SUPERVISORY SKILLS

DAY FOUR

Attribution

Curriculum

Ten questions to ask when planning a curriculum

Structured training program

Guidelines for writing specific learning outcomes

Table of specifications

Plan for skills training

Modes of information transfer

Assessment plan

Attribution: handout # 1

DEFINITIONS OF BASIC TERMS

ATTRIBUTION:A causal statement of how individuals explain events that take placein their lives.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY:It provides a framework for understanding why people respond sodifferently to the same outcomes.

ABILITY:● the quality of being able to perform; a quality that permits or

facilitates achievement or accomplishment ● possession of the qualities (especially mental qualities) required to

do something or get something done;;

SELF-EFFICACY:It is the degree to which an individual possesses confidence in her orhis ability to achieve a goal.

ORIt is a judgment of one’s ability to perform a task within a specificdomain.

SELF-ESTEEM:Feelings of self-worth stemming from the individual's positive ornegative beliefs about being valuable and capable.

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Attribution: handout # 2

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVINGLEARNERS’ ATTRIBUTION

1. Discuss effects of attribution with student:Supervisors can help residents better understand the learningprocess by explaining the role that their attributions play in it.Some students struggle unnecessarily because they incorrectlyattribute failure to ability rather than to lack of effort or undirectedeffort.

2. Help students focus on controllable causes:Attributing success or failure to effort is not as damagingpsychologically because effort is controllable. In general,emphasizing controllable factors in the learning process increasestask engagement, persistence and performance. Emphasizinguncontrollable factors such as ability, mood, task difficulty, luckand characteristics of other students increases anxiety anddecreases challenge seeking.

3. Help students understand their emotional reactions tosuccess and failure:Students who make certain types of attributions after failureexperience predictable types of emotional responses. For instance,attributing failure to ability elicits some degree of humiliation inmost students, whereas attributing failure to lack of effort leads toembarrassment. Students can be shown how to change theseemotions by redirecting their attributional thinking.

4. Consider alternative causes of success and failure:Many students struggle during their learning period for differentreasons, but especially because they lack:

i. prior knowledge about the subject/ topic, ii. appropriate strategiesiii. self-regulating and monitoring skills

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Attribution: handout # 3

The three dimensions of Weiner’s attribution theory

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Internal External

Stable Unstable Stable Unstable

Controllable Typical Specific Teacher

effort effort response Help

Uncontrollable Ability Interest Task Luck

difficulty

Attribution: handout # 4

Following are reactions of students to their results.

TASK:Identify the attribution with the help of handout # 3. Also predict the most likely students’ self efficacy level

STUDENT REACTIONS:

Student no. 1: Student no. 1: "Damn! I flunked again! Missed by7%! Couldn’t they have given me grace marks? I must be a veryjinxed and unlucky person. Look at Naveed, he studies less than Ido but passes every time!"

Student no. 2: "Hey, I passed! I got a chance to sit next to Ayesha,the brainy girl. I copied most of her answers!"

Student no.3: "Bloody tough examination! I hope Dr. Ishtiaqueburns in hell for asking such difficult questions in the long case.Why can’t he be as nice as Dr. Munawwar and provide cues duringthe viva?!"

Student no. 4: "I don’t think I'm capable of going throughDentistry. It's just too tough. This is the third time I have failed inthis postgraduate examination!!"

Student no. 5: "I’m so happy I got the highest marks in the theorytest. I’d put in a lot of hard work in it and it paid off. Though, I dowish I’d put in half as much effort for other subjects in which I’vebarely passed."

Student no. 6: "Thank God I passed this postgraduateexamination also. Attending that course before the examinationand using all the learning strategies helped me a lot. I thinkconsistent, focused hard work helps you clear any examination.That’s what helped me also."

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KEY:

Student 1: external, uncontrollable and unstable factors.Self-efficacy will probably be low.

Student 2: external, unstable and controllable factors.Self-efficacy will probably be low.

Student 3: external, stable and controllable factors. Self-efficacywill probably be low.

Student 4: internal uncontrollable and stable factors. Self-efficacywill probably be low.

Student 5: internal, controllable and unstable factors. Self-efficacywill vary and will not be consistent.

Student 6: internal, stable and controllable factors. Self-efficacywill probably be high.

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CURRICULUM

The curriculum is not one document but a set of documents, whichgives a clear written idea, and relevant description of the learningmeans and outcomes of the entire educational program. A curriculum

consists of the following six aspects:

1. SCOPE AND SEQUENCE: The sequence section of a curriculum informs allconcerned in what order the objectives will appear for the learner. Thescope gives a clear idea (from the objectives) of how much depth ofinformation a student will be able to achieve at the end of a learningperiod.

2. SYLLABUS: The syllabus is a plan for any one course. The plan typicallyincludes:● The goals and/ or rationale for the course,● Topics covered, ● Resources used, ● Learning objectives,● Learning activities,● Study questions,● Assignments to be given,● Evaluation strategies,

Thus, the syllabus represents the plan for a course (and includes elementsof both the ends and the means of the course).

3. CONTENT OUTLINE: This is a sub section of a syllabus. A syllabusmust contain at its outset a course outline which contains a list oftopics to be covered.

4. TEXTBOOKS: This is another sub section of syllabus and contains a listof instructional materials used as a guide for instructions.

5. COURSE OF STUDY: This document contains a series of courses thatstudents must complete to attain completion of the course. Forexample, what courses must a student cover in order to complete thefirst, second years of medical school?

6. PLANNED EXPERIENCES: This should contain all experiences thatlearners have that are planned by the institution, whether academic,athletic or social.

