food for More People (n = 8)Dobrovolski R, Loyola R, Da Fonseca GAB, Diniz-Filho JAF, Araújo MB

(2014) Globalizing conservation efforts to save species and enhance food production. BioScience 64:539–545.

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Foley JA, Ramankutty N, Brauman KA, Cassidy ES, Gerber JS, Johnston M, Mueller ND, O'Connell C, Ray DK, West PC, Balzer C, Bennett EM, Carpenter SR, Hill J, Monfreda C, Polasky S, Rockström J, Sheehan J, Siebert S, Tilman D, Zaks DPM (2011) Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 478:337–342.

Gordon IJ, Acevedo-Whitehouse K, Altwegg R, Garner TWJ, Gompper ME, Katzner TE, Pettorelli N, Redpath S (2012) What the food security agenda means for animal conservation in terrestrial ecosystems. Anim Conserv 15:115–116.

Hill J, Mustafa S (2011) Natural resources management and food security in the context of sustainable development. Sains Malays 40:1331–1340.

Johnson JA, Runge CF, Senauer B, Foley J, Polasky S (2014) Global agriculture and carbon trade-offs. PNAS 111:12342–12347.

Koh LP, Koellner T, Ghazoul J (2013) Transformative optimisation of agricultural land use to meet future food demands. PeerJ 1:e188 https://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.188.

Koh LP, Lee TM (2012) Sensible consumerism for environmental sustainability. Biol Conserv 151:3–6.

Tilman D, Balzer C, Hill J, Befort BL (2011) Global food demand and the sustainable intensification of agriculture. PNAS 108:20260–20264.

2.3 Production via Genetic Resources (n=8)Birch ANE, Begg GS, Squire GR (2011) How agro-ecological research

helps to address food security issues under new IPM and pesticide reduction policies for global crop production systems. J Exp Bot 62:3251–3261.

Dempewolf H, Eastwood RJ, Guarino L, Khoury CK, Müller JV, Toll J (2014) Adapting agriculture to climate change: a global initiative to collect, conserve, and use crop wild relatives. Agroecol Sust Food 38:369–377.

Ford-Lloyd BV, Schmidt M, Armstrong SJ, Barazani O, Engels J, Hadas R, Hammer K, Kell SP, Kang D, Khoshbakht K, Li Y, Long C, Lu BR, Ma K, Nguyen VT, Qiu L, Ge S, Wei W, Zhang Z, Maxted N (2011) Crop wild relatives – undervalued, underutilized and under threat? BioScience 61:559–565.

Galluzzi G, Noriega IL (2014) Conservation and use of genetic resources of underutilized crops in the Americas – a continental analysis. Sustainability 6:980–1017.

Maxted N, Kell S, Ford-Lloyd B, Dulloo E, Toledo Á (2012) Toward the systematic conservation of global crop wild relative diversity. Crop Sci 52:774–785.

McCouch S (2013) Agriculture: feeding the future. Nature 499:23–24.Pautasso M (2012) Challenges in the conservation and sustainable use of

genetic resources. Biol Letters 8:321–323.Vincent H, Wiersema J, Kell S, Fielder H, Dobbie S, Castañeda-Álvarez

NP, Guarino L, Eastwood R, Lén B, Maxted N (2013) A prioritized crop wild relative inventory to help underpin global food security. Biol Conserv 167:265–275.

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Social-political branch

3 Social-ecological Development (n = 22)3.1 Development Focus (n = 13)

Aguilar-Støen M, Angelsen A, Stølen KA, Moe SR (2011) The emergence, persistence, and current challenges of coffee forest gardens: a case study from Candelaria loxicha, Oaxaca, Mexico. Soc Natur Resour 24:1235–1251.

Andersen, P. 2012. Challenges for under-utilized crops illustrated by ricebean (Vigna umbellata) in India and Nepal. Int J Agr Sustain 10:164–174.

Barbieri RL, Gomes JCC, Alercia A, Padulosi S (2014) Agricultural biodiversity in Southern Brazil: integrating efforts for conservation and use of neglected and underutilized species. Sustainability 6:741–757.

Bardsley DK, Bardsley AM (2014) Organising for socio-ecological resilience: the roles of the mountain farmer cooperative Genossenschaft Gran Alpin in Graubünden, Switzerland. Ecol Econ 98:11–21.

De Boef WS, Dempewolf H, Byakweli JM, Engels JMM (2010) Integrating genetic resource conservation and sustainable development into strategies to increase the robustness of seed systems. J Sustain Agr 34:504–531.