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Every curriculum represents a choice as to how to approach the educationof students. The particular approach chosen by the curriculum developersarises partly from how they formulate the problem to which they areresponding. It also depends on the developers’ philosophies and points ofview regarding life and learning.

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TEN QUESTIONS TO ASK WHENPLANNING A CURRICULUM

By Ronald M. Harden (Medical Education, 20,1986: 356-365)

1. What are the needs in relation to the product of this training program?2. What are the objectives?3. What content should be included?4. How should content be organized?5. What educational strategies should be adopted?6. What teaching methods should be used?7. How should assessment be carried out?8. How should details of the curriculum be communicated?9. What educational environment or climate should be fostered?10. How should the process be managed?

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STRUCTURED TRAINING PROGRAM The College of Physicians & Surgeons Pakistan, Specialist Faculties havedeveloped the curriculum guidelines, and entry and exit requirements foreach specialty. The Supervisor is responsible for implementing thispackage at the institutional level in the form of a structured trainingprogram.

Structured TrainingStructured training implies a training period with defined entryrequirements, predetermined objectives that follow a curriculum defined byan authoritative body, with assessments and feedback to the trainee andan exit from training certified by award of a qualification. For the successfuland smooth implementation of the structured training program a closeworking relationship between the Supervisor and the trainee is crucial.

What is a Structured Training Program? A training program is a combination of trainee post, which has staffing,funding and is approved or accredited by an authoritative body, structuredlearning experiences with protected study time, in which regularassessments of trainees are incorporated and the whole program issupervised by a Supervisor. The training program is organized by theSupervisor on behalf of the CPSP and approved by the RTMC.

The Supervisor will ensure that the training arrangements are designed tooffer the maximum support to trainees, so that they can maintain goodprogress and have the opportunity to complete their training as soon aspossible. Training also requires steady progress through the plannedprograms, which are designed to meet the curricular requirements. Theprocess of reviewing trainees must be competency based, structured andinteractive, with opportunity for discussion between the assessor and thetrainee. It demands a planned, managed and open approach. In practice aSupervisor may provide, through constructive and regular dialogue,feedback on performance.

The purpose of assessment is to measure progress against definedcriteria based on the relevant curricula. Trainees have to meet thesestandards in order to proceed from year to year and to achieve aCertification.

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Why Structured On-Job-Training? ● Postgraduate trainees are service providers as well as trainees so they

need to be trained on job● Structured training has proven superior to other training methods,

especially for transfer of task based skills and knowledge ● Results in immediate standardization and consistency in task

accomplishment ● Provides opportunity for appraisal, remedial and re-training ● Can be tailored to each individual's learning style and pace

How to develop a structured training program for your unit

1. Study the General Instructional Objectives (GIO) of the training programgiven in the curricular document.

2. List the Specific Learning Objectives (SLO) of training program in termsof what you want your trainee to achieve in the cognitive, psychomotorand attitudinal domains relevant to the objective.

3. Specify the Instructional Strategy (IS) with timeline for achievement ofeach objective.

4. Identify the resource requirements(e.g. skills laboratory, equipment, model, teaching learning material)

5. Provide the learning environment (e.g. space, logistics, motivation) appropriate to foster achievement of learning objectives.

6. Build in learning experiences necessary for the attainment of competencies.

7. Develop a system of appraisal (for feedback) and assessment for monitoring of progression through the program.

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GUIDELINES FOR WRITING SPECIFICLEARNING OUTCOMES

Objectives are statements of intentions. They have to be thought of and

documented in the initial phase of any educational activity (as per the

systems approach).

The whole of ‘Behavioral philosophy’ of learning is based on stating

intentions of how or what the teacher expects the students to perform or

do as a result of instruction.

The technique of writing objectives has evolved over the decades. They

are now also called Specific Learning Outcomes (SLOs).

In the subsequent sections we will be dealing with the mechanics of

writing SLOs.

STEPS FOR STATING SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

(OR OBJECTIVES)

1. List a representative sample of topics.

2. Write a blanket statement.

3. Begin each objective with an action verb that specifies observable

performance (e.g. identifies, manages).

4. Include enough objectives to describe adequately the performance of

students who have attained the objective.

5. Keep the objectives sufficiently comprehensive and global and not too

restricting.

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STATE SLO’s AS EXPECTED STUDENT PERFORMANCE

Start by writing a blanket statement, an example of which is as follows:

“At the end of the session/ unit/ course, the learner will be able to:”

● Name the cells involved in acute inflammation

● Enlist the drugs that block inflammation and are anti-pyretics.

● Differentiate between a normal and an abnormal ECG.

● Outline a management plan for a patient with a septic wound and

uncontrolled diabetes mellitus.

● Justify investigations required to diagnose a case of high-grade fever in

children under one year of age.

Don’t state them in terms of:

● Teacher performance (e.g. teach inflammation)

● Learning process (e.g. student learns the concept of immunization)

● Course content (e.g. studies the management of enteric fever)

● Two objectives (e.g. student knows and understands concepts in

peri-operative management)

USING OBSERVABLE VERBS

● Each statement must begin with a verb. However, the verbs are specific

and indicate definite, observable responses; that is, responses that can

be seen and assessed by an observer.

● These verbs state learning objectives in terms of observable student

performance, e.g. describes, identifies, differentiates, plans.

● Learning objectives should specify the types of reaction the students are

supposed to make to the content and not identify the content itself. So,

do not go into too much detail. It is always beneficial to have objectives

that do not restrict the learning activities. Try and make them global.

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CONTENTS C1 C2 C3 P A %

TOTAL

TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS

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Objectives / Topics MIT Venue Time

MODES OF INFORMATION TRANSFER

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