Garrity DP, Akinnifesi FK, Ajayi OC, Weldesemayat SG, Mowo JG, Kalinganire A, Larwanou M, Bayala J (2010) Evergreen agriculture: a robust approach to sustainable food security in Africa. Food Secur 2:197–214.

Giuliani A, Van Oudenhoven F, Mubalieva S (2011) Agricultural biodiversity in the Tajik Pamirs. Mt Res Dev 31:16–26.

Lewis D, Bell SD, Fay J, Bothi KL, Gatere L, Kabila M, Mukamba M, Matokwani E, Mushimbalume M, Moraru CI, Lehmann J, Lassoie J, Wolfe D, Lee DR, Buck L, Travis AJ (2011) Community markets for conservation (COMACO) links biodiversity conservation with sustainable improvements in livelihoods and food production. PNAS 108:13957–13962.

Motlhanka DM, Makhabu SW (2011) Medicinal and edible wild fruit plants of Botswana as emerging new crop opportunities. J Med Plants Res 5:1836–1842.

Pant LP (2014) Critical systems of learning and innovation competence for addressing complexity in transformations to agricultural sustainability. Agroecol Sust Food 38:336–365.

Ramakrishnan PS (2010) Ecological economics: from the viewpoint of the marginalized sections of the society. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences 36:1–27.

Singh RK, Turner NJ, Pandey CB (2012) "Tinni" rice (Oryza rufipogon Griff.) production: an integrated sociocultural agroecosystem in eastern Uttar Pradesh of India. Environ Manage 49:26–43.

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Souza HN, Cardoso IM, Fernandes JM, Garcia FCP, Bonfim VR, Santos AC, Carvalho AF, Mendonca ES (2010) Selection of native trees for intercropping with coffee in the Atlantic Rainforest biome. Agroforest Syst 80:1–16.

3.2 Social-agroecological approaches (n = 9)Barthel S, Crumley C, Svedin U (2013) Bio-cultural refugia –

safeguarding diversity of practices for food security and biodiversity. Global Environ Chang 23:1142–1152.

Harvey CA, Chacón M, Donatti CI, Garen E, Hannah L, Andrade A, Bede L, Brown D, Calle A, Chará J, Clement C, Gray E, Hoang MH, Minang P, Rodríguez AM, Seeberg-Elverfeldt C, Semroc B, Shames S, Smukler S, Somarriba E, Torquebiau E, Van Etten J, Wollenberg E (2014) Climate-smart landscapes: opportunities and challenges for integrating adaptation and mitigation in tropical agriculture. Conserv Lett 7:77–90.

Jackson LE, Pulleman M, Brussaard L, Bawa KS, Brown G, Cardoso I, De Ruiter P, García-Barrios L, Hollander A, Lavelle P (2012) Social-ecological and regional adaptation of agrobiodiversity management across a global set of research regions. Global Environ Chang 22:623–639.

Kassam A, Friedrich, T (2012) An ecologically sustainable approach to agricultural production intensification: global perspectives and developments. Field Actions Sci Rep, Special Issue 6.

Kumaraswamy S, Kunte K (2013) Integrating biodiversity and conservation with modern agricultural landscapes. Biodivers Conserv 22:2735–2750.

Negi VS, Maikhuri RK (2013) Socio-ecological and religious perspective of agrobiodiversity conservation: issues, concern and priority for sustainable agriculture, Central Himalaya. J Agr Environ Ethic 26:491–512.

Poppy GM, Chiotha S, Eigenbrod F, Harvey CA, Honzak M, Hudson MD, Jarvis A, Madise NJ, Schreckenberg K, Shackleton CM, Villa F, Dawson TP (2014) Food security in a perfect storm: using the ecosystem services framework to increase understanding. Philos T R Soc B 369:20120288.

Sahai S (2010) The role of genetic diversity in ensuring food security in South Asia. South Asian Survey 17:111–129.

Teklewold H, Kassie M, Shiferaw B, Kohlin G (2013) Cropping system diversification, conservation tillage and modern seed adoption in Ethiopia: impacts on household income, agrochemical use and demand for labor. Ecol Econ 93:85–93.

4 Empowerment for Food Security (n = 15)

Bassett TJ (2010) Reducing hunger vulnerability through sustainable development. PNAS 107:5697–5698.

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Brown J, Kothari A (2011) Traditional agricultural landscapes and community conserved areas: an overview. Management of Environmental Quality 22:139–153.

DeFries RS, Ellis EC, Chapin FS, Matson PA, Turner B, Agrawal A, Crutzen PJ, Field C, Gleick P, Kareiva PM (2012) Planetary opportunities: a social contract for global change science to contribute to a sustainable future. BioScience 62:603–606.

Farmar-Bowers Q (2014) Food Security: one of a number of ‘securities’ we need for a full life: an Australian perspective. J Agr Environ Ethic 27:811–829.

Galluzzi G, Estrada R, Apaza V, Gamarra M, Pérez A, Gamarra G, Altamirano A, Cáceres G, Gonza V, Sevilla R, Noriega IL, Jäger M (2014) Participatory breeding in the Peruvian highlands: opportunities and challenges for promoting conservation and sustainable use of underutilized crops. Renew Agr Food Syst 1–10.

Gardner TA, Ferreira J, Barlow J, Lees AC, Parry L, Guimaraes Vieira IC, Berenguer E, Abramovay R, Aleixo A, Andretti C, Aragao LEOC, Araujo I, De Avila WS, Bardgett RD, Batistella M, Begotti RA, Beldini T, De Blas DE, Braga RF, Braga DDL, De Brito JG, De Camargo PB, Dos Santos FC, De Oliveira VC, Nunes Cordeiro AC, Cardoso TM, De Carvalho DR, Castelani SA, Mario Chaul JC, Cerri CE, Costa FDA, Furtado Da Costa CD, Coudel E, Coutinho AC, Cunha D, D'Antona A, Dezincourt J, Dias-Silva K, Durigan M, Dalla Mora Esquerdo, JC, Feres J, De Barros Ferraz SF, De Melo Ferreira AE, Fiorini AC, Flores Da Silva LV, Frazao FS, Garrett R, Gomes ADS, Goncalves KDS, Guerrero JB, Hamada N, Hughes RM, Igliori DC, Jesus EDC, Juen L, Junior M, De Oliveira Junior JMB, De Oliveira Junior RC, Souza Junior C, Kaufmann P, Korasaki V, Leal CG, Leitao R, Lima N, Lopes Almeida MDF, Lourival R, Louzada J, Mac Nally R, Marchand S, Maues MM, Moreira FMS, Morsello C, Moura N, Nessimian J, Nunes S, Fonseca Oliveira VH, Pardini R, Pereira HC, Pompeu PS, Ribas CR, Rossetti F, Schmidt FA, Da Silva R, Viana Martins Da Silva RC, Morello Ramalho Da Silva TF, Silveira J, Siqueira JV, De Carvalho TS, Solar RRC, Holanda Tancredi NS, Thomson JR, Torres PC, Vaz-De-Mello FZ, Stulpen Veiga RC, Venturieri A, Viana C, Weinhold D, Zanetti R, Zuanon J (2013) A social and ecological assessment of tropical land uses at multiple scales: the Sustainable Amazon Network. Philos T R Soc B 368:20120166.

Gotor E, Irungu C (2010) The impact of Bioversity International's African Leafy Vegetables programme in Kenya. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal 28:41–55.

Heywood VH (2011) Ethnopharmacology, food production, nutrition and biodiversity conservation: towards a sustainable future for indigenous peoples. J Ethnopharmacol 137:1–15.

Hodges J, Foggin M, Long R, Zhaxi G (2014) Globalisation and the sustainability of farmers, livestock-keepers, pastoralists and fragile habitats. Biodiversity 15:109–118.

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O'Farrell PJ, Anderson PML (2010) Sustainable multifunctional landscapes: a review to implementation. Curr Opin Env Sust 2:59–65.

Rudel TK, Meyfroidt P (2014) Organizing anarchy: the food security-biodiversity-climate crisis and the genesis of rural land use planning in the developing world. Land Use Policy 36:239–247.

Sayer J, Sunderland T, Ghazoul J, Pfund JL, Sheil D, Meijaard E, Venter M, Boedhihartono AK, Day M, Garcia C, Van Oosten C, Buck LE (2013) Ten principles for a landscape approach to reconciling agriculture, conservation, and other competing land uses. PNAS 110:8349–8356.

Singh M, Marchis A, Capri E (2014) Greening, new frontiers for research and employment in the agro-food sector. Sci Total Environ 472:437–443.

Taylor JR, Lovell ST (2014) Urban home food gardens in the Global North: research traditions and future directions. Agr Hum Values 31:285–305.

Vernooy R, Song Y, Zhang Z, Li J, Liu L, Martins C, Qin T, Wang F, Xue D, Yang Y, Zhang S, Zhang X (2013) Developing an agricultural biodiversity policy for China. Agroecol Sust Food 37:1078–1095.

5 Agroecology and Food Sovereignty (n = 5)

Altieri MA, Funes-Monzote FR, Petersen P (2012) Agroecologically efficient agricultural systems for smallholder farmers: contributions to food sovereignty. Agron Sustain Dev 32:1–13.

Chappell MJ, LaValle LA (2011) Food security and biodiversity: can we have both? An agroecological analysis. Agr Hum Values 28:3–26.

Kremen C, Iles A, Bacon C (2012) Diversified farming systems: an agroecological, systems-based alternative to modern industrial agriculture. Ecol Soc 17:44.

Sunderland TCH (2011) Food security: why is biodiversity important? Int Forest Rev 13:265–274.

Tscharntke T, Clough Y, Wanger TC, Jackson L, Motzke I, Perfecto I, Vandermeer J, Whitbread A (2012) Global food security, biodiversity conservation and the future of agricultural intensification. Biol Conserv 151:53–59.

6 Social-ecological Systems (n = 16)

Ango TG, Borjeson L, Senbeta F, Hylander K (2014) Balancing ecosystem services and disservices: smallholder farmers' use and management of forest and trees in an agricultural landscape in Southwestern Ethiopia. Ecol Soc 19:30.

Carvalheiro LG, Veldtman R, Shenkute AG, Tesfay GB, Pirk CWW, Donaldson JS, Nicolson SW (2011) Natural and within-farmland biodiversity enhances crop productivity. Ecol Lett 14:251–259.

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Cerda R, Deheuvels O, Calvache D, Niehaus L, Saenz Y, Kent J, Vilchez S, Villota A, Martinez C, Somarriba E (2014) Contribution of cocoa agroforestry systems to family income and domestic consumption: looking toward intensification. Agroforest Syst 88, 957–981.

Dutta S, Jhala Y (2014) Planning agriculture based on landuse responses of threatened semiarid grassland species in India. Biol Conserv 175:129–139.

Fischer J, Abson DJ, Butsic V, Chappell MJ, Ekroos J, Hanspach J, Kuemmerle T, Smith HG, Von Wehrden H (2014) Land sparing versus land sharing: moving forward. Conserv Lett 7:149–157.

Graefe S, Dufour D, Van Zonneveld M, Rodriguez F, Gonzalez A (2013) Peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) in tropical Latin America: implications for biodiversity conservation, natural resource management and human nutrition. Biodivers Conserv 22:269–300.

Gilroy JJ, Edwards FA, Medina Uribe CA, Haugaasen T, Edwards DP (2014) Surrounding habitats mediate the trade-off between land-sharing and land-sparing agriculture in the tropics. J Appl Ecol 51:1337–1346.

Habel JC, Weisser WW, Eggermont H, Lens L (2013) Food security versus biodiversity protection: an example of land-sharing from East Africa. Biodivers Conserv 22, 1553-1555.

Hannah L, Ikegami M, Hole DG, Seo C, Butchart SHM, Peterson AT, Roehrdanz PR (2013) Global climate change adaptation priorities for biodiversity and food security. PLoS ONE 8:e72590.

Ju Y, Zhuo J, Liu B, Long C (2013) Eating from the wild: diversity of wild edible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-La region, Yunnan, China. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 9:28

Mokgolodi NC, Setshogo MP, Shi LL, Liu YJ, Ma C (2011) Achieving food and nutritional security through agroforestry: a case of Faidherbia albida in sub-Saharan Africa. For Stud China 13:123–131.

Reyes-Garcia V, Calvet-Mir L, Vila S, Aceituno-Mata L, Garnatje T, Jose Lastra J, Parada M, Rigat M, Valles J, Pardo-De-Santayana M (2013) Does crop diversification pay off? An empirical study in home gardens of the Iberian Peninsula. Soc Nat Resour 26:44–59.

Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Shrestha KK, Rajbhandary S, Tiwari NN, Shrestha UB, Asselin H (2012) Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources in Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 8:16.

Van Itterbeeck J, Sivongxay N, Praxaysombath B, Van Huis A (2014) Indigenous knowledge of the edible weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius Hymenoptera: Formicidae from the Vientiane Plain, Lao PDR. Ethnobiology Letters 5:4–12.

Yimyam N (2012) Farmers' management of sustainable highland land use with rotational shifting cultivation. Chiang Mai J Sci 11:141–146.

Pautasso M, Aistara G, Barnaud A, Caillon S, Clouvel P, Coomes OT, Deletre M, Demeulenaere E, De Santis P, Doering T, Eloy L, Emperaire L, Garine E, Goldringer I, Jarvis D, Joly HI, Leclerc C, Louafi S, Martin P, Massol F, McGuire S, McKey D, Padoch C, Soler C, Thomas M, Tramontini S (2013) Seed exchange networks for

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agrobiodiversity conservation. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 33:151–175.

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